Ch-1: Physical Change: Shape/Size/State change - melting chocolate, ice melting.

Chemical Change: Composition change with

shape/size/state change - rusting iron, burning [Link] Reaction: Process where substances transform, forming new
substances with different chemical [Link] Equation: Shows chemical reaction using symbols and formulas for
reactants and products - H₂ + O₂ → H₂[Link] of Chemical Reaction: - Change in colour - Change in temperature:
endothermic (energy absorbed), exothermic (energy released) - Change in state -Evolution of gas - Formation of
[Link] Chemical Reaction: Reactants - substances undergoing change, Products - substances formed from
change. Word reaction: Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium Oxide. Shorter: Mg + O⌄2 ⌄ → [Link] Terms: - Precipitate:
insoluble solid settling after reaction - Exothermic reaction: releases heat energy - Endothermic reaction: absorbs heat energy -
Catalyst: speeds up reaction without being consumed, e.g. Fe in Haber's [Link] of Chemical Reactions: - Combination
reaction - Decomposition reaction - Displacement reaction - Double-displacement [Link] Reaction: Two or more
substances combine forming single new substance - A + B → AB. Burning magnesium: 2Mg(s) + O⌄2⌄(g) → 2MgO(s) - burns
bright white, white ash forms. Calcium oxide with water: CaO(s) + H⌄2⌄O(l) → Ca(OH)⌄2⌄(aq) + Heat - exothermic, releases
large [Link] - Calcium Carbonate Formation: Slaked lime reacts slowly with CO⌄2⌄ from air - calcium
carbonate forms on walls after 2-3 days giving shiny finish. Reaction: Ca(OH)⌄2⌄(aq) + CO⌄2⌄(g) → CaCO⌄3⌄(s) +
H⌄2⌄O(l).CO₂ Test: Bubble gas through lime water (dilute Ca(OH)⌄2⌄) - becomes milky if CO⌄2⌄ [Link]
Reactions: 1- Burning natural gas: CH⌄4⌄(g) + 2O⌄2⌄(g) → CO⌄2⌄(g) + 2H⌄2⌄O(g) + Heat. 2- Vegetable decomposition to
compost + Heat. 3- Burning magnesium: 2Mg(s) + O⌄2⌄(g) → 2MgO(s) + Heat. 4- Quick lime with water: CaO(s) + H⌄2⌄O(l) →
Ca(OH)⌄2⌄(aq) + Heat. 5- Respiration: C⌄6⌄H⌄12⌄O⌄6⌄(aq) + 6O⌄2⌄(aq) → 6CO⌄2⌄(aq) + 6H⌄2⌄O(l) +
[Link] Reactions: Photosynthesis: 6CO⌄2⌄(g) + 6H⌄2⌄O(l) → C⌄6⌄H⌄12⌄O⌄6⌄(aq) + 6O⌄2⌄(g) (sunlight +
chlorophyll required).Decomposition Reaction: Single compound breaks into two or more elements/compounds when energy
supplied - heat, electricity, or sunlight - AB → A + [Link] Decomposition: Compound breaks when heated -
CaCO⌄3⌄(s) → CaO(s) + CO⌄2⌄(g). Ferrous sulphate decomposition: green crystals → white on heating (water lost) → reddish-
brown on further heating (ferric oxide forms), SO⌄2⌄ and SO⌄3⌄ released (acidic, pollutant). Reaction: 2FeSO⌄4⌄(s) →
Fe⌄2⌄O⌄3⌄(s) + SO⌄2⌄(g) + SO⌄3⌄(g). Lead nitrate decomposition: 2Pb(NO⌄3⌄)⌄2⌄ → 2PbO + 4NO⌄2⌄ + O⌄2⌄ - colorless
→ yellow PbO + brown NO⌄2⌄ [Link] Decomposition: Electric current decomposes compounds - 2H⌄2⌄O(l) →
2H⌄2⌄(g) + O⌄2⌄(g). Cathode (negative): hydrogen gas H⌄2⌄ - supports burning, Anode (positive): oxygen gas O⌄2⌄ -
rekindles glowing splint. H⌄2⌄:O⌄2⌄ ratio 2:1. Pure water poor conductor - acid drops added as electrolyte. Burning candle test:
H⌄2⌄ gas - pop sound candle out (combustible not supporter), O⌄2⌄ gas - burns brightly (supporter not
combustible).Photolytic Decomposition: Light-induced reactions. Silver chloride: 2AgCl(s) + sunlight → 2Ag(s) + Cl⌄2⌄(g) -
white → grey. Silver bromide: 2AgBr(s) + sunlight → 2Ag(s) + Br⌄2⌄(g) - light yellow → grey. Used in black-white
[Link] Reaction: More reactive element displaces less reactive from compound - A + BC → AC + B.
Reactivity series (most to least): K - Na - Ca - Mg - Al - Zn - Fe - Pb - H - Cu - Hg - Ag - Au. Zinc with dilute HCL: Zn + 2HCl →
ZnCl⌄2⌄ + H⌄2⌄ - bubbling, temp increases, H⌄2⌄ confirmed pop sound. Iron with copper sulphate: Fe(s) + CuSO⌄4⌄(aq) →
FeSO⌄4⌄(aq) + Cu(s) - blue solution → light green, brown Cu coating on nail. Lead with copper chloride: Pb(s) + CuCl⌄2⌄(aq) →
PbCl⌄2⌄(aq) + Cu(s). Zinc with copper sulphate: Zn(s) + CuSO⌄4⌄(aq) → ZnSO⌄4⌄(aq) + Cu(s).Double-Displacement
Reaction: Two compounds exchange ions forming two new compounds - AB + CD → AD + BC. Lead nitrate with potassium
iodide: Pb(NO⌄3⌄)⌄2⌄(aq) + 2KI(aq) → PbI⌄2⌄(s) + 2KNO⌄3⌄(aq) - yellow precipitate forms. Sodium sulphate with barium
chloride: Na⌄2⌄SO⌄4⌄(aq) + BaCl⌄2⌄(aq) → BaSO⌄4⌄(s) + 2NaCl(aq) - white BaSO⌄4⌄ precipitate [Link]
Indicating Reaction: 1- Colour change: Fe + CuSO⌄4⌄ → FeSO⌄4⌄ + Cu. 2- Temperature: a- Endothermic: CaCO⌄3⌄ + Heat →
CaO + CO⌄2⌄ b- Exothermic: CaO + H⌄2⌄O → Ca(OH)⌄2⌄ + Heat. 3- State change: 2H⌄2⌄ + O⌄2⌄ → 2H⌄2⌄O. 4- Gas
evolution: Zn + H⌄2⌄SO⌄4⌄ → ZnSO⌄4⌄ + H⌄2⌄. 5- Precipitate formation: Pb(NO⌄3⌄)⌄2⌄ + KI → PbI⌄2⌄ +
KNO⌄3⌄.Oxidation: Addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen - C + O⌄2⌄ → CO⌄2⌄ (oxygen added), H⌄2⌄S + Br⌄2⌄ → 2HBr
+ S (hydrogen removed). Oxidising agent: brings about oxidation (O⌄2⌄, Br⌄2⌄).Reduction: Addition of hydrogen or removal of
oxygen - N⌄2⌄ + 3H⌄2⌄ → 2NH⌄3⌄ (hydrogen added), ZnO + C → Zn + CO (oxygen removed). Reducing agent: brings about
reduction (H⌄2⌄, C).Redox: Reduction and oxidation simultaneous - substance oxidised is reducing agent, substance reduced is
oxidising agent. Copper oxidation: 2Cu(s) + O⌄2⌄(g) → 2CuO(s) - reddish-brown → black, exothermic. Copper oxide reduction
with hydrogen: CuO(s) + H⌄2⌄(g) → Cu(s) + H⌄2⌄O(g) - black → shiny brown. Copper oxide reduction with methane: CH⌄4⌄(g)
+ 4CuO → 4Cu(s) + 2H⌄2⌄O(l) + CO⌄2⌄(g).Corrosion: Metal surfaces attacked by oxygen, moisture, acids - weakens metal,
diminishes appearance. Rusting: Fe + air + water → reddish-brown rust, more on metal surfaces - Fe + O⌄2⌄ + H⌄2⌄O →
hydrated iron oxide. Copper: Cu + CO⌄2⌄ + H⌄2⌄O → CuCO⌄3⌄·Cu(OH)⌄2⌄ (bluish-green). Tarnishing: Ag + S → Ag⌄2⌄S
(black) - silver reacts with H⌄2⌄S and O⌄2⌄ in [Link] Corrosion: - Painting - Greasing/oiling - [Link]:
Oil/fat-containing foods exposed to air long time - oxidation - unpleasant odour taste [Link] Rancidity: -
Antioxidants added to inhibit oxidation - Nitrogen gas filling (replaces O⌄2⌄ in chip packets) - Refrigeration slows oxidation.

Ch-2: Acids: Substances donating protons H^+⌄ ions - sour taste, turn blue litmus red. Uses: Carbonic acid aerated drinks,
Sulphuric acid car batteries paint, Tartaric acid wine, Salicylic acid aspirin, Nitric acid fertilizers, Hydrochloric acid digestion, Acetic
acid vinegar. Examples: HCl, H⌄2⌄SO⌄4⌄, citric [Link]: Substances accepting H^+⌄ ions or donating OH^-⌄ ions - bitter
taste, slippery feel, turn red litmus blue. Examples: NaOH, NaHCO⌄3⌄, NH⌄3⌄. Uses: Sodium hydroxide soaps, Sodium
carbonate detergents, Calcium hydroxide toothpaste cement, Sodium fluoride toothpaste, Ammonia [Link]
Occurring Acids: - Vinegar: Acetic acid CH⌄3⌄COOH - Sour milk curd: Lactic acid - Orange: Citric acid - Lemon: Citric acid -
Tamarind: Tartaric acid - Tomato: Oxalic acid - Ant sting: Methanoic acid - Nettle sting: Methanoic [Link]: Substances
changing colour/smell in acid or base - help identify acidic, basic, neutral [Link] Indicators: Litmus pale purple
neutral, red acid, blue base; Hydrangea flowers blue neutral, blue acid, pink base; Turmeric yellow neutral, yellow acid, red
[Link] Indicators: Phenolphthalein colourless acid, pink base; Methyl orange red acid, yellow [Link]
Indicators: Onion extract smell retained acid, diminishes base; Vanilla extract smell retained acid, vanishes base; Clove oil smell
retained acid, changes/diminishes [Link] Activity - Zinc with acids: Zn + H⌄2⌄SO⌄4⌄ → ZnSO⌄4⌄ + H⌄2⌄, Zn + 2HCl
→ ZnCl⌄2⌄ + H⌄2⌄, Zn + 2CH⌄3⌄COOH → (CH⌄3⌄COO)⌄2⌄Zn + H⌄2⌄ - Effervescence (bubbling) - gas through soap forms
bubbles - pop sound burning matchstick confirms H⌄2⌄ - reaction rate: HCl > CH⌄3⌄[Link] with Metal: Acid + Metal →
Salt + H⌄2⌄ gas - e.g. Zn + H⌄2⌄SO⌄4⌄ → ZnSO⌄4⌄ + H⌄2⌄.Metal Carbonates/Bicarbonates with Acids:
Na⌄2⌄CO⌄3⌄(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H⌄2⌄O(l) + CO⌄2⌄(g), NaHCO⌄3⌄(s) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H⌄2⌄O(l) +
CO⌄2⌄(g) - Acid + Metal Carbonates/Bicarbonates → Salt + Water + CO⌄2⌄ - Excess CO⌄2⌄: CaCO⌄3⌄(s) + H⌄2⌄O(l) +
CO⌄2⌄(g) → Ca(HCO⌄3⌄)⌄2⌄(aq).Acids and Bases Neutralization: HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H⌄2⌄O(l) - Acid +
Base → Salt + [Link] Oxides with Acids: CuO(s) + 2HCl(l) → CuCl⌄2⌄(s) + H⌄2⌄O(l) - Metal oxide + Acid → Salt +
Water - Metallic oxides basic [Link] with Metals: 2NaOH(aq) + Zn(s) → Na⌄2⌄ZnO⌄2⌄(aq) + H⌄2⌄(g) - Forms sodium
zincate, releases H⌄2⌄ - Metal + Alkali + Water → Salt + H⌄2⌄.Non-Metallic Oxides with Bases: CO⌄2⌄(g) +
Ca(OH)⌄2⌄(aq) → CaCO⌄3⌄(s) + H⌄2⌄O(l), SO⌄3⌄(g) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na⌄2⌄SO⌄4⌄(aq) + H⌄2⌄O(l) - Non-metallic oxides
acidic [Link]-Electricity Conductivity: Dilute HCl and H⌄2⌄SO⌄4⌄ bulb glows (release ions conduct electricity), Glucose
and alcohol bulb NOT glow (no ionization no conduction).Common Features - Acids/Bases: Electrolytes - good conductors -
produce ions in water - acids release H^+⌄ bases release OH^-⌄ - neutralized in [Link]/Base Ionization: Dry HCl gas no
acidic behaviour (no H^+⌄ ions), Moist HCl gas turns blue litmus red - HCl + H⌄2⌄O → H⌄3⌄O^+⌄ + Cl^-⌄ - Acids release
H^+⌄ only aqueous, H^+⌄ combines water → hydronium ion H⌄3⌄O^+⌄ - Acid must show H^+⌄(aq) or H⌄3⌄O^+⌄.Bases
Ionization: NaOH + H⌄2⌄O → Na^+⌄ + OH^-⌄ - Bases soluble water called [Link]/Base Strength: Strong acids: HCl,
H⌄2⌄SO⌄4⌄, HNO⌄3⌄ - completely ionize - high H^+⌄ concentration. Strong bases: NaOH, KOH - completely ionize - high OH^-
⌄ concentration. Weak acids: CH⌄3⌄COOH, H⌄2⌄CO⌄3⌄ - partially ionize - less H^+⌄. Weak bases: NH⌄4⌄OH - partially ionize
- less OH^-⌄.pH Scale: Potential of Hydrogen - 0-14 - pH < 7 acidic - pH = 7 neutral - pH > 7 basic. Lower pH stronger acid,
higher pH stronger [Link] Indicator: Mixture indicators - determines pH - shows colours 0-14 - Gastric juice 1.2 - Lemon
juice 2.2 - Pure water blood 7.4 - Milk magnesia 10 - Sodium hydroxide [Link] Everyday Importance: 1- Digestion: HCl stomach
pH 1-3 activates pepsin proteins, antacids Mg(OH)⌄2⌄ milk magnesia neutralize excess acid. 2- Soil: Ideal pH 6.5-7.5 - acidic soil
treated quick lime CaO or slaked lime Ca(OH)⌄2⌄ - basic soil organic matter gypsum CaSO⌄4⌄. 3- Teeth: Bacteria produce lactic
acid lowers pH corrodes enamel, toothpaste basic neutralizes acid. 4- Blood: pH 7.35-7.45 narrow range, changes disrupt
enzymes health. 5- Plants/animals: Most plants pH near 7, too acidic/basic affects mineral absorption. 6- Bee sting: Acidic venom,
baking soda base neutralizes relief. 7- Acid rain: SO⌄2⌄, NO⌄2⌄ + water → H⌄2⌄SO⌄4⌄, HNO⌄3⌄ - pH < 5.6 harms soil plants
buildings aquatic [Link]: Ionic compounds cations anions ionic bonds - acid + base → salt (neutralization) - ions atoms/groups
gained/lost electrons - ionic bonds electrostatic attraction opposite [Link] pH: Neutral salts: strong acid + strong base pH
= 7, e.g. NaCl. Acidic salts: strong acid + weak base pH < 7, e.g. NH⌄4⌄Cl. Basic salts: strong base + weak acid pH > 7, e.g.
Na⌄2⌄CO⌄3⌄.Common Salt - NaCl: Composition: Na^+⌄ Cl^-⌄ - sea water salt mines - Formation: HCl + NaOH → NaCl +
H⌄2⌄O. Uses: Cooking seasoning - food preservation pickling - roads de-icing - raw material NaOH baking soda washing
[Link] Hydroxide - NaOH: Common name caustic soda - Chlor-alkali process: 2NaCl(aq) + 2H⌄2⌄O(l) →electricity
2NaOH(aq) + Cl⌄2⌄(g) + H⌄2⌄(g). Products: NaOH soaps paper textiles metal degreasing oil refining - Cl⌄2⌄ bleaching
disinfectants water treatment PVC - H⌄2⌄ hydrogenation oils fuel ammonia [Link] Powder - CaOCl₂: Common
name calcium oxychloride - Production: Ca(OH)⌄2⌄ + Cl⌄2⌄ → CaOCl₂ + H⌄2⌄O. Uses: Bleach cotton linen textiles clothes wood
pulp - oxidising agent - disinfectant drinking water [Link] Soda - NaHCO₃: Common name sodium hydrogen carbonate -
Production: NaCl + H⌄2⌄O + CO⌄2⌄ + NH⌄3⌄ → NH⌄4⌄Cl + NaHCO⌄3⌄. Uses: Baking powder leavening agent releases
CO⌄2⌄ dough rises - antacid excess stomach acid - cleaning mild abrasive deodorizer - fire [Link] Soda -
Na₂CO₃·10H₂O: Common name sodium carbonate - Production: Heat baking soda recrystallisation Na⌄2⌄CO⌄3⌄ + 10H⌄2⌄O.
Uses: Stains grease households - hard water softening - glass soap paper industries - borax chemicals - detergent [Link]
of Crystallization: Fixed water molecules structure - Example CuSO⌄4⌄·5H⌄2⌄O - Heat: CuSO⌄4⌄·5H⌄2⌄O → CuSO⌄4⌄ +
5H⌄2⌄O blue → white - Water restores blue. Others: Gypsum CaSO⌄4⌄·2H⌄2⌄O - Plaster Paris CaSO⌄4⌄·½H⌄2⌄O made
heating gypsum hardens [Link] of Paris - CaSO₄·½H₂O: Common name POP - Production: Heat gypsum 373 K removes
water molecules. Uses: Construction decorative elements moulds casts - Medical broken bones sets hardens - Art craft moulded
shapes - Dental moulds impressions - Dead burnt plaster: heat > 200°C loses water anhydrous.

Ch-3:Metals: Elements forming positive ions by losing electrons - examples: Fe, Cu, Al, Ag, Au. Physical properties: lustrous,
generally hard, malleable, ductile, good conductors, high m.p./b.p., sonorous. Exceptions: Na, K soft; Ga, Cs melt near room temp;
Pb, Hg poor [Link]-metals: Elements gaining electrons or sharing to form negative ions - examples: S, P, O, C. Physical
properties: usually dull, soft, brittle, poor conductors, low m.p./b.p., not sonorous. Exceptions: I lustrous; graphite conducts;
diamond hardest with high m.p./b.p.; Br only liquid [Link] vs Non-metals: Metals mostly solid (except Hg), lustrous,
hard, malleable, ductile, good conductors, high m.p./b.p., sonorous. Non-metals solids/gases (Br liquid), usually dull, soft, brittle,
non-ductile, poor conductors, low m.p./b.p., not [Link] Series: Metals arranged in decreasing reactivity - more
reactive displace less reactive from their [Link] with Oxygen: Metal + O^2⌄ → Metal oxide (basic). Examples: 4K
+ O^2⌄ → 2K^2⌄O, 4Na + O^2⌄ → 2Na^2⌄O, 2Mg + O^2⌄ → 2MgO, 4Al + 3O^2⌄ → 2Al^2⌄O^3⌄, 2Zn + O^2⌄ → 2ZnO
(amphoteric), 3Fe + 4O^2⌄ → 2Fe^3⌄O^4⌄, 2Cu + O^2⌄ → 2CuO. Ag, Au no reaction even at high [Link]
Oxides: React with both acids and bases - e.g. Al^2⌄O^3⌄, ZnO, PbO etc. Reactions: Al^2⌄O^3⌄ + 6HCl → 2AlCl^3⌄ +
3H^2⌄O; Al^2⌄O^3⌄ + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO^2⌄ + H^2⌄[Link] with Water: Very reactive Na, K: 2Na + 2H^2⌄O → 2NaOH +
H^2⌄↑; 2K + 2H^2⌄O → 2KOH + H^2⌄↑ + heat (H^2⌄ catches fire). Ca: Ca + 2H^2⌄O → Ca(OH)^2⌄ + H^2⌄ (less violent,
Ca floats). Mg: Mg + 2H^2⌄O(hot) → Mg(OH)^2⌄ + H^2⌄ (no cold water reaction). Al, Fe, Zn react with steam: 2Al +
3H^2⌄O(steam) → Al^2⌄O^3⌄ + 3H^2⌄; 3Fe + 4H^2⌄O(steam) → Fe^3⌄O^4⌄ + 4H^2⌄; Zn + H^2⌄O(steam) → ZnO +
H^2⌄. Pb, Cu, Ag, Au no reaction with [Link] with Acids: Metal + dilute acid → Salt + H^2⌄. Examples: Mg + 2HCl →
MgCl^2⌄ + H^2⌄ (most vigorous); 2Al + 6HCl → 2AlCl^3⌄ + 3H^2⌄; Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl^2⌄ + H^2⌄; Fe + 2HCl → FeCl^2⌄ +
H^2⌄ (slow). Cu no reaction with dilute HCl. With HNO^3⌄ hydrogen not evolved (strong oxidising, converts H^2⌄ to H^2⌄O
and itself to N-oxides); very dilute HNO^3⌄ with Mg, Mn gives H^2⌄.Aqua Regia: Fresh 3:1 mixture conc. HCl:HNO^3⌄ - highly
corrosive, dissolves Au, Pt not dissolving in single acid; HCl gives Cl^-⌄, HNO^3⌄ oxidising agent. Used in purification/testing of
gold [Link] in Salt Solutions: More reactive metal displaces less reactive: Fe(s) + CuSO^4⌄(aq) →
FeSO^4⌄(aq) + Cu(s) (brown deposit on iron, blue fades). Cu wire in FeSO^4⌄ no [Link]-metals with Oxygen: Non-
metal + O^2⌄ → Non-metal oxide (generally acidic) e.g. C + O^2⌄ → CO^2⌄, S + O^2⌄ → SO^2⌄. Non-metal oxides acidic
(CO^2⌄, SO^2⌄, SO^3⌄) or neutral (CO, H^2⌄O, N^2⌄O). With water: CO^2⌄ + H^2⌄O → H^2⌄CO^3⌄, SO^3⌄ + H^2⌄O →
H^2⌄SO^4⌄, 2NO^2⌄ + H^2⌄O → HNO^2⌄ + HNO^3⌄.Ionic Bonding: Metals lose electrons → cations, non-metals gain →

Ch-4: Carbon: Non-metallic element symbol C - 15th most abundant, atomic number 6 (6 protons, 6 electrons), mass number 12,
electronic configuration 2,4 (4 valence electrons), valency 4, earth crust 0.02% minerals, atmosphere 0.03% CO₂.Importance of
Carbon: Forms millions of compounds due to versatile bonding, all living organisms carbon based, most materials food clothes
medicines fuels are carbon [Link] carbon does NOT form ionic bonds: Valence electrons 4 wanting stable configuration -
carbon gaining 4 electrons → C⁴⁻ unstable (10 electrons + 6 protons), carbon losing 4 electrons → C⁴⁺ requires huge energy and
unstable, so cannot form C⁴⁺ or C⁴⁻ ions, ionic bonding not [Link] bond: Chemical bond formed by mutual sharing of
electron pairs between atoms achieving stable noble gas configuration. Properties - physical state solid liquid gas, low melting
and boiling points weak molecular forces, poor electricity conductors no ions, solubility in organic solvents insoluble in water
except [Link] of covalent bond: Single bond C-C sharing one pair (Cl₂: Cl-Cl), double bond C=C sharing two pairs (O₂:
O=O), triple bond C≡C sharing three pairs (N₂: N≡N).Versatile nature of carbon - Catenation: Property of carbon forming
strong covalent C-C bonds with other carbon atoms creating long chains branched structures or rings, C-C bond very strong
stable, other elements like silicon show catenation only up to 7-8 atoms and [Link] of carbon: 4 valence
electrons forming 4 covalent bonds completing octet, bonds with other carbons, monovalent atoms H Cl Br, elements O N S
creating wide variety stable [Link] bonds with other elements: Carbon forms strong covalent bonds with H O N S
Cl - reason carbon atom small size nucleus holds shared electrons strongly, big atoms form weaker bonds so fewer stable

ethylene (H₂C=CH₂) ⇌ polymer polyethylene (H-C-C-C-C-H).Isomerism: Compounds with same molecular formula but different
[Link]: Process where small molecules monomers combine to form large molecules polymers - monomer

structures are isomers - example butane C₄H₁₀ (H-C-C-C-C-H) and iso-butane C₄H₁₀ (H-C(CH₃)-C-C-H).Allotropes of carbon:
Different physical forms same element atoms arranged differently giving different physical properties but same chemical
[Link]: Each carbon bonded to 4 other carbons - rigid 3D structure, hardest natural substance, no electricity
conduction no free electrons, synthetic by high pressure temperature pure carbon, used cutting glass rocks [Link]:
Each carbon bonded to 3 other carbons hexagonal plane - layers hexagonal sheets one above other, soft smooth slippery layers
slide each other, good electricity conductor free electrons, used pencil lead electrodes dry [Link] - C₆₀: Carbon
allotropes carbon atoms football spherical structure, named resembles geodesic dome architect Buckminster Fuller, used drug
delivery lubricants.Q. Why graphite conducts electricity and diamond does not: Graphite - each carbon bonded 3 others
leaving 1 free electron per carbon, free electrons delocalized move freely allowing conductivity. Diamond - each carbon bonded 4
others tetrahedral no free electrons no conductivity.Q. Diamond and graphite different structures and properties:
Diamond - C bonded 4 others tetrahedral rigid 3D hard non-conductive strong covalent bonds. Graphite - C bonded 3 others
hexagonal layers slide soft conductor delocalized [Link] of compounds: Carbon compounds - containing C, organic
compounds - containing C and H or N, hydrocarbon - only C and [Link] classification: Aliphatic - saturated single bond
alkanes, unsaturated double/triple bond alkenes alkynes; aromatic [Link]: Saturated single C-C bonds, general
formula CₙH₍₂ₙ₊₂₎, not very [Link]: Unsaturated one/more double C=C bonds, general formula CₙH₍₂ₙ₎, more
[Link]: Unsaturated one/more triple C≡C bonds, general formula CₙH₍₂ₙ₋₂₎.Saturated carbon compounds: All C-C
bonds single - not very [Link] carbon compounds: Double/triple C bonds - more reactive than
[Link] chain types: Straight chains - unbranched continuous, branched chains - main chain side branches, ring
cyclic - cyclohexane C₆H₁₂ saturated, benzene C₆H₆ [Link] prefixes: 1-meth, 2-eth, 3-prop, 4-but, 5-pent,
6-hex, 7-hept, [Link] table: Methane CH₄, ethane C₂H₆, propane C₃H₈, butane C₄H₁₀, pentane C₅H₁₂, hexane C₆H₁₄,
heptane C₇H₁₆.Alkenes table: Ethene C₂H₄, propene C₃H₆, but-1-ene C₄H₈, pent-1-ene C₅H₁₀, hex-1-ene C₆H₁₂, hept-1-ene C₇H₁₄,
oct-1-ene C₈H₁₆, non-1-ene C₉H₁₈, dec-1-ene C₁₀H₂₀.Alkynes table: Ethyne C₂H₂, propyne C₃H₄, but-1-yne C₄H₆, pent-1-yne C₅H₈,
hex-1-yne C₆H₁₀.IUPAC nomenclature: 1-identify longest chain base name, 2-functional groups priority modify suffix/prefix, 3-
vowel functional group drops final 'e' propane + ketone = propanone, 4-unsaturated 'ane' becomes 'ene' or 'yne'.Functional
groups: Heteroatom - atom replacing hydrogen defining chemical properties: Cl/Br halo -Cl -Br, oxygen alcohol -OH, aldehyde -
CHO, ketone -CO-, carboxylic acid -[Link]: Prefix chloro bromo - chloropropane bromopropane, chloroethane
bromoethane [Link]: Suffix -ol - propanol, butanol, [Link]: Suffix -al - propanal, [Link]:
Suffix -one - propanone, [Link] acids: Suffix -oic acid - propanoic [Link] hydrocarbons: 3-methyl
[Link] series: Group organic compounds same functional group similar chemical properties successive member
differs CH₂ [Link] homologous series: Same functional group similar chemistry - successive members differ CH₂
unit - general formula same - gradation physical properties - difference molecular mass successive 14 u (CH₂ mass).Isomers:
Same molecular formula different structural arrangements - butane C₄H₁₀ n-butane and isobutane - pentane C₅H₁₂ n-pentane
isopentane neopentane - common/IUPAC [Link] dot structures: Diagrams representing valence electrons dots around

[Link] reaction: Carbon allotropes burn oxygen → CO₂ + heat light, C + O₂ ⇌ CO₂ + heat, CH₄ + O₂ ⇌ CO₂ +
chemical symbol showing atom sharing or electron transfer - H atom, H₂ molecule shared electrons, O atoms, O₂

H₂O + heat, C₂H₅OH + O₂ ⇌ CO₂ + H₂O + [Link] combustion: Saturated hydrocarbons - clean blue flame complete
combustion no soot, unsaturated - yellow sooty flame black smoke incomplete combustion. Air supply matters - sufficient oxygen
clean blue flame, limited oxygen yellow smoky even [Link] candle flame: Due incomplete combustion - unburnt
carbon soot particles glow producing yellow [Link] reaction: Carbon compounds like alcohols gain oxygen or lose
hydrogen presence oxidizing agents alkaline KMnO₄ or acidified K₂Cr₂O₇, ethanol (C₂H₅OH) oxidizes to ethanoic acid (CH₃COOH)
alkaline KMnO₄ or K₂Cr₂O₇ + [Link] oxidation alcohols: Alkaline KMnO₄ added drop warm ethanol purple colour
disappears KMnO₄ used up oxidizing ethanol, after ethanol oxidized extra KMnO₄ keeps purple colour no reaction, shows KMnO₄

hydrogen → saturated hydrocarbons, requires catalysts palladium Pd or nickel Ni, C=C + H₂ ⇌^(Ni) C-C + [Link]
oxidizing agent adds oxygen converts carboxylic [Link] reaction: Unsaturated hydrocarbons double/triple bonds react

vegetable oils: Contain long unsaturated chains - hydrogen added nickel catalyst converts saturated fats vegetable

one fast reaction forming products, CH₄ + Cl₂ ⇌^(sunlight) CH₃Cl + [Link] C₂H₅OH: Liquid room temperature called
[Link] reaction: Saturated hydrocarbons fairly unreactive inert - sunlight chlorine added replacing hydrogen one by

alcohol active alcoholic drinks, excellent solvent tincture iodine cough syrups, miscible water soluble all proportions, dilute

[Link] ethanol (i) with sodium: 2C₂H₅OH + 2Na ⇌ 2C₂H₅ONa⁺ + H₂⇧, hydrogen evolved bubbles burning splinter
ethanol causes drunkenness, pure ethanol absolute alcohol poisonous lethal, long term consumption serious health

ethene: C₂H₅OH ⇌^(conc.H₂SO₄/hot) C₂H₄ + H₂O, H₂SO₄ dehydrating agent removes [Link] alcohols living beings:
'pop' [Link] ethanol (ii) unsaturated hydrocarbon: 443 K excess concentrated H₂SO₄ dehydration ethanol →

Large ethanol amounts slow metabolic processes depress central nervous system, methanol unlike ethanol poisonous small
amounts, liver oxidizes methanol → methanal formaldehyde reacts cell components coagulates protoplasm like egg white
cooking, ethanol important industrial solvent denatured adding methanol poisonous blue dye identifying denatured
[Link] acid CH₃COOH: Commonly acetic acid - carboxylic acid group COOH, colourless liquid sharp smell vinegar like,
melting point 290 K freezes cold climates glacial acetic acid, soluble water all proportions, weak acid partially ionised water, 5-8%

presence acid catalyst → ester water: CH₃COOH + C₂H₅OH ⇌^(acid) CH₃COOC₂H₅ + H₂O, esters sweet smelling perfumes
solution vinegar [Link] ethanoic acid (i) esterification: Chemical reaction carboxylic acid and alcohol

carboxylic acid used soap preparation: CH₃COOC₂H₅ + NaOH ⇌ C₂H₅OH + CH₃COONa (soap).Reactions ethanoic acid (iii) with
flavouring [Link] ethanoic acid (ii) saponification: Ester reacts base sodium hydroxide → alcohol sodium salt

base: CH₃COOH + NaOH ⇌ CH₃COONa + H₂O (ethanoic acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium ethanoate + water).Reactions
ethanoic acid (iv) carbonates hydrogencarbonates: 2CH₃COOH + Na₂CO₃ ⇌ 2CH₃COONa + H₂O + CO₂⇧, CH₃COOH +
NaHCO₃ ⇌ CH₃COONa + H₂O + CO₂⇧, lime water turns [Link]: Molecules sodium/potassium salts long chain carboxylic acids
- not effective hard water, relatively weak cleansing, [Link]: Sodium salts sulphonic acids or ammonium
salts Cl/Br - effective hard water, strong cleansing action, most [Link] vs soft water: Hard water - high
mineral content Mg Ca ions, soaps not effective, characteristic taste, example groundwater deep wells. Soft water - less minerals
sodium ions, soaps easily effective, salty taste, example [Link] soap: Sodium/potassium salts long chain
carboxylic acids - hydrophobic tail carbon chain dissolves oil grease, hydrophilic head ionic dissolves [Link] formation:
Process soap molecules arrange water hydrophobic tails cluster inward around oil/grease, hydrophilic heads face outward into
water forming spherical [Link] action soap: Soap molecules surround oil droplet - hydrophobic tails attach oil -
hydrophilic heads face water - spherical structure micelle forms - oil trapped inside - micelles emulsion water - dirt lifted washed
away rinsing.

CH-5:LIFE PROCESSES The basic and essential activities performed by a living organism to sustain and maintain life.
Nutrition,Respiration, Transportation,[Link] The process by which a living organism obtain and utilise food is called
Nutrition. Food gives us Energy growth and [Link] OF NUTRITION:Autotrophic It is a mode of nutrition in which
organisms prepare their own food using simple inorganic substances like carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight
and chlorophyll. Green plants algae blue green algae. Chemosynthesis A type of autotrophic nutrition in which organisms
prepares their own food by utilizing chemical energy. Purple sulfur bacteria. Photosynthesis A type of autotrophic nutrition in
which organisms prepares their own food by utilizing light energy. Green plants Cyanobacteria Algae Euglena. Heterotrophic It is a
mode of nutrition in which organisms depend on other organisms plants or animals for their food because they cannot prepare
their own food. All animals. They depend on autotrophs for their food supply either directly or indirectly. Holozoic Animals take in
solid food which is broken down inside the body. Saprophytic Organisms feed on dead and decaying matter. Parasite Parasites live
inside or outside another organism host and derive nutrition from it. Photosynthesis:Raw material for photosynthesis Sunlight
Chlorophyll CO2 and Water Site of photosynthesis: Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis which are green pigmented cell
organelles containing chlorophyll. Main events of photosynthesis Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll. Conversion of light
energy into chemical energy and splitting of water into hydrogen and oxygen. Reduction of CO2 to carbohydrates. Note Plants
store glucose in the form of starch while humans store glucose in the form of glycogen. STOMATA AND ITS FUNCTIONS Stomata
are the tiny pores present on the surface of the leaves. Functions of stomata Exchange of gases O2 CO2. Loses large amount of
water water vapour during transpiration. It opens when water enters i.e on swelling of guard cells. It closes when water leaves i.e
on shrinking of guard cells. Photosynthesis in desert plants Stomata open at night to take in CO2 to reduce water loss. Stomata
closed during the day to conserve water. CO2 taken at night is used for photosynthesis during the day. NUTRITION IN AMOEBA:1
Ingestion Amoeba surrounds the food particle using finger like projections called pseudopodia and forms a food vacuole. 2
Digestion Enzymes are secreted into the food vacuole breaking down the food into simpler soluble substances. 3 Absorption The
digested food is absorbed into the cytoplasm and used for energy growth and repair. 4 Assimilation The absorbed nutrients are
utilized in various life processes. 5 Egestion The undigested food is expelled out of the body by rupturing the cell membrane at
any point. NUTRITION IN PARAMECIUM Paramecium also follows holozoic nutrition but its method of ingestion differs due to its
structure. 1 Ingestion Paramecium uses cilia hair like structures to sweep food particles like bacteria through the oral groove into
the gullet where a food vacuole is formed. 2 Other steps (Digestion Absorption Assimilation Egestion) are similar to Amoeba and
occur inside the food vacuole. NUTRITION IN HUMANS 1 Alimentary canal A long muscular tube from mouth to anus. 2 Teeth
crush food forms uniform texture. Salivary glands secrete saliva. Contains enzyme salivary amylase breaks down starch into
sugars. Tongue mixes food with saliva and helps in swallowing. 3 Oesophagus Food pipe Connects mouth to stomach. No
digestion occurs here. Food is pushed down through peristalsis rhythmic contraction of muscles in the wall of the alimentary
canal. 5 Stomach Large muscular organ. Secretes gastric juice containing HCl creates acidic medium helps pepsin action kills
germs. Pepsin digests proteins. Mucus protects inner lining of stomach. Food stays in stomach for 3 to 4 hours. 6 Small intestine
Longest part about 7 meters in humans coiled. Site of complete digestion and absorption. Receives secretions from Liver(bile
juice):makes food alkaline and emulsifies fats. Pancreas(pancreatic juice):trypsin(proteins). Lipase(fats) pancreatic amylase:helps
in digestion of carbohydrates. Intestinal glands:secrete intestinal juice. Final breakdown of Proteins to amino acids. Carbohydrates
to glucose. Fats to fatty acids and glycerol. Absorption of food in small intestine:Villi are finger like projections in the inner wall of
the small intestine. They increase surface area for absorption. Rich blood supply helps transport absorbed nutrients to all body
cells. Nutrients are used for energy growth and repair of tissues. 7 Large intestine Absorbs water from undigested food. Prepares
waste for excretion. 8 Anus Egestion removal of undigested waste. Controlled by anal sphincter. Herbivores have a longer
digestive system because plant food contains hard to digest cellulose which requires more time for proper breakdown and
absorption. Breathing It is exchange of gases oxygen and carbon dioxide. Inhalation taking air inside the body. Exhalation

releasing air outside the body. Respiration Process by which organisms break down glucose in their cells to release energy in the
form of ATP used for various life processes. It is the process by which food is oxidized to release energy. For this oxygen is
required from outside of the body to breakdown the food. Glucose → pyruvate + energy → 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38 ATP. Breathing vs
respiration Breathing physical process no enzymes involved confined to certain organs no energy released energy is used
extracellular process intake of fresh air and removal of foul air. Respiration biochemical process large number of enzymes
involved occurs in all cells of body energy released as ATP intracellular process oxidation of food to form carbon dioxide water and
energy. Types of respiration Aerobic respiration takes place in presence of oxygen glucose completely broken down into carbon
dioxide and water more energy ATP released occurs in most plants and animals including humans. Anaerobic respiration takes
place in absence of oxygen glucose partially broken down into alcohol or lactic acid less energy released occurs in some
microorganisms such as yeast and in muscle cells during lack of oxygen. Types of anaerobic respiration 1 Alcoholic fermentation
Process of incomplete breakdown of sugar into ethanol and CO2 to release energy occurs mainly in yeast used to produce beer
wine etc. Glucose → pyruvate + energy → ethanol + CO2 + 2 ATP. 2 Lactic fermentation Process of incomplete breakdown of
sugar into lactic acid and energy in some bacteria and in our muscle cells. During intense exercise muscles rapidly convert
glucose to lactic acid for quick energy using up stored ATP lactic acid buildup causes fatigue and cramps. Passage of air through
respiratory system: Nostril air taken into body filtered by fine hairs and mucus. Nasal passage channel for airflow through nose
warms moistens filters air. Pharynx common passage for air and food ensures air passage does not collapse. Larynx upper part of
trachea contains vocal cords produces sound also allows air into trachea. Trachea tube connecting larynx to bronchi lined with
cartilage rings keeps airway open conducts air into lungs. Bronchi trachea splits into two bronchi left and right one for each lung
carry air into lungs. Bronchioles bronchi divide into narrower tubes bronchioles small air passages leading directly to alveoli no
cartilage rings can contract or expand to regulate airflow. Alveoli tiny balloon like air sacs at end of bronchioles thin walled moist
for easy gas diffusion surrounded by dense network of blood capillaries site of gas exchange in lungs each lung has millions
providing large surface area. Blood capillaries tiny blood vessels around each alveolus allow exchange of gases between blood
and alveolar air transport oxygen to body tissues and collect CO2 from them. Alveolus gas exchange Oxygen from alveolar air
diffuses into blood capillaries. Carbon dioxide from blood diffuses into alveolar space to be exhaled. This exchange occurs by
diffusion due to difference in concentration gradients. Hemoglobin iron containing protein in red blood cells responsible for red
colour of blood. Plays key role in transporting oxygen from lungs to body tissues. Affinity of hemoglobin for gases CO > O2 >
CO2. Breathing mechanism: inhalation ribs move up diaphragm flattens chest cavity increases air sucked into lungs. Exhalation

ribs move down diaphragm relaxes domes up chest cavity decreases air pushed out. Respiration in plants Gaseous exchange
occurs through 1,stomata in leaves [Link] in stems [Link] surface of roots. At night when photosynthesis stops CO2
elimination is main activity. During day CO2 from respiration is used in photosynthesis so no CO2 is released instead oxygen is
primary gas released. How do fishes breathe underwater Fishes use gills to absorb dissolved oxygen from water. Why do aquatic
organisms have faster breathing rates than terrestrial organisms Because water has less dissolved oxygen than air.
Transportation in living organisms refers to moving food water oxygen and other essential materials to different body parts and
removing waste products. Circulatory system [Link](fluid connective tissue) [Link] vessels(tubes) [Link](pumping organ).
Blood is a red coloured fluid connective tissue which circulates in our body. Its red colour is due to presence of respiratory
pigment haemoglobin in red blood cells RBCs. Deficiency of haemoglobin in body is called anaemia. Functions of blood:Transport
carries oxygen nutrients hormones waste. Oxygenation RBCs deliver oxygen to body cells. Defense WBCs fight infections and
destroy germs. Temperature regulation distributes heat to maintain body temperature. Clotting platelets help stop bleeding by
forming clots. COMPONENTS OF BLOOD → Blood cells, Plasma, Platelets. Red blood cells → contain haemoglobin to transport O₂
and CO₂, red in [Link] blood cells → provide immunity, produce antibodies against disease-causing [Link] → fluid
medium carrying nutrients, waste products, other substances (pale yellow).Platelets → help in blood clotting, prevent leaks,
maintain [Link] Vessels: Arteries – carry blood away from heart, oxygenated blood except pulmonary artery, high
pressure, thick elastic walls, valves absent, distribute blood from heart, carry O₂ and [Link] – carry blood towards heart,
deoxygenated blood except pulmonary vein, low pressure, thin walls, valves present, return blood to heart, carry CO₂ and
[Link] – connect arteries and veins, allow exchange of O₂ and CO₂ nutrients and waste, very thin one cell thick walls,
valves absent, carry blood between cells and [Link] Largest artery – aorta, only artery with deoxygenated blood –
pulmonary artery, largest vein – vena cava, only vein with oxygenated blood – pulmonary vein, valves in veins prevent backflow
and pooling of blood especially in legs. Human heart The heart is a muscular organ in the front of the chest that pumps blood all
through the body in a process called circulation. It has four chambers separated by septum which prevents mixing of pure and
impure blood. Chambers in heart To prevent mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood so that more oxygen is supplied to
body organs in a better [Link] humans blood passes through the heart twice during one complete circulation of the body this is
called double circulation. Two types of circulation: Pulmonary circulation blood flows from heart to lungs and back purpose to
oxygenate blood remove CO2 and take in O2. Systemic circulation blood flows from heart to rest of body and returns purpose to
supply oxygen and nutrients to body tissues and collect CO2. Importance keeps oxygen rich blood separate from oxygen poor
blood ensures efficient oxygen supply to body maintains high pressure in systemic circulation for proper [Link] vs
ventricle Atria upper chambers of heart walls thin receive blood from veins right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from body
left atrium receives oxygenated blood from lungs. Ventricles lower chambers walls thick and muscular pump blood into arteries
right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to body. Why four chambers in human
heart Prevents mixing of blood oxygenated and deoxygenated blood kept separate for efficient circulation. Ensures efficient
oxygen supply body gets pure oxygen rich blood helping in high energy production. Essential for warm blooded animals
humans need more energy to maintain constant body temperature so a four chambered heart is necessary. More chambers in
heart matter in evolution because they allow better separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. This increases oxygen
supply to cells improves respiration produces more ATP energy and helps warm blooded animals maintain constant body
temperature so circulation becomes more efficient and organisms survive better. Lymphatic system Lymph also called tissue
fluid is formed when plasma proteins and some blood cells escape through pores of capillary walls into intercellular spaces it is
similar to blood plasma but colourless and contains less protein. Lymph flows into lymphatic capillaries which join to form
larger lymph vessels these vessels finally open into larger veins reconnecting to bloodstream. Functions of lymph transports
digested and absorbed fats from intestine to blood drains excess fluid from tissues extracellular spaces back into blood lymph
contains lymphocytes that help defend body against infections. Transportation in plants: Xylem conducts water and minerals
from roots to leaves composed mainly of dead elements transport unidirectional only upwards four cell types tracheids vessels
xylem parenchyma xylem fibres. Phloem conducts food from leaves to all parts of plant composed mainly of living elements
transport bidirectional both upwards and downwards four cell types phloem fibres sieve tubes companion cells phloem
parenchyma. Transport of water and minerals by xylem Xylem tissues transport water and minerals from roots to leaves water
enters roots by osmosis and moves upward through xylem vessels this upward movement is ascent of sap movement mainly
due to root pressure and transpiration pull. Transport of food by phloem Phloem transports prepared food mainly sucrose from
leaves to other parts of plant both upward and downward this process is called translocation and requires energy ATP.
Transpiration loss of water as water vapour through stomata helps in pulling water upwards transpiration pull cooling the plant
and maintaining flow of water and minerals. Excretion is the biological process of removing harmful metabolic wastes like urea
and uric acid from the body. The human excretory system includes 2 kidneys filter nitrogenous waste from blood to form urine,
2 ureters carry urine from kidneys to bladder, urinary bladder stores urine temporarily, urethra releases urine out of the body.
Nephrons Structural and functional unit of kidney excretory system millions in each kidney. Glomerular filtration blood enters
kidneys in nephrons nitrogenous wastes glucose water amino acids and excess salts are filtered into Bowman’s capsule.
Selective reabsorption as filtrate moves through nephron useful substances glucose amino acids salts and much water are
reabsorbed into blood by surrounding capillaries. Tubular secretion urea extra water and excess salts are secreted into tubule
then into collecting duct urine flows from collecting ducts into ureters. Formation of urine After filtration and reabsorption
remaining fluid is urine containing waste products and extra water. Transport urine travels from kidneys through ureters to
urinary bladder. Storage urine stored in urinary bladder until full. Excretion when bladder is full nervous system creates urge
to urinate and urine is released through urethra out of body. HEMODIALYSIS Hemodialysis is a medical treatment used to filter

and clean the blood of people with kidney failure. Excretion in plants Plants use different strategies for excretion of different
products. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are diffused through stomata. Excess water is removed by transpiration. Plants can lose
old parts like old leaves and bark. Other waste products like resins and gums especially in old xylem cells can also be lost by
plant. Plants also secrete some waste substances into surrounding soil.

Ch-6:CONTROL & COORDINATION: Coordination working together of various organs of an organism to adjust activities of
life, ensures correct movement for each stimulus and no unnecessary [Link] IN ANIMALS: Nervous system
associated with neurons, endocrine system associated with [Link] IN PLANTS: Plant movements, plant
[Link]: Cells or groups of cells in sense organs that detect stimuli and convert them into nerve impulses
photoreceptors eye retina vision, phonoreceptors inner ear hearing, thermoreceptors skin temperature, olfactory receptors
nose smell, gustatory receptors tongue [Link]: Any change in internal or external environment that produces a
response e.g. light sound smell touch [Link]: Muscles and glands that respond to nerve impulses and
produce [Link]: Reaction of organism to a stimulus e.g. moving hand from hot [Link]: Basic structural
and functional unit of nervous system, specialised cell transmitting information as electrical impulses, receives signals from
sense organs, processes them, sends responses to [Link] OF NEURON: Cell body or cyton with nucleus controls
functions, dendrites receive information, axon long fibre carrying impulse to axon terminal, axon terminal releases chemicals
to next cell, myelin sheath fatty insulating layer speeding [Link]: Gap between axon terminal of one neuron and
dendrite of next where electrical impulse becomes chemical then again electrical in next cell. NERVE IMPULSE: Electrical
signal generated at receptor, travels dendrite → cell body → axon → axon terminal → synapse → next neuron or muscle or
[Link] NEURONS WORK: Stimulus at receptor causes chemical change at dendritic tip, generates electrical impulse,
travels along neuron, at terminal causes neurotransmitter release, chemicals cross synapse and start new impulse in next
[Link] JUNCTION: Point where nerve ending meets muscle so nerve message makes muscle
[Link]: Chemical messengers from axon terminals that carry impulse across synapse and start new
impulse in next neuron muscle or [Link] OF NEURON: Sensory neurons carry messages from sense organs to brain or
spinal cord, interneurons connect sensory and motor neurons in brain and spinal cord, motor neurons carry messages from
brain or spinal cord to muscles or [Link] ACTION: Under our will, thinking and brain involved e.g. walking
writing [Link] ACTION: Not under will, thinking not involved, controlled by brain e.g. heartbeat peristalsis
vessel [Link] ACTION: Sudden automatic involuntary response to stimulus without conscious thought e.g.
withdrawing hand from flame, jumping from bus, mouth [Link] ARC: Pathway for reflex action stimulus → receptor
→ sensory neuron → spinal cord → motor neuron → effector [Link] OF REFLEX ACTION: Gives immediate
automatic response, protects from injury, saves time by avoiding brain thinking, helps survival in emergencies. EVOLUTION
OF REFLEX ARCS: Developed to provide rapid automatic responses, mainly in spinal cord skipping detailed brain processing,
give survival [Link]: Main coordinating centre inside skull, protected by meninges and cerebrospinal [Link]
OF BRAIN: Forebrain midbrain [Link]: Cerebrum thalamus hypothalamus, controls intelligence memory
learning emotions voluntary actions, thalamus relays sensory signals, hypothalamus controls hunger thirst sleep temperature
emotions [Link] CALLOSUM: Thick nerve band connecting left and right cerebral hemispheres enabling
[Link]: Connects forebrain and hindbrain, controls some involuntary actions, reflex movements of eyes
head neck to light and sound, keeps body [Link]: Cerebellum pons medulla, cerebellum controls balance posture
coordination, pons relays signals and helps breathing, medulla controls involuntary actions heartbeat breathing BP vomiting
[Link] OF BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD: Brain protected by skull meninges CSF, spinal cord protected by
vertebral column meninges CSF [Link]: Special organs making and releasing hormones enzymes sweat saliva
[Link] GLANDS: Have ducts, pour secretions like enzymes sweat saliva to specific organ or [Link]
GLANDS: Ductless, release hormones directly into blood to act on distant target [Link]: Chemical messengers
from endocrine glands carried by blood to target organs, provide control and coordination with nervous system. PITUITARY
GLAND: Below brain, secretes growth hormone and others, growth hormone controls growth of bones and muscles, deficiency
causes dwarfism, excess causes [Link] GLAND: Around windpipe in neck, produces thyroxine with iodine,
controls metabolism of carbohydrates fats proteins, iodine deficiency causes goitre swelling of neck. PARATHYROID GLAND:
Four small glands in thyroid, secrete parathormone regulating blood calcium and [Link] GLAND: In lower neck
upper chest, secretes thymus hormone for immune system development, large in children shrinks after puberty. PANCREAS:
Below stomach, exocrine part secretes digestive enzymes, endocrine part secretes insulin and glucagon, insulin lowers blood
sugar its deficiency causes diabetes, glucagon raises blood [Link] GLANDS: On top of kidneys, secrete adrenaline,
regulate heart rate breathing BP carbohydrate metabolism, in stress or fear secretion rises preparing body for “fight or
flight”.ROLE OF ADRENALINE IN EMERGENCY: Increases heartbeat and breathing, diverts blood to muscles, prepares body
to fight or run [Link]: Male glands producing testosterone and sperms, testosterone develops male sex organs and
secondary characters like deep voice beard body hair at [Link]: Female glands producing oestrogen and
progesterone, oestrogen develops female organs and characters like soft skin breasts, progesterone prepares uterus and
maintains [Link] IMBALANCE: Excess or deficiency of hormones harms body e.g. low insulin causes
diabetes, excess insulin may cause [Link] MECHANISM: System that regulates timing and amount of hormone
release e.g. high blood sugar stimulates more insulin, when level normal insulin secretion decreases. HORMONE SUMMARY:
Growth hormone pituitary growth of bones muscles, thyroxine thyroid metabolism, parathormone parathyroid Ca and
phosphate, thymus hormone immune system, insulin pancreas lowers sugar, glucagon pancreas raises sugar, adrenaline
adrenal emergency response, testosterone testes male characters, oestrogen ovaries female characters. CHEMICAL VS
ELECTRICAL COMMUNICATION: Electrical impulses travel only along neurons and are short lived with recovery time,
hormones travel in blood to whole body, act longer and only on target [Link] IN PLANTS VS ANIMALS:
Both use chemical signals and shape change of cells, animals have nerves and muscles with movement by muscle proteins,
plants lack these and move by water changes in [Link] IN PLANTS: Nastic and tropic [Link]
MOVEMENT: Directional growth response to stimulus, positive towards, negative away, includes phototropism geotropism
chemotropism hydrotropism [Link]: Movement in response to light, stems show positive bending
towards light, roots show negative away from [Link]: Response to gravity, roots positive towards gravity, stems
negative against [Link]: Response to chemicals e.g. pollen tube growing towards [Link]:
Response to water, roots grow towards [Link]: Response to touch, tendrils of climbers grow towards
support they [Link] MOVEMENT: Non directional movement to stimuli like touch or light, independent of growth, e.g.
thigmonasty in Mimosa leaves folding, photonasty in flowers opening or closing with light. TROPISM VS NASTY MOVEMENT:
Tropic unidirectional growth dependent permanent slow, nastic non directional growth independent reversible fast. PLANT
HORMONES: Auxin gibberellins cytokinins abscisic acid [Link]: Promotes cell elongation in shoots, controls
phototropism and geotropism, moves to shady side causing bending to light, helps fruit development. GIBBERELLINS:
Promote stem elongation, help seed germination and flowering and fruit [Link]: Promote cell division,
high in fruits and [Link] ACID: Inhibits growth, causes wilting and dormancy, stress hormone closing stomata
during water [Link]: Stimulates fruit ripening, promotes leaf fall and ageing.

Ch-7: REPRODUCTION: Reproduction is the biological process by which living organisms produce new individuals of their own
kind, ensuring continuation of their species, gives continuity of species, transfer of characters, population growth, variations
and survival in changing [Link] TERMS: DNA deoxyribonucleic acid double helical molecule in nucleus
carrying hereditary information, chromatin thread like DNA protein complex in non dividing cells, chromosomes condensed rod
shaped chromatin during cell division carrying [Link] REPLICATION: DNA acts as blueprint for body design, cell copies
DNA, forms two identical strands, new structures form, DNA copies separate, parent cell divides into daughter cells each with
one copy, new cells similar but with small variations which form basis of [Link]: Differences in traits among
individuals of same species due to genetic changes, important for adaptation and evolution; useful variations help survival
and are passed on, forming new species and helping populations like bacteria survive environmental changes. TYPES OF
REPRODUCTION: Asexual reproduction involves one parent no gametes offspring identical clones simple and fast; sexual
reproduction involves two parents fusion of gametes offspring show variations complex and slower. FISSION: In unicellular
organisms parent cell divides into new individuals; in binary fission parent divides into two daughter cells nucleus then
cytoplasm divide each daughter gets DNA e.g. Amoeba Paramecium Euglena, planes may be irregular longitudinal transverse
or [Link] FISSION: Single parent cell divides into many daughter cells after repeated nuclear division and
cytoplasm division often inside cyst e.g. Plasmodium in [Link]: Mature body breaks into two or more
fragments each growing into new individual under favourable conditions e.g. Spirogyra, not possible in complex multicellular
organisms with organised tissues and [Link]: Fully differentiated organisms like Hydra Planaria regrow
whole body from parts using specialised cells that proliferate form mass then differentiate in organised
[Link]: Small outgrowth bud forms on parent Hydra or yeast by cell division, grows, may form chains, then
detaches to form new [Link] FORMATION: In Rhizopus bread mould sporangia on hyphae produce thick walled
spores that survive harsh conditions and germinate on moist surface, spore formation better than other asexual methods
because spores are protected numerous light and widely [Link] PROPAGATION: Asexual reproduction where
roots stems or leaves form new plants; natural methods include underground stems potatoes, tuberous roots sweet potato
dahlia, leaf buds Bryophyllum; artificial methods include cutting rose hibiscus, grafting mango apple, layering jasmine, tissue
culture for many plants [Link] OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION: Quick cheap many plants, clones preserving
desired characters, high survival, disease free plants, useful for plants with poor seeds; disadvantages no genetic variation,
diseases transmitted, limited to some [Link] OF ASEXUAL METHODS: Binary fission Amoeba Leishmania,
multiple fission Plasmodium, fragmentation Spirogyra, regeneration Hydra Planaria, budding Hydra yeast, spore formation
Rhizopus, vegetative propagation potato Bryophyllum sweet [Link] REPRODUCTION: Two parents male and female
produce offspring, gives variation better adaptability evolution and survival of [Link] REPRODUCTION IN
FLOWERING PLANTS: Male gamete pollen and female gamete egg fuse in ovule after pollination, ovule becomes seed ovary
fruit; flowers may be unisexual with stamen or pistil only papaya watermelon or bisexual with both hibiscus mustard. PARTS
OF FLOWER: Sepals protect bud, petals attract pollinators, anther makes pollen, filament supports anther, stigma receives
pollen, style tube for pollen tube, ovary contains ovules becomes fruit, ovule has egg forms seed. POLLINATION: Transfer of
pollen from anther to stigma by abiotic agents wind water or biotic agents insects birds bats; stamen male organ pistil female
[Link] OF POLLINATION: Self pollination within same flower giving little variation, cross pollination between flowers of
same species using agents giving more [Link]: After pollination pollen germinates forms pollen tube
through style, male gamete travels to ovule fuses with egg forming [Link] FERTILIZATION: Zygote develops embryo,
ovule becomes seed, ovary becomes fruit, other floral parts usually [Link] VS FERTILIZATION: Pollination is
physical transfer of pollen occurs before fertilization may be self or cross; fertilization is fusion of gametes in ovule after
pollination forming zygote seed [Link] GERMINATION: Seed coat protects, cotyledons store food, embryo with radicle
root and plumule shoot grows into seedling under suitable [Link]: Period when reproductive organs mature and
individual becomes sexually capable, around 11–12 in girls 13–14 in boys with body hair voice change breast development
menstruation [Link] AND FEMALE GERMCELLS: Sperms small motile produced in testes continuously, ova large non
motile one released monthly from [Link] REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: Testes in scrotum make sperms and testosterone,
scrotum keeps them cooler, vas deferens carries sperms, seminal vesicles and prostate add fluids to form semen, urethra and
penis transport and deposit [Link] GLANDS: Seminal vesicles give nutrient fluid, prostate adds milky fluid
increasing mobility, together with sperms form semen; testes in scrotum outside body to keep lower temperature for
[Link] REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: Ovaries produce ova and hormones estrogen progesterone; ovulation
monthly release of ovum; fallopian tubes carry egg and are site of fertilization; uterus womb receives embryo; cervix connects
uterus to vagina; vagina receives sperms and acts as birth [Link] OF REPRODUCTION IN FEMALES: During
copulation sperms deposited, one sperm fertilizes egg in oviduct, zygote moves to uterus, implants, forms embryo then
[Link]: Zygote divides to morula blastocyst then attaches to uterine lining around day 8–9 to
[Link]: Tissue connection between embryo and uterine wall with villi and maternal blood spaces, allows
nutrients and oxygen from mother to embryo and wastes and CO₂ back, life support system. MENSTRUATION: If fertilization
does not occur thick uterine lining with blood breaks and is expelled as blood and mucus through vagina for 2–8 days each
[Link]: First menstruation at about 11–12 years marking start of reproductive [Link]: Natural
stoppage of menstruation around 50 years marking end of reproductive [Link] HEALTH: Overall well being in
reproductive aspects including safe practices awareness and disease prevention; STDs like gonorrhea syphilis HIV AIDS spread
mainly by sexual [Link]: Methods preventing pregnancy by blocking meeting of sperm and egg or
preventing fertilization or implantation, include mechanical barrier methods condoms diaphragms, chemical methods pills that
alter ovulation mucus or uterus, IUCDs like copper T loops in uterus, and surgical methods vasectomy in males tubectomy in
females; barrier methods also reduce spread of STDs.

Ch-8: Variation: In corn field plants show little variation, in sexually reproducing animals including humans variations among
individuals are large, variations more in sexual and less in asexual [Link]: Transfer of characters from parents
to [Link]: Process by which characters pass from one generation to [Link]: Characteristic features of
an organism in visible physical form or physiological [Link]: Units of heredity transferring characteristics from parents
to offspring, functional units of DNA that define our characteristics and cause variations like attached or free earlobes. Allele:
One of different forms of a gene occupying same position on [Link] Mendel chose pea plant: Pea plants have
easily identifiable traits like tall or short, grow quickly, and can self pollinate or be cross pollinated so crosses can be
[Link] important terms: Chromosomes thread like structures in nucleus carrying genes, gene functional unit of
heredity on chromosomes coding for protein, allele different form of gene e.g. T for tall t for dwarf, phenotype observable
appearance like tall plant round seeds, genotype genetic code like TT tt Tt, homozygous same alleles TT, heterozygous
different alleles [Link] and ploidy: F1 generation from cross fertilisation, F2 from selfing F1, haploid cells n single
set chromosomes, diploid 2n two sets all human cells diploid except sperm and [Link] Mendel did: Crossed pea plants
with contrasting characters like tall and short, round and wrinkled, noted progeny [Link] cross: Inheritance of
one character, phenotypic ratio 3 tall :1 dwarf, genotypic ratio 1 TT :2 Tt :1 [Link] cross: Inheritance of two contrasting
pairs simultaneously, F2 phenotypic ratio [Link].Law of Dominance: Each character controlled by pair of genes, in
heterozygous state one dominant allele masks recessive; hybrids show only dominant trait in phenotype e.g. TT and Tt tall, tt
short, T dominant t [Link] of Segregation: Organism has two alleles for each gene but during gamete formation only
one allele passes into each [Link] of Independent Assortment: Assortment of each pair of traits is independent of
others; during gamete formation one pair of traits segregates independently of another so allele received for one gene does
not influence allele for [Link] traits get expressed: DNA provides information to make proteins, a gene is DNA
segment for one protein; height depends on growth hormone controlled by gene, efficient gene secretes more hormone tall
plant, altered gene less hormone short [Link] of parents: Both parents contribute equally to DNA of next
generation each giving one copy of gene e.g. tall plant crossed with short gives gametes with T or t so F1 has one tallness
gene and one shortness [Link] determination: Process by which sex of individual is decided based on genetic
[Link] and sex determination in humans: Humans have 22 pairs autosomes and 1 pair sex
chromosomes, male XY female XX; autosomes not mainly involved in sex, sex chromosomes decide sex and related traits. Role
of parents in sex of child: All children get X chromosome from mother, father contributes either X or Y so father’s gamete
decides whether child is girl XX or boy XY.

Ch-9: Light: Form of energy that enables vision, travels in straight lines rectilinear propagation, speed in vacuum 3×10^8 ⌄

line at point of incidence, laws: ∠i = ∠r and incident ray, reflected ray, normal lie in same [Link] mirror image: Virtual,
m/[Link]: Bouncing back of light from surface, incident ray falls on surface, reflected ray leaves, normal perpendicular

erect, laterally inverted, same size as object, image distance = object distance, focal length ∞. Lateral inversion: Left-right
reversal in plane mirror, right hand appears as left in [Link] mirror image rules (object positions): At ∞ → image
at F highly diminished real inverted; beyond C → between F and C diminished real inverted; at C → at C same size real
inverted; between C and F → beyond C enlarged real inverted; at F → at ∞; between P and F → behind mirror enlarged virtual
[Link] mirror uses: Shaving/makeup mirrors magnified erect close objects, dentist mirrors, solar furnaces focus
sunlight, headlights/torches/searchlights bulb at focus gives parallel [Link] mirror image: Object at ∞ → image at F
behind mirror highly diminished virtual erect; between ∞ and P → image between P and F behind mirror diminished virtual
[Link] mirror uses: Rear-view mirrors vehicles wide field virtual erect diminished image, security/surveillance mirrors
in shops, [Link] vs convex mirror: Concave forms real/inverted or virtual/erect, image size
diminished/same/enlarged, special case enlarged virtual when object between P and F; convex always virtual erect diminished,
no special [Link] sign convention: Object on left, distances from pole along principal axis, direction of incident light
taken positive, distances opposite negative, heights above axis positive below negative; for mirrors u always negative, f
concave negative, f convex [Link] formula: 1/v + 1/u = 1/f; magnification m = h' / h = -v/u, m>1 enlarged, 0<m<1
diminished, m negative real inverted, m positive virtual [Link]: Bending of light when it passes one medium to
another due speed change, air→water (rarer→denser) ray bends towards normal, water→air denser→rarer bends
[Link] terms: Incident ray in first medium, refracted ray in second, normal perpendicular at interface;
rarer→denser towards normal, denser→rarer [Link] of refraction (Snell): Incident ray, refracted ray, normal lie in same
plane; sin i / sin r = constant (for given pair media).Glass slab refraction: Ray bends towards normal entering glass, away
on leaving, emergent ray parallel to incident, angle of incidence = angle of emergence, lateral displacement is perpendicular
distance between emergent and incident [Link] index n: Measure of bending, n = c / v = speed of light in vacuum /
speed in medium, absolute when first medium vacuum/air; relative n₂₁ = v₁ / v₂ = 1 / n₁₂. Spherical lens: Transparent material
with spherical surfaces, types: convex thicker middle converging, concave thinner middle diverging. Lens terms: Principal axis
central line, aperture effective diameter, optical centre O point ray passes undeviated, centres of curvature C₁,C₂, radii R₁,R₂;
principal foci F₁,F₂ where parallel rays converge (convex) or appear to diverge (concave); focal length f = distance O–F, radius
R = [Link] rules (both lenses): Rule1: Ray parallel principal axis → passes through F₂ (convex) or appears from F₁ (concave).
Rule2: Ray through F₁ (convex) or towards F₂ (concave) → emerges parallel axis. Rule3: Ray through optical centre O →
[Link] lens image formation: Object at ∞ → image at F₂ highly diminished real inverted; beyond 2F₁ →
between F₂ and 2F₂ diminished real inverted; at 2F₁ → at 2F₂ same size real inverted; between F₁ and 2F₁ → beyond 2F₂
enlarged real inverted; at F₁ → at ∞; between F₁ and O → same side enlarged virtual erect (magnifier). Convex lens uses:
Magnifying glass object between O and F₁, spectacles for hypermetropia, components of microscopes and telescopes. Concave
lens image formation: Object at ∞ → image at F₁ highly diminished virtual erect; between ∞ and O → between F₁ and O
diminished virtual erect (always virtual erect diminished).Concave lens uses: Spectacles for myopia, optical instruments like
peepholes binoculars, beam expanders/laser devices to diverge [Link] sign convention: Distances from O, direction of
incident light positive, opposite negative, heights above axis positive below negative; f convex positive, f concave
[Link] formula: 1/v - 1/u = 1/f (using sign convention). Magnification m = h' / h = v / u; m>1 enlarged, 0<m<1
diminished, m=1 equal size, m negative real inverted, m positive virtual [Link] of lens: P = 1/f (f in metres) unit
dioptre D; convex lens P positive, concave P negative; for lenses in contact P_total = P₁ + P₂ + P

Ch-10: Human eye: Highly sensitive sense organ enabling vision and colour perception, eyes in front give wider field and 3D
[Link] parts: Cornea transparent curved front surface major refraction, iris coloured diaphragm controlling pupil, pupil
opening regulating light, crystalline lens adjusts focal length, retina light-sensitive layer with rods (dim, B/W) and cones (bright,
colour), sclera tough white coat, aqueous humour fluid between cornea and lens, vitreous humour gel between lens and retina,
optic nerve carries signals, blind spot exit of optic nerve no [Link] formation: Light enters cornea → refracted aqueous
humour pupil lens → lens changes focal length via ciliary muscles → real inverted image on retina → rods/cones convert to
electrical signals → optic nerve → brain interprets [Link]: Ability of lens to change focal length for near/far
objects; far object: ciliary muscles relax lens thin focal length ↑ power ↓; near object: muscles contract lens thick focal length ↓
power ↑; normal clear vision range 25 cm to ∞.Near point: Least distance of distinct vision ≈25 cm normal eye - below this lens
cannot shorten focal length so image blurred, eye [Link] point: Farthest clear distance at ∞ for normal eye - objects clear
between 25 cm and ∞.Myopia (near-sightedness): Near objects clear, distant blurred as image of distant object forms in front
of retina, far point < ∞; causes: excessive lens curvature or elongated eyeball; corrected by concave lens diverging rays so focus
shifts back on [Link] (far-sightedness): Distant clear, near blurred as image of near object behind retina, near
point >25 cm; causes: lens focal length too long or eyeball too short; corrected by convex lens converging rays onto
[Link]: Age-related loss of accommodation near point recedes, often with hypermetropia due weak ciliary muscles
and less flexible lens; corrected by bifocal lenses (upper concave for distance, lower convex for near), contacts or
[Link]: Blurred/distorted vision all distances due uneven curvature cornea/lens; corrected using cylindrical
[Link]: Crystalline lens becomes cloudy/milky due membrane growth, common in older adults, causes partial/complete
vision loss; treated by cataract surgery lens [Link]: Transparent refracting medium with two triangular bases and
three rectangular faces; angle between lateral faces angle of prism A; angle between incident and emergent ray deviation D;
refraction: air→glass bends towards normal, glass→air bends [Link]: Splitting of white light into colours on passing
through prism; produces VIBGYOR spectrum; occurs because prism faces non-parallel so different colours deviate

wavelength fastest least deviated, violet shortest slowest most deviated; λ ∝ v ∝ 1/[Link] spectrum:
[Link] of dispersion: In media other than air/vacuum, different colours travel with different speeds; red longest

Visible light 400–700 nm, violet ≈400 nm, red ≈700 nm, lies between infrared and [Link]’s prism experiment:
Sunlight through prism gives spectrum, second inverted prism recombines colours into white proving white light mixture of seven
[Link]: Natural dispersion by raindrops acting like prisms - sunlight refracted entering drop, dispersed into colours,
internally reflected, refracted out again, observer receives different colours forming bow opposite to [Link]
refraction: Bending of light through atmosphere due varying density and refractive index with [Link] star position:
Continuous refraction towards normal makes star appear higher than actual, more near [Link] of stars: Changing
atmospheric conditions change refractive index irregularly, light path and brightness fluctuate; stars point sources so brightness
variation seen as [Link] don’t twinkle: Closer, seen as extended sources many point sources combined, individual
variations average out so brightness [Link] sunrise & delayed sunset: Due to atmospheric refraction Sun visible

directions by particles; very fine particles scatter blue more, larger particles scatter longer wavelengths, shorter wavelength ⇒
≈2 min before true sunrise and ≈2 min after true sunset as rays bent towards [Link] of light: Diffuse reflection all

greater [Link] effect: Visibility of light path in colloids/atmosphere when beam scattered by fine particles (dust,
smoke, droplets), seen in forest canopy or projector [Link] sky: Molecules scatter short wavelength blue strongly so
scattered blue reaches eyes; without atmosphere no scattering sky dark; red used for danger signals because least scattered long
wavelength visible far through fog/[Link] colour sunrise/sunset: Sun’s light travels longer atmospheric path, blue/violet
mostly scattered away leaving dominant red/orange so Sun appears reddish near horizon.

Ch-11: Electric charge: Fundamental property of matter, two types + and −, like charges repel unlike attract, SI unit coulomb C;
properties: additivity, conservation, quantisation Q = n e (e = 1.6×10^-19⌄ C, n integer).Electric current: Rate of flow of
charge I = Q / t, SI unit ampere A (1 A = 1 C s^-1⌄); conventional current taken + to −, actual electron flow − to +; smaller units:
1 mA = 10^-3⌄ A, 1 μA = 10^-6⌄ [Link] difference: Work done per unit charge V = W / Q, unit volt V (1 V = 1 J C^-1⌄); 1
volt means 1 J work to move 1 C charge between two points; battery creates PD causing current when circuit [Link]
circuit: Consists of source (cell/battery), key/switch, wires, components (resistor, bulb, ammeter, voltmeter) drawn with standard
[Link]: Measures current, connected in series, unit A, symbol circle with A. Voltmeter: measures potential difference,
connected in parallel across component, unit V, symbol circle with [Link] R: Opposition to current, unit ohm Ω, R = V / I; 1

At constant temperature V ∝ I, V = I R; ohmic conductor has linear V–I graph through origin, slope = [Link] affecting R: R ∝ L
Ω when 1 V across conductor gives 1 A current; rheostat variable resistor to control current without changing [Link]’s law:

(length), R ∝ 1/A (area), R increases with temperature for metals, depends on material (resistivity).Resistivity ρ: R = ρ L / A, ρ =
R A / L, unit Ω m; depends only on material and temperature, not on L or A; tungsten high melting filament, Cu/Al low ρ for
[Link] vs resistivity: R opposition of given piece depends on L and A, ρ property of material for unit L and
[Link] combination of resistors: Same current, total voltage V = V₁+V₂+..., equivalent resistance R_s = R₁+R₂+R₃+...; V/I
increases so R [Link] combination: Same voltage across each branch, total current I = I₁+I₂+..., 1/R_p = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ +

[Link]’s law of heating: Heat produced H in resistor H = V I t, using V = I R gives H = I^2⌄ R t; so H ∝ I^2⌄, H ∝ R, H ∝
1/R₃ + ...; more branches → lower R_p; advantages: each device independent, all get same voltage, easy to add, total R

[Link] heating effect: Electric bulb: thick tungsten filament (~3380°C) in vacuum/inert gas (argon/nitrogen). Electric
heater: nichrome wire element (Ni–Cr alloy) high ρ, high melting, doesn’t oxidise quickly. Fuse: thin Pb–Sn alloy wire low melting
point, in series; excess current melts fuse breaking circuit to protect [Link] power P: Rate of electrical
work/energy P = W / t = V I = I^2⌄ R = V^2⌄ / R, unit watt W (1 W = 1 J s^-1⌄); practical unit kilowatt kW (1 kW = 1000
W).Electric energy E: Total work/energy consumed E = P t, unit watt-hour (Wh); commercial unit kilowatt-hour kWh (one ‘unit’
of electricity) with 1 kWh = 3.6×10^6⌄ J.

Ch-12: Magnet: Material attracting iron, nickel, cobalt and creating magnetic field region; has north (N) and south (S) poles, like
poles repel unlike attract; freely suspended bar magnet aligns N–S due Earth’s [Link] field & lines: Magnetic field
region where magnetic force felt; field lines imaginary curves showing direction north-pole of compass moves, outside magnet
N→S, inside S→N; closer lines = stronger field, never [Link] & filings: Magnetic compass small pivoted magnet
pointing along local field; iron filings around bar magnet arrange in curved pattern mapping field lines; between unlike poles lines
join (attraction), between like poles lines bulge and avoid region (repulsion).Oersted experiment: Current in straight conductor

∝ current I, ∝1/distance r, direction depends on current direction; Maxwell right-hand thumb rule: thumb along current, curled
deflects nearby compass needle, showing electric current produces magnetic [Link] around straight conductor: Strength

fingers give direction of field [Link] of circular loop & solenoid: Loop gives concentric circles at each turn, inside nearly

depends on current direction; strength ∝ number of turns per unit length, ∝ current, increased by soft-iron [Link]:
parallel lines stronger at centre; solenoid long coil of many turns, field like bar magnet with uniform strong field inside; polarity

Soft-iron core inside current-carrying solenoid, produces strong temporary magnet; advantages over permanent: stronger,
controllable (by I and turns), can be switched on/off, poles reversible by reversing current; uses in bells, cranes, relays, motors,
MRI [Link] vs permanent magnet: Electromagnet exists only when current flows, variable strength, temporary,
reversible polarity; permanent magnet always magnetised, fixed strength/polarity, no current needed; examples: electromagnet
in crane, permanent magnet in compass/[Link] on current-carrying conductor: Conductor in magnetic field experiences
force perpendicular to both field and current (Ampere’s observation); magnitude F = B I L sinθ (max at 90°, zero when
parallel).Fleming left-hand rule: Stretch thumb, forefinger, middle finger mutually perpendicular; forefinger along magnetic
field (B), middle finger along current (I), thumb gives direction of motion/force on conductor; principle used in electric
[Link] electric circuit: Power from mains via live (phase, red) and neutral (black) wires ~220 V in India; through
board fuse and meter then main switch and distribution box; house wiring in parallel so each appliance gets 220 V and works
independently; separate 5 A circuits (low power) and 15 A circuits (high power).Three wires: Live carries current to house,
neutral returns, earth wire (green) connected to metal plate in ground and to appliance body provides low-resistance path for
leakage so body at earth potential preventing [Link]: Safety device in series, thin high-resistance low-melting alloy wire
(Pb–Sn or Cu–Sn); excessive current (overload/short circuit) heats wire (H = I^2⌄ R t) and melts it breaking circuit; ratings like 5 A
for low-power, 15 A for [Link]: Metal bodies of appliances connected to earth wire; leakage current flows to ground
instead of through person; prevents shock and damage; similar principle in lightning [Link] & short-circuit:
Overloading when too many devices or voltage surge reduces effective R so current high, may cause heating/fire; short-circuit
when live and neutral touch directly (insulation damage), R ≈ 0 so current shoots up, sparks, fire risk; fuse and MCBs [Link]
vs DC: Alternating current reverses direction periodically (50 Hz in India), suitable and cheap for long-distance transmission;
direct current flows one direction constant, zero frequency, poor for long distances and more expensive to generate.

Ch-13: Environment vs ecosystem: Environment is the surroundings where organisms live and changes as they move;
ecosystem is the community of biotic and abiotic components interacting and remains same place-based, depends on processes
like [Link] of ecosystems: Natural (forests, ponds, lakes) and artificial (gardens, crop fields); can be terrestrial
(forest, desert, grassland) or aquatic fresh water lentic lakes/ponds, lotic rivers/streams, marine coastal areas, open oceans,
upwelling regions, [Link]: Abiotic factors (soil, water, air, CO^2⌄, O^2⌄, N^2⌄, light, temperature, pressure,
humidity) and biotic factors – producers/autotrophs (green plants, blue-green algae), consumers/heterotrophs (primary
herbivores, secondary small carnivores, tertiary large carnivores, quaternary), decomposers/saprotrophs (bacteria, fungi) plus
edaphic and climatic [Link] functioning: Producers absorb CO^2⌄ and water from nutrient pool (soil, water, air)
and with sunlight make carbohydrates food; consumers gain energy by eating producers or other consumers; decomposers break
dead producers and consumers returning elements to nutrient pool, so energy and matter [Link] chain & trophic levels:
Food chain is linear flow of food energy, each step trophic level; first trophic level producers, second primary consumers
herbivores, third secondary consumers small carnivores, fourth tertiary consumers larger carnivores; examples: grass → deer →
lion.10% law & energy flow: Plants capture ~1% of incident solar energy; at each trophic level only ~10% energy passed to
next, ~90% lost as heat, work, waste; hence usually only 3–4 trophic levels and maximum number of organisms at lower levels
especially [Link] web & pyramid: Food web network of interconnected food chains where organism may have multiple
food sources and predators; improves adaptability and stability; food pyramid shows ecological hierarchy with producers at base
and top predators at [Link]: Non-biodegradable pollutants (e.g. pesticides) from industrial/agricultural/human
waste enter soil/water, taken by plants/aquatic life, accumulate up food chain increasing concentration in tissues at higher trophic
levels; humans at top receive maximum residues in grains, vegetables, [Link] layer & depletion: Tropospheric ozone
poisonous, but stratospheric ozone shields Earth from harmful UV causing skin cancer; in 1980s ozone amount dropped forming
Antarctic ozone hole due to CFCs from refrigerants, fire extinguishers; 1987 UNEP Montreal Protocol froze CFC production, now
CFC-free refrigerators [Link] vs non-biodegradable: Biodegradable wastes (paper, wood, food, cloth)
decompose naturally by microorganisms, eco-friendly, can become manure; non-biodegradable (plastics, cans, disposable
bottles) do not decompose easily, cause pollution, can often be reused or recycled. Waste management methods: Recycling converts waste
into new materials (tin cans, metals, rags, paper, glass). Landfill: non-recyclable waste spread in low-lying areas in layers with soil cover, land unused for building ~20 years.
Composting: biodegradable waste decomposed to manure. Incineration: burns waste at high temperature to ash, reduces volume, used especially for hospital waste.
Sewage treatment: STPs filter sewage, settle/decompose organic matter, then release cleaned water to water bodies. Biogas plants: anaerobic degradation of organic waste
by microbes produces biogas fuel and manure residue.

1. 2Mg + O₂ → 2MgO 2. Zn + H₂SO₄ → ZnSO₄ + H₂

3. 3Fe + 4H₂O → Fe₃O₄ + 4H₂ 28. Ca(OH)₂ + CO₂ → CaCO₃ + H₂O

4. CaO + H₂O → Ca(OH)₂ 29. NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H₂O

5. C + O₂ → CO₂ 30. CuO + 2HCl → CuCl₂ + H₂O

6. 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O 31. 2NaCl + 2H₂O → 2NaOH + Cl₂ + H₂ (chlor-alkali)

7. CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O 32. Ca(OH)₂ + Cl₂ → CaOCl₂ + H₂O (bleaching powder)

8. C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O 33. Na₂CO₃ + 10H₂O → Na₂CO₃·10H₂O (washing soda)

9. 2FeSO₄ → Fe₂O₃ + SO₂ + SO₃ 34. CaSO₄·½H₂O + 1½H₂O → CaSO₄·2H₂O (POP setting)

10. CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂ 35. 2NaNO₃ + H₂SO₄ → Na₂SO₄ + 2HNO₃ (HNO₃ prep)
36. K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > C > Zn > Fe > Sn > Pb >
11. 2Pb(NO₃)₂ → 2PbO + 4NO₂ + O₂ H > Cu > Hg > Ag > Au.

12. 2AgCl → 2Ag + Cl₂ 37. 2K + 2H₂O → 2KOH + H₂

13. 2AgBr → 2Ag + Br₂ 38. 2Na + 2H₂O → 2NaOH + H₂

14. 2H₂O → 2H₂ + O₂ 39. Ca + 2H₂O → Ca(OH)₂ + H₂

15. Fe + CuSO₄ → FeSO₄ + Cu 40. Mg + 2H₂O → Mg(OH)₂ + H₂ (hot)

16. Zn + CuSO₄ → ZnSO₄ + Cu 41. 3Fe + 4H₂O → Fe₃O₄ + 4H₂ (steam)

17. Pb + CuCl₂ → PbCl₂ + Cu 42. Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl₂ + H₂

18. Na₂SO₄ + BaCl₂ → BaSO₄ + 2NaCl 43. 2Cu + O₂ → 2CuO

19. 2Cu + O₂ → 2CuO 44. 4Al + 3O₂ → 2Al₂O₃

20. CuO + H₂ → Cu + H₂O 45. Na₂O + H₂O → 2NaOH

21. ZnO + C → Zn + CO 46. 2HgS + 3O₂ → 2HgO + 2SO₂

22. MnO₂ + 4HCl → MnCl₂ + 2H₂O + Cl₂ 47. 2ZnS + 3O₂ → 2ZnO + 2SO₂ (roasting)

23. 4Na + O₂ → 2Na₂O 48. ZnCO₃ → ZnO + CO₂ (calcination)

24. Zn + H₂SO₄ → ZnSO₄ + H₂ 49. ZnO + C → Zn + CO

25. Mg + 2HCl → MgCl₂ + H₂ 50. Fe₂O₃ + 2Al → 2Fe + Al₂O₃ (thermit)

26. Na₂CO₃ + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H₂O + CO₂ 51. 4Al + 3MnO₂ → 2Al₂O₃ + 3Mn

27. NaHCO₃ + HCl → NaCl + H₂O + CO₂ 52. 2NaCl (melt) → 2Na + Cl₂ (electrolysis)

Formulas:  Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflection

Q 1 1 1
1. I=  Mirror radius R=2 f , Mirror formula: = +
t f v u
W hi v
2. V=  Magnification: m= =
Q ho u
3. Ohm’s Law: V =IR c
 Absolute Refractive Index: n=
L v
4. R=ρ
A v1
 Relative Refractive Index: n21=
5. Resistors Series: R s=R1 + R2 + R3 v2

1 1 1 1  Snell’s Law: n1 sin ⁡i=n 2 sin ⁡r

6. Resistors Parallel: = + +
R p R 1 R 2 R3
 Lens formula and magnification same as mirror
2
7. Heat: H=I Rt =VIt 1
 Power of Lens: P= (with f in meters)
2 f
W 2 V
8. Power: P= =I R=VI =
t R  Power of combined lenses: P=P1 + P2 +…
LIGHT:
MAGNETIC EFFECTS:
 I  Right-hand thumb rule for direction of field
 Magnetic field B∝ and B∝ N (Number of turns)
r  Solenoid produces magnetic field similar to a bar
magnet