Subject: HVAC Technology
Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (Morrison Hill), Department of Real Estate and Facilities Management
PSYCHROMETRY, AIR CONDITIONING PROCESSES AND CYCLES
1 Introduction
• Psychrometry: A study of the thermodynamic properties of moist air, e.g.
dry bulb temperature, wet bulb temperature, relative humidity, etc.
Atmospheric air consists of dry air and water vapour and it needs special
consideration since industrial processes and human comfort depend largely
on its properties.
• Both air and water vapour behave like ideal gas and the ideal gas laws can
be applied. They will co-exist and behave independently of each other.
The conservation of mass and energy principles can be used to established
the properties of moist air (Gibbs-Dalton law).
• The properties of moist air can be evaluated from equations derived
analytically from the established laws. Based on the equations, a
psychrometric chart has been constructed for more readily read off of moist
air properties. The analysis of air conditioning cycles and processes can be
carried out easily with the aid of the chart.
2 Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air and Psychrometric Chart
• Dry bulb (db) and wet bulb (wb) temperatures: can be measured by a
psychrometer. Dry bulb temperature is the air temperature. Wet bulb
temperature corresponds to the temperature indicated by the wet bulb
thermometer and it depends on the dryness (degree of saturation) of air.
• Humidity Ratio / Specific Humidity / Moisture Content (w): it gives the
absolute amount of water vapour in air.
mw
w= kg/kg
ma
where mw and ma are the masses of water vapour and dry air in a given
volume respectively.
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Subject: HVAC Technology
Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (Morrison Hill), Department of Real Estate and Facilities Management
• Degree of Saturation / Saturation Ratio ( µ ): it indicates the extent of
saturation of moist air and is approximately equal to relative humidity (φ)
which is defined in terms of mole fractions or partial pressures.
w pw
µ= , φ=
ws p ws
where ws is the humidity ratio of saturated air at the same temperature and
pressure while pws is the saturation pressure of water vapour at the same
temperature.
• Dew Point: the temperature of saturated moist air at the same pressure and
moisture content as the given moist air sample. It is the temperature to
which an unsaturated air has to be cooled at constant pressure to become
saturated.
• Specific Enthalpy (h): the ‘energy’ content of moist air per kg of dry air
and the changes in enthalpy are most often related to energy transfer in air
conditioning and refrigeration flow processes. It is the sum of the
enthalpies of dry air and water vapour.
h = ha + w hg kJ/kg
where ha is the specific enthalpy of dry air and hg is the specific enthalpy
of saturated vapour at the mixture temperature. Conventionally, the
enthalpies of dry air and water at 0oC are taken to be zero and water
vapour is assumed to be vaporised at 0oC (latent heat of vaporisation at
0oC, hfg.o, = 2501 kJ/kg).
In normally encountered situations (-10oC to 30 o
C), h can be
approximated by:
h = 1.006 t + w (2501 + 1.87 t) kJ/kg
where t is the dry bulb temperature of air in oC.
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Subject: HVAC Technology
Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (Morrison Hill), Department of Real Estate and Facilities Management
• Specific Heat of moist air at constant pressure (Cp): the amount of energy
to raise the temperature of moist air by 1oC for unit mass of dry air in the
mixture.
Cp = Cpa + w Cpw kJ/kg K
≅ 1.006 + 1.87 w
≅ 1.02 kJ/kg K (at commonly encountered conditions)
where Cpa and Cpw are the specific heat of dry air and water vapour
respectively.
• Specific Volume (υ): the volume of moist air per unit mass of dry air in
m3/kg.
• Density of moist air (ρ): ρ = (1 + w) / υ ≈ 1/υ kg/m3
• Psychrometric Chart: various forms of psychrometric charts are
commercially available, e.g. CIBSE, ASHRAE, Carrier and Trane. One
form developed by CIBSE is shown below and the thermodynamic
properties of moist air can be ready off directly from the chart.
For a moist air sample at point X,
dry bulb = 25 oC, wet bulb = 18 oC
moisture content = 0.01 kg/kg relative humidity = 50 %
specific volume = 0.858 m3/kg specific enthalpy = 50.5 kJ/kg
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Subject: HVAC Technology
Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (Morrison Hill), Department of Real Estate and Facilities Management
Moisture content = 0.01 kg/kg
Relative humidity = 50 %
Wet bulb = 18 C
o
Specific volume = 0.858 m /kg
3
Dry bulb = 25 C
o
Specific enthaply = 50.0 kJ/kg
Psychrometric Chart
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Subject: HVAC Technology
Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (Morrison Hill), Department of Real Estate and Facilities Management
3 Air Conditioning Processes
• Air conditioning processes describe the energy and mass transfer between
moist air and its surroundings as well as changes in physical properties of
moist air. Two basic principles can be applied to solve the energy and
mass transfer: conservation of energy and mass. In addition, most of the
processes involved are of flow nature and the steady flow energy equation
can be applied. Furthermore, if no work is involved, the energy change can
be evaluated directly by the changes in enthalpy before and after the
process.
q = h2 - h1 kJ/kg
Q = ma (h2 - h1) kW
where q = energy transfer per kg of dry air, kJ/kg
1 = entering air condition
2 = leaving air condition
Q = total rate of energy transfer, kW
ma = mass flow rate of dry air, kg/s
• Various types of A/C processes are shown in the following psychrometric
chart where O represents the entering air conditions.
• Sensible Heating (OC) or Cooling (OG): an increase or decrease in dry
bulb temperature of air without a change in moisture content and can be
achieved by using a heating and cooling coil. In cooling, the surface
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Subject: HVAC Technology
Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (Morrison Hill), Department of Real Estate and Facilities Management
temperature of the coil shall be above the dew point temperature of the
incoming air. It can be represented by a horizontal line on the chart. The
energy transfer at the coil can be determined using enthalpy change or the
following equation:
Q = ma Cp (tC - tO) kW for heating
or Q = ma Cp (tO - tG) kW for cooling
• Humidifying (OB): usually achieved by steam injection with a large
increase in moisture content and a small increase in temperature. The mass
flow rate of steam ms is given by:
ms = ma (wB - wO) kg/s
The temperature increase can be approximated by:
o
tB - tO = [Cps (wB - wO) ts] / {Cpa + [(wO + wB) / 2] Cpw} C
where Cps, Cpa and Cpw may be taken as 1.9, 1.006 and 1.87 kJ/kg K
respectively. ts is the temperature of steam.
• Cooling and Humidifying (OH): achieved by water spray having a
temperature above the dew point of entering air. It is an adiabatic
saturation process with an increase in moisture content and decrease in
temperature. It follows the constant wet bulb line. The saturation
efficiency ηsat is given by:
ηsat = (wH - wO) / (wI - wO)
where wI is the moisture content of air if it is saturated.
• Cooling and Dehumidifying (OF): achieved by a cooling coil with surface
temperature lower than the dew point temperature of entering air. There is
a reduction in moisture content and dry bulb temperature.
The rate of sensible heat removal at the coil Qc,s = ma Cp (tO - tF)
kW
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Subject: HVAC Technology
Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (Morrison Hill), Department of Real Estate and Facilities Management
The rate of moisture removal ml = ma (wO - wF) kg/s
The rate of latent heat removal at the coil Qc,l = ma (wO - wF) hfg.o
kW
= 2501 ma (wO - wF) kW
The rate of heat transfer at the cooling coil Qcc (cooling coil load) can be
estimated by:
Qcc = ma [(hO - hF) - (wO - wF) hwa] kW
where hwa = Specific enthalpy of water (condensate), kJ/kg
Since the amount of condensate is small, the second term can be omitted
and the equation is further simplified to:
Qcc = ma (hO - hF) kW
The efficiency of cooling and dehumidification can be quantified by a
contact factor:
coil contact factor = (wO - wF) / (wO - wADP)
or coil bypass factor = 1 - coil contact factor
where ADP is the coil apparatus dew point and is the effective uniform
coil surface temperature that would produce the desired leaving (off) coil
conditions. The relative humidity of leaving air generally falls within the
range of 92 - 98%.
• Chemical Dehumidifying (OD): achieved through the use of chemical
desiccant for removing of moisture. It is accompanied by an increase in
temperature. The process will follow the constant wet bulb line.
• Humidifying (OA) or Dehumidifying (OE): pure increase or decrease in
moisture content without any temperature change. In practice, these two
processes will rarely occur.
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Subject: HVAC Technology
Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (Morrison Hill), Department of Real Estate and Facilities Management
• Adiabatic Mixing: two or more air streams mix with each other to form a
combined stream. The mixture (m) of the two entering streams 1 and 2 will
lie on the straight line joining the two state points. It divides the line into
segments inversely proportional to the relative mass flows of the entering
streams.
Using the conservation of energy and mass principles, c onditions of the
mixture / leaving stream (m) can be dervied and they can be found by
calculation or measurement of the lengths of the lines:
m1 h 2 − h m w 2 − w m t 2 − t m m2
= = = =
m m h 2 − h1 w 2 − w1 t 2 − t 1 12
m 2 h m − h 1 w m − w 1 t m − t 1 m1
or = = = =
m m h 2 − h 1 w 2 − w 1 t 2 − t 1 12
m1 t 1 + m 2 t 2
or tm =
m1 + m 2
m1 w 1 + m 2 w 2
and wm =
m1 + m 2
m1 h 1 + m 2 h 2
or hm =
m1 + m 2
• Space Conditioning Process: Conditioned air (s) enters the space and there
is heat and mass transfer between the supplied air and the space air (r). In
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Subject: HVAC Technology
Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (Morrison Hill), Department of Real Estate and Facilities Management
summer, cool and dry air is used to remove the energy generated in the
space (Q) which can be in the form of sensible (Qs) and latent (Ql) heats.
Sensible heat will raise the space air temperature while latent heat will
increase the moisture content. This space conditioning process is shown in
the following psychrometric chart.
The sensible heat removal associated with the process (Qs) can be
evaluated by:
Qs = ma Cp (tr - ts) kW
The latent heat removal (Ql) can be calculated by:
Ql = ma (wr - ws) hfg.o kW
Sensible heat ratio (SHR) = Qs / Q = Qs / (Qs + Ql)
SHR indicates the relative amount of energy removal in terms of sensible
and latent heats. It will govern the slope of the space conditioning process.
The protractor on the psychrometric chart shows the various SHR lines:
the lower quarter for cooling and the upper quarter for heating.
The space conditioning process in winter with heating follows the same
principles and is shown in the following chart. The warm and dry air is
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Subject: HVAC Technology
Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (Morrison Hill), Department of Real Estate and Facilities Management
supplied to offset the heat loss in the space and there is an increase in
moisture content due to the latent heat released in the space.
4 Air Conditioning Cycles
• An air conditioning cycle consists of several air conditioning processes
connected in a serial order with a corresponding transfer of heat and mass
leading to changes in properties of moist air. A cycle can be open or close
depending on whether the end state of the air will resume its original
conditions.
• Many types of air conditioning cycle exist depending on the types of
system used. The two basic types of cycle: one for summer and one for
winter, will be discussed.
4.1 The Basic Summer Air Conditioning Cycle
• The system and the associated psychrometric cycle are shown in the
following diagrams. No control of relative humidity is assumed.
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Subject: HVAC Technology
Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (Morrison Hill), Department of Real Estate and Facilities Management
• It consists of a single zone served by an air conditioning system. Most of
the air will be recirculated to save cooling energy. Outdoor air is admitted
necessary for the provision of an acceptable indoor air quality. Many A/C
processes are involved in the cycle and the description will be started at cc,
the condition of air leaving the cooling coil in the air handling unit.
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Subject: HVAC Technology
Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (Morrison Hill), Department of Real Estate and Facilities Management
• Sensible heating process from cc to s: supply air will gain heat energy as it
passes through the supply air fan and duct to the space. It is collectively
called the Supply System Heat Gain and is of sensible nature.
• Space conditioning process from s to r: cool and dry supply air at s will be
supplied to the space and absorbs the energy generated to become r which
is the design condition of the space. Both sensible and latent heats will be
involved and the total is called Space Cooling Load.
• Sensible heating process from r to ru: as return air passes through the
return air ductwork and fan, heat energy will be gained similar to the
supply system heat gain. It is collectively known as the Return System
Heat Gain and is again of sensible nature.
• Adiabatic mixing process from ru, o to m: return air at ru will mix with
outdoor air at o in the air handling unit resulting in a mixture of m. The
position of m depends on the amount of outdoor air admitted which in turn
is governed by the ventilation requirement of the space. The enthalpy
change from m to ru is known as the Ventilation Load.
• Cooling and dehumidifying process from m to cc: the mixture will pass
through the cooling coil where the total energy absorbed throughout the
cycle is removed at the coil by the cooling chilled water. Both sensible and
latent heats will be involved and the total amount is known as the Cooling
Coil Load.
4.2 The Basic Winter Air Conditioning Cycle
• The system and the psychometric cycle are shown below. It is based on the
provision of heating without any humidity control.
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Subject: HVAC Technology
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• Sensible heating process from r to ru: collectively known as Return
System Heat Gain and is similar to that in the summer cycle. It can be a
sensible cooling process depending on the net energy change in the
process.
• Adiabatic mixing process from ru, o to m: similar to the summer cycle
except that the outdoor air is drier resulting in a mixture with lower
moisture content. The resulting relative humidity in the space will be
correspondingly lower.
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Subject: HVAC Technology
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• Sensible heating process from m to hc: the air will be heated by the heating
coil in the air handling unit to hc which depends on the heating
requirement of the system. No moisture or latent heat is provided because
there is no control of space humidity.
• Sensible heating process from hc to s: collectively known as Supply
System Heat Gain and is similar to that in the summer cycle. It can be
sensible cooling if the heat gain from the fan is less than the heat loss from
the ductwork.
• Space conditioning process from s to r: warm and dry air will be supplied
to the space to offset the heat loss and to pick up the latent load generated.
5 An Illustration of Air Conditioning Cycle Analysis
5.1 The air conditioning cycle analysis is best explained through the use of an
example. The single zone air conditioning system in summer operation is
considered.
• An office employs a basic air conditioning system. The space total and
sensible cooling loads are estimated to be 40 kW and 34 kW respectively.
Other design conditions are as follows:
Summer outdoor design temperatures: 33oC dry bulb
28oC wet bulb
Indoor design conditions: 25oC dry bulb
50% relative humidity
Condition of air leaving cooling coil (off coil) 95% relative humidity
Outdoor ventilation air: 0.5 m3/s
THE SUPPLY AND RETURN SYSTEM HEAT GAINS ARE
NEGLECTED.
• The followings are to be determined in order to specify the air handling
plant for the system:
- condition of supply air
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Subject: HVAC Technology
Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (Morrison Hill), Department of Real Estate and Facilities Management
- supply air volume flow rate
- condition of mixture of outdoor and return air
- cooling coil load
5.2 Calculation procedures
• Locate the indoor and outdoor design state points (r and o respectively) on
the psychrometric chart.
• Calculate the Sensible Heat Ratio (SHR) of the space:
SHR = Space sensible load / Total space cooling load
= 34 / 40 = 0.85
• Draw the space conditioning process on the chart starting from the indoor
design point r and parallel to the SHR line on the protractor to meet the
relative humidity curve corresponding to the off coil condition s, which is
95% in this case. The supply air conditions can be read off from the chart:
ts = 13.5 oC ws = 0.0091 kg/kg
hs = 36.5 kJ/kg
• Determine the supply air volume flow rate Vs:
Qs = ma Cp (tr - ts) = Vs ρs Cp (tr - ts)
Vs = (Qs υs) / [Cp (tr - ts)]
= (34 x 0.823) / [1.02 (25 - 13.5)] = 2.39 m3/s
• The mixture of return and outdoor air state point m is determined by:
rm m
& V& 0.5
= o ≈ o = = 0.21
ro m&s V& 2.39
s
Since ro = 5.45 cm from the chart, rm = 0.21 x 5.45 = 1.14 cm
Locate m on the chart by measurement which gives the on coil conditions as:
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Subject: HVAC Technology
Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (Morrison Hill), Department of Real Estate and Facilities Management
tm = 26.75 oC wm = 0.0125 kg/kg
hm = 58.5 kJ/kg
• The cooling coil load Qcc can be calculated using the approximated
equation:
Qcc = ma (hO - hF)
= Vs ρs (hm - hs)
= 2.39 x (58.5 - 36.5) / 0.823
= 63.9 kW
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Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (Morrison Hill), Department of Real Estate and Facilities Management
• The psychrometric cycle is shown in the following chart.
ws
w
h
hs
o
tr
s
ts
υs
h
hs
SHR = 0.85
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Subject: HVAC Technology
Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (Morrison Hill), Department of Real Estate and Facilities Management
• If the supply and return system heat gains are to be considered, they have
to be included in the cycle as two horizontal lines having lengths
corresponding respectively to the increase in dry bulb temperatures. The
return system temperature increase can be easily drawn starting from r.
The supply system temperature increase has to be located through a trial
method. A horizontal line has to be drawn so that one end lies on the off
coil relative humidity curve while the other lies on the SHR line with its
length equals to the temperature increase.
• Using the same example, if the supply and return system heat gains give
2oC and 2.5oC temperature increase respectively while the SHR remains
the same as 0.85, the off coil (cc), supply (s), return (ru) and mixture (m)
air conditions will be changed as shown in the following chart. The supply
air volume flow rate and the cooling coil load will be changed slightly
corresponding to the new state points.
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ru
rs
cc
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Reference:
1. Wang, S.K, “Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration”, McGraw
Hill, 1994, Chapters 2, 3 and 4.
2. McQuiston, F.C. & Parker, J.D., “Heating, Ventilating, and Air
Conditioning: Analysis and Design”, Wiley, 1994, Chapter 3.
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