History and Theory

of Architecture 1
EAR 2102
7.1 LOCATION AND
HISTORY
LOCATION:EGYPT
POPULATION: OVER 98,420,000 people (2018)

• Located in Africa on the northern edge of

the Sahara
• The Nile bisects through the land from the
south to the north
• The Nile is a seasonal river that overflows its
bank yearly to create a fertile valley
• The Ancient Egyptians lived in the fertile
valley and grew their crops
• They buried their dead in the desert
The history of ancient Egypt started with the land divided
into upper and lower Egypt The two regions were
frequently at war with each other Around 3000 BC, King
Menes united the two into a single nation Unification
brought about peace that led to the development of
ancient Egyptian Civilization The history of ancient Egypt
is divided into periods based on ruling dynasties Seven
periods can be identified;

•4500 to 2000 BC Early Dynastic

•2350 –2200 BC Old Kingdom
•2000-1600 BC First Intermediate period
•1600 –1717 BC Middle Kingdom
•1350 –612 BC Second Intermediate Period
•612 –539 BC New Kingdom
•539 –330 BC Greek-Roman Period
THE NILE

The Nile and its delta was the guiding force of ancient
Egyptian civilization. It was a very predictable river,
overflowing its banks every year from July to October.
The floods leave a rich black silt that is fertile and is
farmed by the people. During the floods, people were
freed from farming to engage in other activities including
building work. The Nile was also the highway of Egypt
connecting upper and lower Egypt. The Nile also offered
protection from Invasion by outsiders The Nile offered a
symbolic sense of direction to the people, forming the
primary principle in architectural organization
THE NILE
7.2 BUILT FORM /
MORPHOLOGICAL STUDY
HOUSING

Egypt’s intense sun and heat shaped how ancient Egyptians built their houses. The
oldest houses were built of mud and papyrus. The Nile River flooded for three
months every year and literally washed these houses away.
This is when the ancient Egyptians discovered that they could create bricks out of
clay and mud from the Nile’s riverbank. Mixing the clay/mud with water, they
poured this mixture into wooden molds in the shape of bricks. Allowed to dry in the
sun, mud-bricks lasted much longer than houses made of mud and papyrus, but
rain still eventually eroded them. Wood wasn’t used to build the actual houses
because of its scarcity. It was used to support doorways, ceilings and steps.
Almost all ancient Egypt houses were constructed with a flat roof. Not only did this
most likely make the construction process simpler, but the flat roofs also offered a
welcome respite from the burning Egyptian sun. Families often lounged, ate and
slept on the roofs of ancient Egyptian houses.
Most ancient Egyptian homes consisted of four rooms.
• The front room was a common area where guests first
entered the house.
• The living room was a place of worship and religious
rituals.
• The kitchen, which had no roof, was where the ancient
Egyptian women prepared all of the meals.
• There was also some type of all purpose room where
activities of daily living took place such as gathering
together, eating and sleeping.
• In front of the house was a courtyard. The ancient
Egyptians would cook there and perform other daily
activities such as eating, making linen and tending to
the animals that were kept there. Sometimes the
courtyard was shared by many families.
• All ancient Egyptian homes had flat roofs. They would
secure a ladder and it would become a living area.
They would sleep on the roof when the weather was hot
and sometimes work up there during the day in hopes a
breeze would cool them off.
HOUSING

Those without much money often had only a one room house. This room was used for
storage and napping during the day to escape the excessive heat. Inside the room
were woven mats made of straw, perhaps a wooden stool or even a wooden bed with
string pulled across it. They used long grass and animal hair for the string.
A ladder, mud brick staircase or ramp led to the flat roof. People often slept on the roof
at night because it was cooler than the enclosed room below. Sometimes these roofs
had reed canopies to create shade.
All the windows and doors had reed mat coverings to help keep out the heat, dust and
flies. Oftentimes, doors were built four feet or so up off the ground to prevent the dust
from creeping in. A ramp was used to get into the house from the outside.
During the old Kingdom, the pharaoh and his court lived in Memphis. When they died
they were buried at the Necropolis at Saqqara. The earthly dwelling of the ancient
Egyptians was seen as temporary and the tomb as a permanent dwelling. Houses were
built of temporary materials to last for a life time.
Tombs were most outstanding architectural element of the period Tombs also serve as
the focus for the worship of the dead. The Tomb evolved during the old kingdom from
the Mastaba, through the stepped pyramid to the renown ancient Egyptian pyramids.
THE MASTABA

The earliest method of burial in ancient Egypt was in shallow pits in the desert. The
desert dried the bodies and preserved them. When animals preyed on bodies, the
people dug deeper. In the end they built a bench-like structure over graves to
create first burial structure called Mastaba. The name mastaba is derived from
podiums found in the front of traditional houses. In the Old Kingdom, rich and noble
person built mastaba for their burial in the city of the dead. Above ground the
Mastaba is a large bench of sun-baked bricks rising 9 meters high. It had a flat top
and slanting walls. The earliest royal tombs were decorated with painted patterns in
brilliant colors
Internally, a mastaba consists of three parts-a burial chamber, a serdab and a
chapel. The burial chamber was located 30 feet below ground. It was connected
to burial chamber above ground through a shaft. The burial chamber is the place
for the burial of the dead person.
In the chamber is found the sarcophagus where the dead body was placed. The
burial chamber is packed with all the necessary things needed in the after life.
After burial, the shaft to the burial chamber is sealed.
The Serdab and Chapel are located above ground. The serdab is a room where
the statue of the dead person is kept. The statue acts as a substitute for body in
case it is destroyed.
Egyptians believe that the Ka must return to the body or a copy of it each night. If
both body and statue are destroyed, the ka would die. The chapel is where the ka
is supposed to live for ever. It is a colorful room meant to deceive the gods into
letting the ka enter the next world. It had a false door leading to the land of the
dead.
Some mastabas had fence walls, and chambers for burial of servants. Mastaba
served as an embryo for the evolution of the pyramid.
STEPPED PYRAMID

King Zoser was the powerful pharaoh of the third dynasty

of the old kingdom. The stepped pyramid was built for
king Zoser by Imhotep. It was built as a funeral complex in
the necropolis at Saqqara. Imhotep initially conceived of
the tomb as a large Mastaba of stone.
Dissatisfaction with the result led to the stacking of
mastaba one on top of another. The result was the
stepped pyramid with five sloping setbacks. The stepped
pyramid is the intermediate step between mastaba and
geometric pyramid.
Stepped pyramid was 200 feet high with 6 giant steps. The
burial chamber is entered from the north side and is 92
feet down. On either side of the chamber are store rooms
for the kings treasures. All the treasures buried with Zoser
have long been stolen. A stone statue of zoser was also
recently found staring out through peep holes in his
Serdab.
The Serdab is located on the north side, along with the funerary temple. The
stepped pyramid stands at the middle of a large complex. The funeral complex
consisted of palaces, temples and the stepped pyramid. They were all
surrounded by a fence wall 33 feet high.
The fence wall of the funeral complex has a breaking pattern of about 200
projections and recessions. Fourteen of these were larger than the others and 13
out of the fourteen had false doors The false doors were for the use of the
pharaoh’s ka.
The entrance door leads to a long hall having two rows of columns This is one of
the first uses of columns in history. The columns were designed to look like
bundles of reeds and had flutes.
In the north palace is also found stone columns with capitals They were
designed to look like the papyrus plant. Zosers funeral complex was designed as
a model of his palace, city and kingdom. The shape of the pyramid suggest a
stairway to the sky to join the sun God Amon Ra. After the stepped pyramids,
there were several attempt at building a pure geometric pyramid. Among the
prominent attempts were the pyramid at Medun and two pyramids built by
Snefruat Dashur.
PYRAMID

The construction of a true geometrical pyramid was achieved during the

reign of Cheops, son of Snefru. This was located at Giza. This pyramid is called
the Great Pyramid because of its size. The pyramid is 482 feet high on a plan
760 feet square.
Two additional pyramids were subsequently built at Giza. The second largest
in the center was built by Chefren, the son of Cheops. The third and smallest
was built by Mykerinus, the son of Chefren. The three together are referred to
as the pyramids at Giza.
The three are aligned diagonally along the projection of the diagonal of the
great pyramid. The small pyramids close to them were built for their Queens.
THE GREAT PYRAMID CHEOPS - The great pyramid has a unique internal
arrangement. First it has a chamber built below the base of the pyramid.
Another chamber was built above it known as the queen’s chamber. A
larger burial chamber known as the king’s chamber was built at the center of
the pyramid
This is the chamber where
the king was buried in his
Sarcophagus. The kings
chamber was 35 ft by 17ft
in plan and 19ft high.
Both the king and queen
chamber are connected
to the entrance on the
north side Two air shafts
also connect the king’s
chamber to outside for
ventilation. Once a king is
buried, the burial
chamber was sealed
forever
PYRAMID

The pyramids were designed as part of a funeral complex for the burial of a
pharaoh. Chefren’s complex is the best preserved example. The complex
consist of three interconnected units:
A valley temple by the river Nile where the pharaoh’s body was
embalmed.
A pyramid mortuary temple for rituals.
A long narrow causeway connecting the two.
How were the pyramids constructed? There is no accurate knowledge about
the method of construction of the pyramids. It is believed that 100,000 men
worked 3 months each year for 30 years to build the pyramids. The lime stone
used was quarried from nearby and transported by lever action. They were
paid in food, clothing and drinks.
THE SPHINX AT GIZA

Located in Giza is the great Sphinx with the body of a

lion and head of chefren. The reason for its construction
is not clear. A theory hold that it was produced from
leftover material. It may also have been carved to stand
guard over the temple and tomb of Chefren.
The pyramids were in general a response to the vast
desert landscapes. For structures to be visible in the
desert they have to be of gargantuan size. The pyramids
were also a product of the will to achieve immortality by
the pharaohs. The pyramids are the everlasting home of
the pharaoh’s ka.
END OF PYRAMID CONSTRUCTION
After the Mykerinus period, the era of pyramid
construction ended. More pyramids were built later but
they were smaller and less complex. Later pharaohs
could not also afford the cost of huge pyramid
construction. Grave robbers also learned how to break
into and steal the goods buried with pharaohs. The end
of the Old Kingdom therefore marked the end of the
great era of Egyptian pyramid construction.

The Middle Kingdom began when pharaoh Mentuhotep

united Egypt again after the first intermediate period.
During the middle kingdom, the practice of pyramid
construction disappeared. Focus in architectural
development was however still on tombs and burial
chambers. Two categories of structures came into use:
mortuary temples and underground tombs
7.3 SPATIAL ORGANIZATION
BUILDINGS
Two buildings types dominated ancient Egyptian
architecture; tombs and temples. Minimal attention was
paid to houses because of belief. House were simple
designed to last a life time. Effort was on buildings
associated with the afterlife. Tombs and temples were
design to last forever. Tomb construction varied with the
various period of Egyptian civilization.
Some unique architectural elements were built
composed of columns, relief carvings and paintings,
obelisks and sphinxes. Columns designed to mirror plant
materials evolved from attached columns in the Zoser’s
complex to the heavy columns of Egyptian cult temples
MATERIALS
Three common materials of construction in Egypt; plant
materials, clay and stone• Plants consist of readily
available material like reeds, papyrus and palm ribs and
shaft. Timber was available in limited quantity; used for
roofing. Clay was used for construction either as for
frame construction or as sun dried brick. Stone was not
much used during the early period of ancient Egyptian
civilization. It became popular after the 3rd dynasty of
the Early Kingdom and was used for tombs and temples
CONSTRUCTION SYSTEM
Two construction systems were predominant: Adobe construction and post and
beam construction. Adobe construction took the form of clay on vegetable
material or sun dried brick construction. This construction was reserved for
houses and other buildings of daily life. These buildings are supposed to last for
only a generation.
Egyptian monumental construction is mainly of a post and beam style. This is
expressed mainly in pyramids, tombs and temples. Columns are designed to
look like plant material. Their shaft resemble bundles of plant stems tied
together. Their capitals are derived from the lotus bud or the papyrus flower or
the palm leave. Great importance was attached to relief carving and it was an
integral part of the architecture
The true arch was not extensively used in ancient Egypt. The principle was
however known. Construction in Egypt took place during the period of floods.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
The Most important compositional principle in ancient
Egypt is linearity and axial organization. Linearity means
organization along a line, while axial organization means
that there is a defined axis running through the whole
composition . Almost all the predominant monuments
have a linear and axial organization. These include the
pyramid funerary complexes and the mortuary and cult
temples.
All the three main pyramids are Geometrical pyramids. A
geometric pyramid has a square base and a 52 degree
inclination of its sides. All the pyramids are also aligned in
a straight line along their axes
7.4 ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION
Farming was a major economic activity in
ancient Egypt. Most of the Pharaoh’s wealth
came from taxes paid by grain farmers.
Ancient Egypt’s location offered it many
advantages in terms of trade. The Nile allowed
merchants to access the Mediterranean Sea
and beyond thus providing Egypt with new
markets. Egypt had plenty of grain and dates,
papyrus, flax ( plant used to make linen) ,
stone, fish, oxen and salt.
7.5 SOCIAL / POLITICAL
ORGANIZATION
POLITICAL
At the center of ancient Egyptian civilization was a strong
central government headed by pharaohs. The pharaohs
provided Stability and a unified sense of purpose
RELIGION
Ancient Egyptians were a religious people. They believed
in many Gods. Different symbols were used to represent
the Gods and temples were built and dedicated to them.
The pharaohs were also held as living Gods. Egyptians also
believed in life after death. They believed that when they
die, their souls called Ka would live in them for ever. For the
Ka to live, it needed either the body of the dead person or
a copy of it in the form a statue. The Ka will return each
night to the body or statue. If both the body and statue are
destroyed, then the Ka would die.
SOCIAL
MUMMIFICATION
To ensure the availability of a body to the ka of a dead person, the Egyptians
developed a process of preservation called mummification. The process involves
cutting open the body and removing all the internal organs and brain. The body is
then packed in natron to dry it out. It is then soaked in oil to preserve it. Next it is
wrapped in a special cloth called mummy cloth. The mummy is then coated with wax
and a face painted onto its wrapped head. The mummification of a pharaoh took a
period of 72 days. Once mummification is finished, burial ceremonies are performed
and the body is ready for burial. Ancient Egyptians viewed earthly dwellings as
temporary. They paid little attention to house construction. The tomb was seen as a
permanent dwelling for the afterlife. Tremendous effort was exerted in tomb
construction. The mummified dead body was buried in a stone box called
sarcophagus in the tomb.
 They believed that a dead person needs all his worldly goods. The tomb was usually
packed with all the treasures of a dead person. If anything cannot be provided, it is
painted on the walls of the tomb. Tombs also have charms to protect the dead person
& his property. The dead were buried in cities of the dead, called Necropolis located
in the desert. Picture above shows an Egyptian sarcophagus.
7.5 ENVIRONMENT AND ITS IMPACT
ON ARCHITECTURE
Environment: It’s anything that surrounds a being
How environment influenced the Egyptian architecture
Egypt is essentially located in a desert and the desert is nothing but empty space.
For anything to be visible and considered monumental, it must match the scale of
the desert. This understanding may have influence the architects of ancient Egypt
to focus on building massing and creating the massive buildings. The Nile was a
very straight river. The straightness of the line provided the ancient Egyptians with
both a symbolic sense of direction and a principle for application in the creation of
monumental buildings.
ACHIEVEMENTS OF ANCIENT EGYPTIANS
Ancient Egyptians had many achievements. This included:
• A developed system of government
• A belief system and art of mummification.
• They also left a legacy of tombs irrigation to improve
agriculture.
• The ancient Egyptians invented the hieroglyphics
systems of writing. Historians were able to read
hieroglyphics following the discovery of the Rosetta stone
Rosetta stone
The 2,200- year-old tablet bears
three parallel texts of the same
passage and was the key to
deciphering ancient Egyptian
hieroglyphs