App. Envi. Res.

46(2) (2024): 024

Applied Environmental Research

- RESEARCH FOR SUSTAINABLE PLANET -

Research Article

A Review on Water Security in Dhaka City, Bangladesh: Calling for Ensuring Sustainability

Wasim Akram1, Wilailuk Niyommaneerat2, Athit Phetrak3, Suthirat Kittipongvises2,*

1 Environment, Development and Sustainability (EDS), Graduate Program, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand
2 Environmental Research Institute Chulalongkorn University (ERIC), Chulalongkorn University, Thailand
3 Department of Social and Environmental Medicine, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University

*Correspondence Email: suthirat.k@[Link]

Abstract ARTICLE HISTORY

Dhaka is currently facing a number of significant challenges, and one of them Received: 2 Jan. 2024
is the protection of water resources. The city is experiencing rapid depletion of Accepted: 6 May 2024
groundwater as well as substantial pollution of its surface water. This article aims Published: 27 Jun. 2024
to highlight a review of the literature on the challenges of water security in Dhaka.
The sustainability issues of water resources were elaborated in terms of management, KEYWORDS
quantity, and quality aspects. Having reviewed, it has been found that groundwater
Bangladesh;
is depleting drastically over the years, which may have environmental, economic,
Dhaka;
and social consequences in the near future. Due to the rapid depletion of ground-
Pollution;
water, land subsidence, increased cost of groundwater abstraction, shortage of
Sustainability;
drinking water, and social unrest were categorized as high-risk factors. In addition,
Water Resources
the water quality of the surrounding rivers has been mostly categorized as ‘poor’
and ‘very poor’ according to the Weighted Arithmetic Index (WAI) and the
Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) techniques.
Therefore, ensuring the sustainability of water resources is an urgent call.

Introduction These issues are particularly severe in megacities like

Globally, the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Dhaka, Bangladesh. The combination of urbanization,
6 seeks to guarantee universal access to clean water and migration from rural to urban areas, and escalating
proper sanitation while also promoting the sustainable pollution exerts significant pressure on the adjacent
use and conservation of these resources [1]. This goal water bodies [4]. Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh, is
not only gives priority to the supply of drinking water, one of the world’s fastest-growing cities and a hub for
sanitation, and hygiene services but also highlights the economic growth and urbanization [5]. As the city gains
sustainable management of water resources on a recognition as a hub for several industries, it is gradually
worldwide scale. The goal encompasses crucial progress losing its natural resources [6]. Rapid urbanization
in the areas of water accessibility, reduction of pollution, leads to water pollution and has the potential to
cross-boundary water management, improvement of impede sustainable development [7]. The demand for
water use efficiency, and reduction of unsustainable water in Dhaka is surprisingly rising because of the
water withdrawals [2]. rapidly growing population [8]. Striking a balance
Bangladesh is one of the developing nations that between the city’s water supplies and the needs of its
suffers from major water resource issues as a result of rapidly increasing population of over 20 million
improper water resource management [3]. Urban water citizens is a challenging task [9]. Urban areas’ waste
management is facing growing challenges due to and pollution flow into nearby rivers and water bodies,
significant transformations, such as climate change, polluting the water and groundwater aquifers, which
population expansion, environmental degradation, negatively impacts the water ecosystem [10].
and the processes of globalization and development.

[Link]
 App. Envi. Res. 46(2) (2024): 024

To be more precise, Dhaka relies heavily on ground- which has become a concern for ensuring sustainable
water [9] and there has been extensive groundwater water supply. The practice of over-extraction of
extraction to meet the growing demand for drinking groundwater has presented significant challenges to
water among its inhabitants [11]. The situation of the resource’s overall sustainability, as the rate of
groundwater extraction is strongly linked to the groundwater extraction in Dhaka is 25% greater than
urbanization, and city expansion [12]. The overall the rate of natural recharge [11, 17]. On the other hand,
groundwater quality in the aquifers is satisfactory [13], over the past three decades, as shown in Figure 1, the
but the overuse of Dhaka’s groundwater presents water quality of the surrounding rivers in Dhaka (i.e.,
significant threats to both its quantity and quality Dhaleshwari, Shitalakhya, Turag, and Buriganga Rivers)
because of the resource’s rapid depletion [14]. On the has deteriorated significantly due to anthropogenic
other hand, Dhaka is geographically surrounded by four activities [18]. With regard to water quantity, surface
significant rivers, namely the Buriganga, Dhaleshwari, water source availability in Dhaka is decreasing
Shitalakhya, and Turag. These water bodies are extremely significantly [19].
contaminated due to the outflow of untreated home
sewage and a significant amount of industrial effluent Sustainability assessment
from over 7,000 factories. As a consequence, the urban To assess the pertinent sustainability issues of water
rivers are plagued by the presence of black and filthy resources in Dhaka city, the study applied the following
water, with untreated sewage contributing 98% of the sustainability assessment by considering water quality
total pollution [15]. The Buriganga, Turag, and Balu and quantity, and water resources management aspects
Rivers are highly contaminated. Subsequently, the (Figure 2). All dimensions of potential social, economic,
observed water quality index (WQI) values indicated a and environmental impacts due to water insecurity
significant decline in the water quality of the rivers, and the WQI of surface water in and around Dhaka
rendering them unsuitable for drinking purposes [16]. City were critically discussed.
The phenomenon of increased population and mi-
gration is anticipated to exert a notable impact on 1) Water demand and supply management
urban water consumption [14]. Overall, this paper aims Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage Authority
to highlight the challenges of water security in Dhaka, (DWASA) is the responsible authority for water supply.
Bangladesh, based on a review of relevant topics. The Approximately 91% of the water supplied by DWASA
sustainability issues of water resources in Dhaka were is utilized for the residential sector, while the remaining
further elaborated in terms of management, quantity, 9% is allocated for commercial and industrial con-
and quality aspects. sumption [20]. Evidently, each individual residing in a
residential area consumes an average of 310 liters of
Case city: Dhaka, Bangladesh water per day (L d-1), which is twice the recommended
Dhaka is experiencing a rapid depletion of ground- amount by DWASA (150 L d-1) [19].
water resources and widespread surface water pollution,

Figure 1 Location of rivers in and around Dhaka.

 App. Envi. Res. 46(2) (2024): 024

[9]. Although DWASA has the capacity to provide

sufficient water to its people, there has been a growing
scarcity of quality water at the household level, pri-
marily due to inefficient management. In a scenario
where things continue as they currently are, the situation
indicates a concerning future where 12.37 million
individuals may lack access to basic water needs by the
year 2050 [25].

2) Groundwater depletion trend and rate

Figure 2 Sustainability assessment of water resources In Dhaka, most of the water supply (70%) comes
in Dhaka in terms of management, quantity and from groundwater [26]. However, the city is experiencing
quality aspects. rapid groundwater depletion, and its groundwater-
based water supply is at risk of collapsing. With both
According to the 2020-2021 annual report of DWASA, public and private DTWs, this has resulted in an ever-
it currently produces water at a rate above 2,600 increasing extraction of groundwater from both shallow
million liters per day (MLD) by utilizing 906 deep tube and deep aquifers [24]. This excessive exploitation led
wells (DTWs) [21]. This study also reviewed the 2018- to the declination of the groundwater table and
2019 annual report of DWASA and found evidence deteriorated the water quality [27]. Parvin et al. [11]
indicating inadequate water supply from 1963 to 2011 observed that the depth of the groundwater table in
[22]. Though DWASA has overcome the water shortage, Dhaka showed a declining trend (Figure 3), especially
the increasing number of DTWs being installed annually after 1999. Unsustainable use of groundwater in Dhaka
to satisfy the city’s demand in proportion to the growing is a potential risk factor that gradually affects different
population has the potential to have devastating effects uses of water, such as domestic water supply, agriculture,
on groundwater due to over-extraction. A study by and socio-economic wellbeing [11].
Hossain and Bahauddin [23] noted that the vulnerable Through analysis of Haque [28], it has been found
conditions of the aquifer may result in the drying of that the groundwater levels in Lalbagh, Motijheel,
existing wells, land subsidence, and the intrusion of Dhanmondi, Mirpur, Tejgaon, and Gulshan Regions
contaminated water from adjacent polluted rivers [23]. have experienced significant levels of depletion, with
To alleviate the pressure on the city’s groundwater average annual decreases of 3.32, 3.15, 2.97, 3.17, 2.97,
sources and to meet water demand immediately, several and 2.72 m, respectively [28]. A study conducted by
adaptation actions are being practiced by DWASA Islam and Islam [29] observed significant reductions in
[24]. For instance, presently, DWASA provides water groundwater levels in Dhanmondi, Motijheel, Hazaribagh,
to more than 20 million residents in Dhaka, intending and Ramna regions of Dhaka over a period of 30 years.
to increase the proportion of surface water distribution. The majority of the southern region experiences
Unfortunately, the extant surface water sources within groundwater depletion due to the rapid urbanization
Dhaka city are making it increasingly difficult to produce and population growth observed in these localities
acceptable quality water due to pollution. Aiming to [29]. A recent study by Moshfika et al. [24] noted that
ensure water security, DWASA also plans to expand its groundwater levels in urban areas were alarmingly
service coverage to about 29 million consumers by declining with no noticeable recovery even during the
2035. This requires significant capital investments to monsoon season [24].
increase supply while ensuring long-term water security

Figure 3 Variation of groundwater level in Dhaka City (1980 - 2012)(modified from Parvin et al. [11]).
 App. Envi. Res. 46(2) (2024): 024

Hossain and Bahauddin [23] found that the aquifer Rivers and also potentially exert adverse effects on
of this municipality is predominantly refilled via direct plant ecosystems [17].
infiltration via precipitation, river water, and flooding.
Nonetheless, as time passes, the recharge area of the 3.2) Economic perspective
city diminishes considerably due to unplanned urba- From the perspective of economics, the linkage
nization. Depending on the location, the water level is between groundwater depletion and irrigation is very
currently declining at a rate of approximately 2 to 3 important. A study conducted by Zahid et al. [31] em-
meters per year [23]. In order to compare the results phasized that lowering the groundwater level directly
within a global context, Syafiuddin [30] observed that leads to increased land subsidence, abandonment of
China’s population is consistently increasing. Almost wells, and also the pumping cost. The results of the
90% of their water supply, which is used for drinking, benefit-cost analysis of pump technologies for ground-
industrial, and agricultural reasons, comes from ground- water irrigation in Dhaka city found that tube well
water. The study also indicated that the overexploitation pumping costs increase rapidly as a result of ground-
of groundwater is causing a range of issues, including water levels declining. DTW irrigation showed the
ecological damage and land subsidence, which endanger highest capital costs compared to other technologies
human health [30]. [31]. Further to this, Global Water Partnership noted
that drying up of wells and increased abstraction costs
3) Potential impact of groundwater depletion: Three were defined as “high” level of risk related to ground-
perspectives on sustainability water depletion in Dhaka City (Table 1) [17].
The Institute of Water Modeling reports that ground-
water levels in the vicinity of the city center are alarm- 3.3) Social perspective
ingly dropping by 2–3 m annually. The evaluation area’s As depicted in Table 1, both shortfall in drinking
natural environment and sociopolitical climate are water supply and social unrest were defined as “high”
probably going to suffer as a result of the declining levels of risk related to groundwater depletion. Ground-
groundwater table. Moreover, manufacturers can suffer water depletion would significantly increase water
financial consequences as a result of declining water scarcity in the drinking water supply for Dhaka City’s
levels. Some possible impacts and risks of groundwater residents due to the possible threat of the upper aquifer
that need to be handled are listed in Table 1. Three drying up. Moreover, Islam [32] evaluated the relationship
perspectives on sustainability assessment are given as between violent conflict and water scarcity according
follows: to intra-state conflict in Bangladesh. The study highlighted
the following three kinds of violent conflict over water
3.1) Environmental perspective scarcity: group versus group, society versus state, and
A study undertaken by the Earth Observatory Centre individual versus group conflict. Firstly, in terms of group-
at Dhaka University reveals that Dhaka is experiencing versus-group conflict, the main conflict is people
an annual average land subsidence rate of approximately engaged in violent conflict to take control of the river
half an inch as a consequence of excessive groundwater bank, especially in the dry season. Secondly, due to
extraction. The rapid decline in groundwater levels society-state conflict, Bangladesh failed to meet the
may have a significant influence on several forms of accelerating demand for water resources for drinking
infrastructure and the flow of surface water bodies in and using in daily life. Thirdly, in terms of individual
Dhaka. Therefore, “land subsidence” was categorized versus group conflict, for instance, there was less rainfall
as a high-risk factor (Table 1). A reduction in the volume in 2006 in the Rajshahi District. Individuals started
of groundwater may result in even drier surface waters conflicting with the pond owner as they were not
and wetland areas in the vicinity of the Turag and Balu getting enough irrigation water [32].

Table 1 Potential risks assessment of groundwater depletion in Dhaka [17]

Vulnerability Threat Level of risk
Environmental impacts Land subsidence High
Reduction of water in nearby rivers, lakes and wetlands Medium
Degradation of plant health Low
Earthquake Low
Economic impacts Drying up of wells High
Higher water treatment cost Medium
Increased abstraction cost High
Social impacts Shortfall in drinking water supply High
Social unrest High
 App. Envi. Res. 46(2) (2024): 024

4) Assessment of urban surface water trend the urban heat island effect, leading to uncomfortable
Figure 4 (a) illustrates a comparative assessment of living conditions and potential health hazards for the
the percentages of urban land and water surface in the city’s inhabitants [33]. The future projection of climate
dry season in Dhaka from 1990 to 2021. By the year shows a continuous rise in temperature in the Dhaka City
2000, the proportion of land surface had risen to 89.23%, and related extreme events such as frequent outbreaks
while the proportion of water surface had decreased to of tropical diseases and scarcity of water will have the
10.77%. In 2010, the land surface accounted for 90.64%, most immediate effects of climate change in Dhaka
while the water surface decreased to 9.36%. In 2021, the [34].
proportion of land surface increased significantly to
94.84%, with only 5.16% remaining for water surface. 5) Assessment of water quality
Figure 4 (b) exhibits a line graph illustrating the changing The excessive extraction of water from the Dupi
trends in urban surface water coverage in Dhaka city Tila aquifer, which is the primary source of water
from 1990 to 2021. In 1990, water surfaces accounted for supply in Dhaka city has resulted in the replenishment
approximately 12% of the overall covering area. During of water from rivers and increased leakage from areas
the subsequent decade, this ratio had a minor decline, with polluted land. Consequently, contaminated water
reaching 10%. Later, in the subsequent decade, it has infiltrated the aquifer from an area of the river that
continued to decrease to 9%. Nevertheless, the most is polluted. On the other hand, the peripheral rivers
notable transformation had taken place in the past ten surrounding Dhaka City and the canals within it are
years, as urban surface water coverage underwent a swift severely contaminated [26].
and substantial decline, reducing to 5% by 2021 [33].
5.1) Groundwater quality
One previous study performed by Bodrud-Doza et
al. [35] in Dhaka reported that over one-fourth (26%)
of groundwater samples exceeded the WHO standard
for iron (Fe) (should not exceed 0.3 mg L-1). Bodrud-
Doza et al. [35] also found that there is a slight
deterioration in the quality of groundwater with high
concentrations of Fe and manganese (Mn) above the
permissible levels (0.3–1.00 mg L-1 for Fe and 0.1 mg L-1
for Mn). On the one hand, a recent study by Ahsan et al.
[36] noted that the groundwater quality in the Dhaka
area is very good based on the analysis of ten ground-
water samples and six ground-water quality parameters
(including pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), chemical oxygen
demand (COD), total solids (TS), total dissolved solid
Figure 4 (a) Year wise urban surface coverage area of (TDS) and arsenic) [36].
Dhaka City (1990–2021) and (b) changing trends of
urban surface water of Dhaka City (1990–2021) [33]. 5.2) Surface water quality
Numerous factors have contributed to the pollution
Hossain et al. [33] also observed that the disappearance of urban rivers in Bangladesh. The most significant
of these water bodies has extensive consequences for driving forces are urbanization, increased population,
both the environment and the inhabitants of the city. and untreated wastewater discharge. Figure 5 shows a
Reduced water availability poses challenges for the driving force-impact-challenge-response (DICR) frame-
local population, while the risk of flooding increases work to explore the situation of urban river pollution
due to the diminishing capacity of natural water [15]. A previous study by Hoque et al. [18] noted that
reservoirs to absorb excess rainfall. In recent years, in 2009, the Department of Environment (DoE) declared
Dhaka’s dwellers have experienced extreme heat, the Buriganaga, Shitalakhya, Balu, and Turag Rivers as
which environmentalists attribute to the shrinking ecologically critical areas, with the Planning Commission
water bodies. The declining water bodies exacerbate calling them ‘unsuitable for any human use’ [18].
 App. Envi. Res. 46(2) (2024): 024

value is ‘70.98’ in the wet season (poor quality) and higher

than 100 in the dry season (unsuitable for human con-
sumption and fish culture) (Table 3) [16]. In terms of
the water condition of Dhaleshwari River, Islam et al.
[39] noted that the Dhaleshwari River has a substantial
role in fostering socio-economic progress in central
Dhaka [39]. However, the rivers surrounding Dhaka
have been significantly polluted due to the rapid
Figure 5 Schematic representation of the driving industrialization and urbanization of the city [40]. The
force-impact-challenges-response (DICR) framework physicochemical condition of the river has experienced a
(modified from Yin et al. [15]). significant decline, with the majority of water quality
indicators failing to fulfill the standard criteria for
The sources and contamination of water in Buriganga ensuring the safety of drinking water. If appropriate
present a significant risk to both public health and the measures are not adopted soon enough, this will
long-term sustainability of the megacity’s water supply impact both ecological and public health around the
[37]. Long-term consumption could also give rise to river [39]. More interestingly, to observe the WQI of
health issues such as reduced immunity, anemia, and the Dhaleshwari River (Table 3), a study by Islam [16]
cardiac fibrosis as well as numerous tissue inflammations noted that the WAIWQI value ranges from 76–100
in humans [38]. Table 2 depicts the water quality (very poor) in the wet season and in the dry season, the
categorization based on both the WAI and the CCME WQI value is >100 (unsuitable for human consumption
techniques. To observe the WQI of the Buriganga River, and fish culture) (data have been collected from nu-
the weighted arithmetic water quality index (WAWQI) merous individual studies) [16].

Table 2 Water quality xategorization based on WAWQI and CCME-WQI techniques [16, 45]
WAWQI Rank Potential uses CCME-WQI Rank Interpretation
0-25 Excellent Human consumption, 95-100 Excellent Absence of threat to the water
agriculture and industrial quality
26-50 Good Human consumption, 80-94 Good Small degree of threat to the
agriculture and industrial water quality
51-75 Poor Agriculture and industrial 65-79 Fair Water quality occasionally
endangered
76-100 Very Poor Agriculture 45-64 Marginal Frequent threat to the water
quality
>100 Unsuitable for Needs to be treated properly 0-44 Poor Water quality approximately
human before use always in danger
consumption and
fish culture

Table 3 WQI values and water quality rating of surface water in and around Dhaka
River WQI method WQI value Water quality rating Sources
Buriganga WAI 70.98 (wet season) Poor [16]
>100 (dry season) Unsuitable for human consumption and fish culture
Turag WAI 76-100 (wet season) Very poor [16]
>100 (dry season) Unsuitable for human consumption and fish culture
Shitalakhya WAI >100 (pre-monsoon) Unsuitable for human consumption and fish culture [43]
26-50 (monsoon) Good
76-100 (post-monsoon) Very poor
CCME 10 (post-monsoon) Poor [43]
13 (monsoon) Poor
13 (pre-monsoon) Poor
Dhaleshwari WAI 76-100 (wet season) Very poor [16]
>100 (dry season) Unsuitable for human consumption and fish culture

On the contrary, the Shitalakhya, a significant urban subject to substantial daily discharges of pollutants
river flowing through the industrialized districts of and heavy metals from numerous industries situated
Gazipur, Dhaka, and Narayanganj in Bangladesh, is along its banks. Untreated effluents from these in-
 App. Envi. Res. 46(2) (2024): 024

dustries frequently generate substantial volumes of 21.25% for agriculture, and 32.5% for livelihoods [49].
contaminated water, which are illegally discharged Economically, ADB [50] pointed out the economic
directly into the river [41]. A study by Alam et al. [42] valuation of the fisheries of the Meghna River and
noted that the water quality of the Shitalakhya River is found that the total annual value of fish production in
suitable for aquaculture, irrigation, and for sustaining the area is $15,625,000. The river’s fisheries are
aquatic ecosystems, but not for drinking or domestic providing a livelihood for several thousand fishers.
purposes without conventional treatments [42]. Further, Table 4 shows the estimated economic value of the
Uddin and Jeong [3] indicated that the current water Meghna River in terms of water supply, fisheries,
intake point as the raw water source for the drinking carbon storage, and biodiversity [50].
water treatment plant in Saidabad point is not safe due
to the presence of hazardous pollutants and micro- Table 4 Estimated economic valuation of Meghna
biological loads [3]. Chowdhury et al. [43] adopted River in terms of water supply, fisheries, carbon
thirteen water parameters (pH, DO, color, conductivity, storage and biodiversity [50]
Value type Description $/year
TDS, TSS, hardness, chloride, turbidity, alkalinity, Fe,
Direct use value Water supply to 45,510,000
temperature and BOD) to rate the overall water quality DWASA
of the Shitalakhya River and found that the water Fisheries 15,625,000
quality is also poor (samples were taken from Haripur Indirect use value Carbon storage 3,195,000
in Narayanganj District in 2018). The CCME-WQI values Existence value Biodiversity 223,650
of the Shitalakhya River are ‘10’ in post-monsoon, ‘13’
Having reviewed, it has been found that Dhaka City
in monsoon, and ‘13’ in pre-monsoon, signifying that
is experiencing a rapid depletion of its groundwater
the water quality is poor. On the contrary, WAWQI
reserves year after year in several regions. To justify the
values range ‘26–50’ in monsoon (good) and ‘76–100’
statement, throughout the past 30 years, Dhanmondi,
in post-monsoon (very poor), whereas in the pre-
Motijheel, Mirpur, Hazaribagh, and Ramna areas of
monsoon, the WQI value is above ‘100’ (unsuitable for
Dhaka showed drastic declines in groundwater tables
drinking) (Table 3) [43].
[29]. The rise in urbanization has resulted in densely
Besides this, one of the world’s most polluted
populated areas, which has raised concerns about
rivers, the Turag, flows around the edge of the Dhaka
groundwater depletion [51]. This issue has become
megacity. The majority of the places had poor water
more pressing with the rapid urbanization that has
quality as a result of intense urbanization and in-
taken place. Changes in the quantity and quality of
dustrialization [44]. According to the WAI technique,
groundwater systems can be attributed to a combi-
the result of WQI in the dry season (December- March)
nation of factors, including urbanization, climate change,
is above ‘100’ which means that water is ‘not suitable
and human activities [51]. Another study by Jerin and
for human consumption and fish culture’ and during
Ishtiaque [52] noted that the main causes of ground-
the wet season (July-October), the WQI value ranges
water depletion are population density and overex-
from ‘76–100’ which means water quality is ‘very poor’
ploitation [52]. Therefore, to address the issue of
(Table 3) [16].
excessive reliance on groundwater, it is crucial to
A recent study by Shultana et al. [46] showed the
promote the use of surface water. DWASA has developed
water quality of five points of the Meghna, Buriganga,
a comprehensive master plan and assessed the future
Turag, Shitalakhya and Dhaleshwari Rivers in 2021 in
water production requirements. It should be noted
terms of TDS, Salinity, Electrical Conductivity (EC)
that groundwater alone will not be able to meet this
and Turbidity and indicated that the water quality of
substantial demand. The marginal extraction cost
the Meghna River is better than that of the other four
would increase over time as the water table drops. For
rivers. Further, Maraz et al. [47] also noted that the
common property resources such as groundwater,
water quality of the Meghna River is much better than
pumping costs would rise too rapidly. Future users
that of the Buriganga, Dhaleshwari, and Shitalakhya
would also be hard hit in comparison to current users.
Rivers [47]. However, scenarios imply that due to
On the contrary, it has been found that the water
tributary canals that are overflowing with both
quality of the rivers in and around Dhaka is poor,
domestic and industrial effluent, the water of the
underscoring the need for strong policies to restore
Meghna River may become too filthy for drinking
and preserve the polluted river ecosystem and provide
within the next five years [48]. A study by Begum et al.
clean water to the city’s residents. Due to the indis-
[49] found that approximately 46.25% of the surveyed
criminate dumping of waste into the rivers, the water
respondents living nearby the Meghna River indicated
quality is getting worse year by year. Therefore, proper
that contaminated water posed a problem for fisheries,
 App. Envi. Res. 46(2) (2024): 024

waste disposal and management are extremely crucial achieving SDG 6. Sustainable Earth Reviews, 2023,
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