Electrical and Electronics Engineering

for Computational Thinking

Unit 3 : Transistors and Control
Systems

B.Tech. in Computer Science Engineering

Artificial Intelligence and Data Engineering (AIDE - A)
I Semester
(Academic Year 2025-26)

prepared by

Dr. Kishore Kumar Pedapenki,

M.Tech. (JNTUCEA), Ph.D. (IIT Roorkee) SMIEEE, MIE, MIAENG, MISTE, MSCRS

Associate Professor, Electrical and Electronics Engineering,

Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Jain Deemed to be University ,
Bangalore, Karnataka, India - 562112
Email ID : [email protected] :: Phone Number : 9410154656

October 30, 2025

Contents

1 Transistors and Control Systems 4

1.1 Semiconductor devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Diode - Operating Principle and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Operating Principle of Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.2 Applications of PN Junction Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 BJT - Operating Principle and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.1 Operating Principle of BJT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.2 Applications of BJT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 MOSFET - Operating Principle and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4.1 Working Principle of MOSFET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4.2 Applications of MOSFET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 Open-loop vs. closed-loop control systems with different examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5.1 Open-loop control systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5.2 Closed-loop control systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5.3 Open-loop vs. closed-loop control systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5.4 Open-loop vs. closed-loop control systems with different examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6 Stability of System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6.1 Explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6.2 Types of System Based on Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.7 Modeling of electrical systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.8 Block diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.8.1 Block Diagram Representation of Electrical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.9 Introduction to signal flow graphs (SFG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.9.1 Conversion of Block Diagrams into Signal Flow Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

1
List of Figures

1.1 Conductors, Semiconductors and Insulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.2 Diode Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 VI Characteristics of Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Construction of BJT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 VI Characteristics of BJT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6 Construction of MOSFET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.7 Open Loop Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.8 Closed Loop Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.9 Completely Stable System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.10 Marginally Stable System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.11 Conditionally Stable System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.12 Unstable System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.13 Circuit Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.14 Basic Elements of Block Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.15 Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.16 Summing Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.17 Summing Point Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.18 Summing Point with three inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.19 Take off point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.20 Take off point 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.21 RLC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.22 Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.23 Equation1 Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.24 Equation 2 Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.25 Overall block diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.26 Signal Flow Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.27 Signal Flow Graph - Steps 1 to 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.28 Signal Flow Graph - Steps 4 to 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.29 Block Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.30 Signal Flow Graph for the block diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2
List of Tables

1.1 Open Loop Vs Closed Loop Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3
Chapter 1

Transistors and Control Systems

1.1 Semiconductor devices

What is a Conductor? In Electrical & Electronics engineering, a conductor is a type of material that allows
the flow of charge otherwise known as electrical current. Most common electrical conductors are made from
metals. Such materials allow the current flow due to the presence of free electron or ions which starts moving
when voltage is applied.
The conductors have very low electrical resistance i.e. the opposition to the current flow & depend on the
length & width of the conductor. It increases with increase in temperature.

Figure 1.1: Conductors, Semiconductors and Insulators

What is Semiconductor? Semiconductors are materials that have conductivity in-between conductors and
insulators. They can block or allow the current flow providing total control over it. They are mostly modified
by adding impurities called doping. It modifies its properties like unidirectional current flow or amplification
or energy conversion etc.
What is Insulator? An insulator is a material that has very high electrical resistance & it does not allow
the flow of current. There are no free electrons in insulators thus they do not conduct electricity. Thus they
are used for protection against shock.
Main Types of Semiconductor Devices
The main semiconductor devices are

1. Diode

4
 Electrical and Electronics Engineering for Computational Thinking

2. Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

3. Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)
Working Principle

• Diode: Allows current in one direction (forward bias) and blocks it in the opposite direction (reverse bias).
• BJT: A small base current controls a large collector current. Works as a current amplifier or switch.
• MOSFET: A gate voltage controls the current between drain and source. Works as a voltage amplifier or
switch.
Advantages

• Diode: Simple, cheap, fast switching, low loss

• BJT: Good linear amplification, high current gain
• MOSFET: High switching speed, low gate drive power, high efficiency, compact size

Applications

• Diode: Rectifiers, freewheeling diodes, voltage protection.

• BJT: Audio amplifiers, signal amplifiers, low-speed switches.
• MOSFET: SMPS, motor drives, digital circuits, power converters.

1.2 Diode - Operating Principle and Applications

A diode is an electronic device that conducts electricity only in one direction. It is a device that is widely used
in modern-day electronics. Here, we will learn about diodes, their properties, symbols, types, and others in
detail.
What is a Diode? A diode is made up of two words, i.e., “Di “means two, and “Ode “means Electrodes,
which means that a device or component has two electrodes. (i.e., cathode and anode). A diode is an electronic
device having a two-terminal unidirectional power supply i.e it has two terminals and allows the current to flow
only in one direction. Diodes are widely used in modern-day circuits to secure circuits from over-voltage and
they are also used to change AC current to DC current.
Representation Symbol of a Diode Diodes are represented using special symbols and the symbol for a
standard diode symbol is given below. In the given diagram it is clear that a diode has two terminals which are
called the cathode and anode.

Figure 1.2: Diode Symbol

The arrowhead symbol represents the anode, and the other end represents the cathode. The current flow
from anode to cathode in the forward bias condition. The general representation of a Diode is given below,
Construction of Diode We know that there are two types of semiconductor materials: Intrinsic and
Extrinsic semiconductors. In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of electrons and hole concentration are equal
at room temperature. In an extrinsic semiconductor, impurities are added to the semiconductor to increase the
number of electrons or the number of holes. These impurities are pentavalent (Arsenic, Antimony, phosphorous)
or tri-valent (boron, indium, aluminum).
A semiconductor diode has two layers. one layer is of p-type and the other is of n-type semiconductor.

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If we add trivalent impurities in a semiconductor (Silicon and germanium), a greater number of holes are
present, and it is a positive charge. therefore, this type of layer is known as the p-type layer. If we add
pentavalent impurities in semiconductors (silicon or germanium), due to excess electrons there is a negative
charge. therefore, this type of layer is known as the n-type layer.

1.2.1 Operating Principle of Diode

In the N-type region, the majority of charge carriers are electrons, and the minority of charge carriers are holes.
Whereas, In the P-type region, the majority of charge carriers are holes and the minority of charge carriers are
electrons. Because of the concentration difference, the diffusion takes place in majority charge carriers and they
recombine with the minority charge carriers which are then collected near the junction and this region is known
as the Depletion Region.
When the anode or p-type terminal of the diode is connected with a negative terminal and the n-type or
cathode is connected with the positive terminal of a battery, this type of connection is called a Reverse Bias
condition. When the anode or p-type terminal of the diode is connected with a positive terminal and the n-type
or cathode is connected with the negative terminal of the battery, this type of connection is called a Forward
Bias condition.
Characteristics of Diode The characteristics of the diode can easily be understood under the following
three headings.

• Forward-Biased Diode
• Reverse-Biased Diode
• Zero Biased Diode OR Unbiased Diode

Forward-Biased Diode In forward biasing semiconductor is connected to an external source when the
p-type semiconductor is connected to the positive terminal of the source or battery and the negative terminal
to the n-type, then this type of junction is said to be forward-biased.
In forward bias, the direction of the built-in electric field near the junction and the applied electric field
are opposite in direction. This means that the resultant electric field has a magnitude lesser than the built-in
electric field due to this there is less resistivity and therefore depletion region is thinner. In silicon, at the
voltage of 0.6 V, the resistance of the depletion region becomes completely negligible.
Reverse-Biased Diode In reverse biasing, the n-type is connected to the positive terminal and the p-type
is connected to the negative terminal of the battery. In this case, the applied electric field and the built-in
electric field are in the same direction and the resultant electric field has a higher magnitude than the built-in
electric field creating a more resistive, therefore depletion region is thicker. if the applied voltage becomes larger,
then the depletion region becomes more resistive and thicker.
The V-I characteristicsThe V-I characteristic of a diode in forward and reverse-biased conditions are,

1.2.2 Applications of PN Junction Diode

These PN junction diodes have various applications and are used in different ways because of their characteristics.

• Rectification
• Photodiode
• Demodulation of Signals

• Clipping Circuits
• LED Lighting
• Voltage-Controlled Oscillator

• Clamping Circuits
• Logic Gate
• Current Routing
• Forward Voltage

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Figure 1.3: VI Characteristics of Diode

1.3 BJT - Operating Principle and Applications

Bipolar Junction Transistor
The term ”transistor” originated in 1951 at Bell Laboratories by Dr. Shockley and associates. The transistor
is a widely utilized essential component in modern electronic systems. Transistors generally come in two types.
They are field effect transistor (FET) and BJT which is bipolar junction transistor. Signal amplification, or
amplifier usage, is a common use of a BJT ( bipolar junction transistor), which is a three-terminal semiconductor
device composed of combinations of p-type and n-type semiconductors. As we know this semiconductor device
consists of the p-n junction and it is used or able to amplify the signal or magnify the signal. Through this
the current flows and basically it contains silicon, they are also called bias resistor built-in transistors and their
main objective is that -as the small current flows between the base and emitter which can control a large flow
of current between the regions of collector and emitter terminals.
The concept of BJT refers to a three-terminal semiconductor device consisting of two p-n-junctions that are
formed by sandwiching either p-type or n-type semiconductors between two p-type semiconductors. Transistors
can be used to transfer input signals through the circuits having lower to higher resistance. A BJT may also
be implemented as a true solid-state switch in electrical circuits and can also be used to increase the strength
of a weak signal.

Figure 1.4: Construction of BJT

Construction of BJT Combinations of p-n junctions, or build a BJT i.e. a BJT is made of p and n type

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semiconductors. The two junctions divide the three semiconductors of a BJT which are: the base, collector,
and the emitter. The emitter and collector part of transistor are placed on each side of the base.
Emitter (E) : The outermost layer of a transistor, is commonly known as the emitter, it is heavily doped
with N- type or P-type semiconductor material. P-type material is often employed to produce the emitter of a
PNP transistor, whereas N-type material is mostly utilized for creating the emitter of a NPN transistor. Base
(B): The intermediate layer is called the base, it forms a narrow zone between the emitter and collector and is
slightly doped. Its made up of different material than the emitter. A NPN transistor’s base is P-type, while a
PNP transistor’s base is of N-type. Collector (C): The inner layer is called as collector, and it has a modest
doping level. The type of semiconductor used in the designing is the same as that of the emitter. An NPN
transistor’s collector is formed from N-type material, whereas a PNP transistor’s collector is made of P-type
material.
There are two junctions formed in BJT . They are -
Emitter-Base junction: The Emitter-Base junction of a BJT refers to the junction that is formed between
the emitter and base. During normal operation , this junction is forward-biased. Collector-Base junction :
Collector-Base junction is the name given to the junction that is formed between the collector and base. During
normal operation, this junction is reverse-biased.

1.3.1 Operating Principle of BJT

BJT operates in three regions:

• Active region: The transistor is on in this region. When the collector-base junction is reverse-biased while
the emitter-base junction is in forward-bias, then BJT works in the active area. As a result, BJT is used
as an amplifier. The collector current is proportional to and controlled by the base current and relatively
insensitive to VCE. In this region the transistor can be an amplifier. (IC = IB)

• Saturation region: The saturation region arises when the collector-base junctions and the emitter-base
junction are both forward-biased. The transistor is on. The collector current varies very little with a
change in the base current in the saturation region. The VCE is small, a few tenths of a volt. The
collector current is strongly dependent on VCE unlike in the active region. It is desirable to operate
transistor switches in or near the saturation region when in their on state. Ic = I(saturation)

• Cut-off region: Because the emitter and collector junctions are both in the reversed bias, so the BJT is
off in this condition and vary small amount of current flows from collector to the emitter. There is no
current between emitter and the collector. (IB = 0 therefore IC = 0)

Figure 1.5: VI Characteristics of BJT

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1.3.2 Applications of BJT

Some of the well - known applications of BJT includes-
• A BJT is used as an amplifier.

• BJT can also function as a switch .

• It can be used as an oscillator.
• BJT is often used in logic circuits.

• It is also used in clipping circuits .

• BJT is used as a demodulator and used a detector
• Its used in temperature sensors.

1.4 MOSFET - Operating Principle and Applications

1.4.1 Working Principle of MOSFET
MOSFET is a type of transistor in which conductivity depends upon the semiconductor channel across the
drain and source terminal. This semiconductor channel may be p-channel or n-channel depending upon the
configuration of the MOSFET.
A MOSFET consists of three terminals- drain, source and gate. By applying some voltage across gate and
source, there forms a inversion layer or a channel between the drain and source if the voltage applied is threshold
voltage. (Threshold voltage is the minimum required voltage for the conduction of current) . If the applied
voltage is less than the threshold voltage, no channel is formed. Hence current cannot flow in the MOSFET.
This situation is called as Cutoff region (OFF).

Figure 1.6: Construction of MOSFET

And after a certain level of voltage, the current becomes constant in the MOSFET. This condition is called
as saturation point. MOSFET is a voltage controlled device so the thickness of channel and the amount of
current depends upon the voltage applied across gate and source. If more voltage applied, width of channel
increases and more amount of current able to flow through the device.
MOSFET Construction MOSFET is a transistor which is used as switch or amplifier and in many other
applications. The basic construction of MOSFET can be explained as below:-

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• Substrate : MOSFET is constructed on a silicon wafer that is it acts as a base of the device. SiO2 : A
thin layer of insulating material is formed with SiO2 for the exchange of electrons and holes.
• Gate Terminal : A gate terminal is formed on the insulating layer. This controls the flow of current
between the drain and source with the help of gate voltage. Source and drain terminals : These are
created on the either side of the gate. These are basically doped regions.
• Channel : Region between the gate, drain and source is known as channel which controls the flow of charge
among them.

1.4.2 Applications of MOSFET

• Amplifiers: MOSFETs are used as an amplifiers in order to amplify weak signals.
• Switching power supplies: They are used as switches because they can alter power supply efficiently.
• Digital logic gates: They are used to build logic gates such as NAND, NOR etc.

• Voltage regulators: They are used as voltage regulators because they can control the amount of voltage.
• Memory devices: They are used in memory cells.

1.5 Open-loop vs. closed-loop control systems with different exam-

ples
1.5.1 Open-loop control systems
An open loop control system is the one in which the output signal is not fed back to the input of the system.
Therefore, an open loop control system is also referred to as a non-feedback control system.

Figure 1.7: Open Loop Control System

In case of open loop control system, the output has no control on the control action of the system. Thus, the
open loop control system follows its input signals regardless of the final results. The block diagram of the open
loop control system is shown in Figure-1. Here, the main components are: controller and plant (or processing
system). The input is supplied to the controller which produces an actuating signal (or control signal). This
actuating single is supplied to the plant or processing system which is to be controlled.
The major disadvantage of an open loop control system is that it is poorly equipped to handle the distur-
bances which may reduce its ability to complete the desired task. Some common examples of open loop control
system are: traffic light system, field controlled DC motor, automatic washing machine, immersion rod, etc.

1.5.2 Closed-loop control systems

A closed loop control system is the one in which the output signal is fed-back to the input of the system.
Therefore, in a closed loop control system, the control action is a function of desired output signal.
The main components of a closed loop control system are ? controller, plant, error detector or comparator
and feedback element which are connected together as shown in Figure-2. The error detector accepts input
signal and feedback signal to produce an error signal which is the difference of input and feedback signals. The
feedback signal is the sample of output of the overall system.
Now, the error signal is supplied to the controller to produce an actuating signal which controls the plant
or processing system to produce desired results. Therefore, in the closed loop control system, the input of the
system is automatically adjusted to produce a desired response from the system. The common examples of
closed loop control system are ? air conditioner system, rocket launching system, radar tracking system, human
respiratory system, etc.

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Figure 1.8: Closed Loop Control System

1.5.3 Open-loop vs. closed-loop control systems

The difference between the Open loop and closed loop control systems are tabulated in table 1.1

1.5.4 Open-loop vs. closed-loop control systems with different examples

Example of open loop control system

• Electric clothes dryer.

• Positioning systems using stepper motors.

• Irrigation systems.
• Toasters.

• Fan regulators.
• Control systems using timers.

Example of closed loop control system

• Refrigerators.

• Electric irons.
• Air conditioners.
• Microwave oven.

• Positioning systems using servomotors.

• CNC Machines.
• Liquid level control in process Industries.

1.6 Stability of System

1.6.1 Explanation
The stability of the system means when a controlled input is provided to any dynamic system, it must result in
providing the controlled output. In other words, the system must be BIBO stable i.e., bounded input bounded
output system. If the system is not in our control i.e., uncontrolled output is obtained on providing the bounded
input then the system is said to be unstable.
Types of Stability There are 3 types of stability which are as follows:

• Steady State Stability

• Transient Stability
• BIBO Stability

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Table 1.1: Open Loop Vs Closed Loop Control Systems

Basis of Difference Open Loop Control System Closed Loop Control System
A control system in which there is The control system in which there is a
Definition no feedback path is provided is called feedback path present is called a closed
an open loop control system. loop control system.
Open loop control system is also called Closed loop control system is also called
Also called
non-feedback control system. a feedback control system.
In open loop control system, the control In closed loop control system, the control
Control action action is independent of the output of action is dependent on the output of the
the overall system. system.
Closed loop control system has
Design The design and construction of an open
comparatively complex design
complexity loop control system is quite simple.
and construction.
The main components of a closed
Main The major components of an open loop loop control system are ? Controller,
Components control system are ? controller and plant. plant or process, feedback element
and error detector (comparator).
Open loop control system has fast response The response of the closed loop control
Response because there is no measurement and system is slow due to presence of
feedback of output. feedback.
The reliability of open loop control system The closed loop control system is more
Reliability
is less. reliable.
The accuracy of open loop control system Closed loop control system is
Accuracy depends upon the system calibration and comparatively accurate because
therefore, may be less. the feedback maintains its accuracy.
Stability The stability of open loop control system
Closed loop control system is comparatively
(in terms of is more, i.e., the output of the open loop
less stable.
output) system remains constant.
The open loop control system is not Closed loop control system is optimized to
Optimization
optimized. produce the desired output.
Open loop control system requires less Comparatively more maintenance is needed
Maintenance
maintenance. in closed loop control system.
Open loop control system is easy to The implementation of a closed loop control
Implementation
implement. system is relatively difficult.
The cost of the closed loop control system is
Cost Open loop control system is less expensive.
relatively high.
Open loop control system has more In closed loop system, the internal noise
Noise
internal noise. in the system is less.
Common practical examples of open loop Examples of closed loop control systems
control systems are ? automatic traffic include: ACs, fridge, toaster, rocket
Examples
light system, automatic washing machine, launching system, radar tracking
immersion heater, etc. system, etc.

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Steady State Stability Steady-state stability means when a system is subjected to constant input for a
long duration of time and the system results in a stable output, it is known as steady-state stability. When a
dynamic system provides a stable output during any disturbance in the input, it is said to be a stable system.
Transient Stability When a system changes its state, it is known as a transition. During the transition
period, whether the system is stable or not when subjected to some disturbance is determined by the transient
stability.
BIBO Stability Bounded input and bounded output stability show a system is stable when the system
returns the bounded output when the bounded input is given. When the output is controllable, the system is
stable else it is unstable.

1.6.2 Types of System Based on Stability

There are 3 types of system based on stability:
• Completely stable system

• Marginally stable system

• Conditionally stable system
• Unstable System
Completely Stable System As the name suggests, a completely stable system provides a stable output
for all ranges of values. One way to identify a completely stable system is to check the poles of the transfer
function. If the poles of the open and closed loop system lie in the left half of the s-plane, then the system is
completely stable.

Figure 1.9: Completely Stable System

Marginally Stable System A marginally stable system is a system that is stable for the current or present
value. Any disturbance in the input can make the output of the system unstable. The marginally stable system
can be identified when the poles of the open loop and closed loop system lie on the imaginary axis of the s-plane.
The graph given below is the example of marginally stable system.

Figure 1.10: Marginally Stable System

Conditionally Stable System When a system is stable for certain values, then it is known as a condi-
tionally stable system. The system can become unstable during the transient response. In simple terms, a

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Figure 1.11: Conditionally Stable System

conditionally stable system is stable only when the loop gain of a system is in a particular range. The image
given below shows a conditionally stable system.
Unstable System A system is said to be unstable when it produces uncontrolled output. The unstable
system can be identified when the open and closed loop poles are on the right half of the s-plane. The given
graph shows the unstable system.

Figure 1.12: Unstable System

1.7 Modeling of electrical systems

Finding the transfer function of the following diagram.

Figure 1.13: Circuit Diagram

Apply KVL in the loop

Z
di 1
L + Ri + idt = ei (1.1)
dt C
The output voltage is
Z
1
idt = eo (1.2)
C
Apply Laplace on both the sides

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1
LsI(s) + RI(s) + I(s) = Ei (s) (1.3)
Cs
1
I(s) = E0 (s) (1.4)
Cs
The transfer function is

Eo (s) 1
= (1.5)
Ei (s) LCs2 + RCs + 1

1.8 Block diagrams

Basic Elements of Block Diagram The basic elements of a block diagram are a block, the summing point
and the take-off point. Let us consider the block diagram of a closed loop control system as shown in the
following figure 1.14 to identify these elements.

Figure 1.14: Basic Elements of Block Diagram

The above block diagram consists of two blocks having transfer functions G(s) and H(s). It is also having
one summing point and one take-off point. Arrows indicate the direction of the flow of signals. Let us now
discuss these elements one by one.
Block The transfer function of a component is represented by a block. Block has single input and single
output.
The following figure ?? shows a block having input X(s), output Y(s) and the transfer function G(s).

Figure 1.15: Block

Transfer Function,G(s)=Y(s)/X(s)
and hence Y(s)=G(s)X(s)
Output of the block is obtained by multiplying transfer function of the block with input.
Summing Point The summing point is represented with a circle having cross (X) inside it. It has two or
more inputs and single output. It produces the algebraic sum of the inputs. It also performs the summation
or subtraction or combination of summation and subtraction of the inputs based on the polarity of the inputs.
Let us see these three operations one by one.
The following figure 1.16shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output (Y). Here, the
inputs A and B have a positive sign. So, the summing point produces the output, Y as sum of A and B.
i.e.,Y = A + B.

Figure 1.16: Summing Point

The following figure 1.17 shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output (Y). Here, the
inputs A and B are having opposite signs, i.e., A is having positive sign and B is having negative sign. So, the
summing point produces the output Y as the difference of A and B.

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Figure 1.17: Summing Point Difference

Y = A + (-B) = A - B.
The following figure 1.18 shows the summing point with three inputs (A, B, C) and one output (Y). Here,
the inputs A and B are having positive signs and C is having a negative sign. So, the summing point produces
the output Y as Y = A + B -(C) = A + B - C.

Figure 1.18: Summing Point with three inputs

Take-off Point

Figure 1.19: Take off point

The take-off point is a point from which the same input signal can be passed through more than one branch.
That means with the help of take-off point, we can apply the same input to one or more blocks, summing points.
In the following figure 1.19, the take-off point is used to connect the same input, R(s) to two more blocks.
In the following figure 1.20, the take-off point is used to connect the output C(s), as one of the inputs to the
summing point.

1.8.1 Block Diagram Representation of Electrical Systems

In this section, let us represent an electrical system with a block diagram. Electrical systems contain mainly
three basic elements resistor, inductor and capacitor.
Consider a series of RLC circuit as shown in the following figure 1.21. Where, Vi(t) and Vo(t) are the input
and output voltages. Let i(t) be the current passing through the circuit. This circuit is in time domain.
By applying the Laplace transform to this circuit, will get the circuit in s-domain. The circuit is as shown
in the following figure 1.22.
From the above circuit, we can write

Vo (s) − Vi (s)
I(s) = (1.6)
R + sL
I(s)
Vo (s) = (1.7)
sC
Let us now draw the block diagrams for these two equations individually. And then combine those block
diagrams properly in order to get the overall block diagram of series of RLC Circuit (s-domain).

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Figure 1.20: Take off point 2

Figure 1.21: RLC Circuit

Equation 1 can be implemented with a block having the transfer function, 1/(R+sL) The input and output
of this block are V i(s) − V o(s) and I(s) We require a summing point to get V i(s) − V o(s) The block diagram
of Equation 1 is shown in the following figure 1.23.
Equation 2 can be implemented with a block having transfer function, 1/sC . The input and output of this
block are I(s) and Vo(s) . The block diagram of Equation 2 is shown in the following figure 1.24.
The overall block diagram of the series of RLC Circuit (s-domain) is shown in the following figure 1.25.

1.9 Introduction to signal flow graphs (SFG)

Basic Elements of Signal Flow Graph Nodes and branches are the basic elements of signal flow graph.
Node Node is a point which represents either a variable or a signal. There are three types of nodes input
node, output node and mixed node.

• Input Node - It is a node, which has only outgoing branches.

• Output Node - It is a node, which has only incoming branches.

• Mixed Node - It is a node, which has both incoming and outgoing branches.

Example Let us consider the following signal flow graph 1.26 to identify these nodes.

• The nodes present in this signal flow graph are y1, y2, y3 and y4.

• y1 and y4 are the input node and output node respectively.

• y2 and y3 are mixed nodes.

Branch Branch is a line segment which joins two nodes. It has both gain and direction. For example, there
are four branches in the above signal flow graph. These branches have gains of a, b, c and -d.
Construction of Signal Flow Graph Let us construct a signal flow graph by considering the following
algebraic equations -
y2=a12y1+a42y4
y3=a23y2+a53y5
y4=a34y3
y5=a45y4+a35y3
y6=a56y5
There will be six nodes (y1, y2, y3, y4, y5 and y6) and eight branches in this signal flow graph. The gains
of the branches are a12, a23, a34, a45, a56, a42, a53 and a35.
To get the overall signal flow graph, draw the signal flow graph for each equation, then combine all these
signal flow graphs and then follow the steps given below 1.27 and 1.28

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Figure 1.22: Laplace Transform

Figure 1.23: Equation1 Diagram

1.9.1 Conversion of Block Diagrams into Signal Flow Graphs

Follow these steps for converting a block diagram into its equivalent signal flow graph.

• Represent all the signals, variables, summing points and take-off points of block diagram as nodes in signal
flow graph.
• Represent the blocks of block diagram as branches in signal flow graph.
• Represent the transfer functions inside the blocks of block diagram as gains of the branches in signal flow
graph.

• Connect the nodes as per the block diagram. If there is connection between two nodes (but there is no
block in between), then represent the gain of the branch as one. For example, between summing points,
between summing point and takeoff point, between input and summing point, between take-off point and
output.

Example Let us convert the following block diagram 1.29 into its equivalent signal flow graph 1.30.

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Figure 1.24: Equation 2 Diagram

Figure 1.25: Overall block diagram

Figure 1.26: Signal Flow Graph

Figure 1.27: Signal Flow Graph - Steps 1 to 3

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Figure 1.28: Signal Flow Graph - Steps 4 to 6

Figure 1.29: Block Diagram

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Figure 1.30: Signal Flow Graph for the block diagram

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