Basic Electrical & Electronics

Engineering (14251105)
Unit III: Transformer & Electrical Machines

Dr. Kumar Gaurav

Dept. of Electronics Engineering,
MITS-DU, Gwalior
Email ID: kumargaurav@[Link]
Unit IV
Transformer & Electrical Machines:

Magnetic Circuits and Electromagnetism, Transformers: Construction,

principle, types, losses & efficiency, OC & SC test; DC Machines: Motor
and Generator working Principles, Characteristics, Introduction to Induction
Motors and Synchronous Machines

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Magnetic Circuits and Electromagnetism

 A magnetic circuit is made up of one or more closed loop paths containing

a magnetic flux. The flux is usually generated by permanent magnets
or electromagnets and confined to the path by magnetic cores consisting
of ferromagnetic materials like iron, although there may be air gaps or other
materials in the path.
 Magnetic circuits are employed to efficiently channel magnetic fields in
many devices such as electric motors, generators, transformers, relays,
lifting electromagnets, galvanometers, and magnetic recording heads.
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Electromagnets:

Principle: An electric current flowing in a conductor creates a magnetic

field around it.
N

 Strength of the field is proportional to the

amount of current in the coil.
 The field disappears when the current is
turned off.
 A simple electromagnet consists of a coil of
insulated wire wrapped around an iron core.
 Widely used as components of motors, I
generators, relays etc.

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Magnetic lines of force:

Closed path radiating from north pole, passes through the surrounding,
terminates at south pole and is from south to north pole within the body
of the magnet.

Properties:
 Each line forms a closed loop and
never intersect each other.
 Lines are like stretched elastic cords.
 Lines of force which are parallel and in
the same direction repel each other.

Magnetic Field
 The space around which magnetic lines of force act.
 Strong near the magnet and weakens at points away from the
magnet.
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Technical terms related to magnetic circuits

1. Magnetic Flux
 The number of magnetic lines of forces set up in a magnetic circuit is
called Magnetic Flux. It is analogous to electric current I in an electric
circuit.
 Its SI unit is Weber (Wb) and its CGS unit is Maxwell.

 It is denoted by φ.

2. Flux Density:
 Magnetic flux as flowing from the north pole of a magnet round to its south
pole as shown by the arrows on the lines in the diagram. Looking at the
diagram you should see that there is as much flux flowing ‘from the north
pole’ as there is ‘flowing into the south pole’.

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Technical terms related to magnetic circuits

 The amount of magnetic flux flowing through a given area will change from
one point to another around the magnet.
 In position B there are a smaller number of magnetic field lines passing
through the loop than there is when it is in position A.
 Definition - The amount of flux passing through a unit area at right angles
to the magnetic field lines is called as flux density (B).

Flux density = Flux / area through which flux passes

B=Φ/A

Flux density is measured in Tesla (T) or Wb/m2 7

3. Magnetomotive Force (M.M.F.):

The current flowing in an electric circuit is due to the existence of electromotive

force similarly magnetomotive force (MMF) is required to drive the magnetic flux in
the magnetic circuit.

Definition - The magnetic pressure, which sets up the magnetic flux in a magnetic
circuit is called Magnetomotive Force.
MMF = N*I
Where N= no of turns I = Current flowing in the coil
The unit of MMF is Ampere-turn (AT).

The strength of the MMF is equivalent to the product of the current around the
turns and the number of turns of the coil. 8
 4. Magnetic Force

 The force exerted on one magnet by another one, either of attraction or

repulsion is called the magnetic force.

 According to Coulombs second low force between two magnetic pole is

directly proportional to product of their pole strengths and inversely
proportional to distance between them.

 Magnetic force is given by ,

F  m1*m2 / d²
Where , m1 and m2 = pole strength in wb
d = distance between two magnetic poles in meter

F = m1 * m2 / (4π µo µr d² )
F is in newtons. 9
5. Permeability
 A property of magnetic material which indicates the ability of magnetic
circuit to carry electromagnetic flux

 It is the ratio of flux density to the magnetic field strength

 In SI units, permeability is measured in henries per metre i.e. H·m−1

 Permeability of free space or air or non magnetic material

6. Relative Permeability (μr):

The ratio of the permeability of a given material or medium, to the permeability
of free space.
μr = μ/μ0.
where μ0 = 4π × 10−7

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6. Magnetic Field Strength:

The force experienced by a unit north pole placed at any point in a magnetic
field is known as magnetic field strength at that point.

It is represented by H

It units is newton per weber (N/Wb) or amperes per meter (A/m) .

H = B/ µ

 Magnetic field strength (H) is defined as the m.m.f. per meter length
of magnetic circuit i.e.,

Where, N = number of turns of a coil,

I = current (amperes), and
l = length of the magnetic circuit tm
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7. Reluctance:
 Reluctance is the resistance to the flow of magnetic flux in a magnetic
circuit.
 It is denoted by S

S = MMF / Flux
S=F/φ
S= N*I / φ

 Where, l = the length of the conductor

μo= permeability of vacuum.
μr = relative permeability of the material.
A = cross-section area of the conductor.
 Its unit is AT / Wb
Ex.

The following data relate to an electromagnet

-4
Total flux = 8 × 10 Wb
2
Cross sectional area of the core = 200 mm
Number of turns = 100
Magnitude of current = 2 A
Length of the magnetic circuit = 400 mm

Calculate the following:

i. Flux density in the coil,
ii. Magnetomotive force, and
iii. Magnetic field strength.
 -4
Solution: Total flux, ɸ = 8 × 10 Wb
2 -4 2
Area of the coil, A = 200 mm = 2 × 10 m
Number of turns, N = 100
Current, I = 2A
Length of the magnetic circuit, l = 400 mm = 0.4 m.

i. Flux density in the coil, B :

ii. Magnetomotive force, m.m.f.:

m.m.f. = NI = 100 × 2 = 200 AT.

iii. Magnetic field strength, H:

= 500 AT/m
 Types of induced EMF
 Nature of Induced EMF:

 An Electromotive Force or EMF is said to be induced when the flux linking

with a conductor or coil changes.

 This change in flux can be obtained in two different ways; that is

by statically or by dynamically induced emf.

Types of induced EMF

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Mutually Induced EMF:

 The emf induced in a coil due to the change of flux produced by another
neighbouring coil linking to it, is called Mutually Induced emf.

 Consider a coil A and B.

Coil B is having N2 number of turns and is placed near another coil A
having N1 number of turns as shown in the figure below.

 When the switch (S) is closed in the circuit shown above current I1 flows
through the coil A, and it produces the flux φ1. Most of the flux says φ2 links
with the other coil B.

 If the current flowing through the coil A is changed by changing the value of
variable resistor R, it changes flux linking with the other coil B and hence
emf is induced in the coil. This induced emf is called Mutually Induced
emf.
 The direction of the induced emf is such that it opposes the cause which
produces it, that means it opposes the change of current in the first coil.
This effect of opposition caused by its own reason of production is called
Lenz’s Law.

 A galvanometer (G) is connected to the coil B for measuring the induced

emf.
 Magnitude of mutually Induced EMF:
 Let, N1 = Number of turns of coil A
N2 = Number of turns of coil B
I1 = Current flowing through coil A
Φ1 = Flux producing due to current I1 in webers.
Φ2 = Flux linking with coil B

 According to Faraday’s law, the induced e.m.f in coil B is,

E2 = -N2 (dΦ2/dt)
 Negative sign indicates that this e.m.f. will set up a current which will
oppose the change of flux likning with it.
Now Φ2 = Φ2/I1 x I1

 If permeability of the surrounds is assumed constant then Φ2 ∝ I1 and hence

Φ2/I1 is constant.
∴ Rate of change of Φ2 = (Φ2/I1) x Rate of change of current I1
∴ dΦ2/dt = (Φ2/I1) x (dI1/dt)
E2 = -N2 x ( Φ2/I1) x (dI1/dt)
E2 = - (N2 Φ2/I1) (dI1/dt)
 Here (N2 Φ2/I1) is called coefficient of mutual inductance denoted by M.

E2 = -M(dI1/dt) Volts
Mutual Inductance

 Mutual Inductance between the two coils is defined as the property of the
coil due to which it opposes the change of current in the other coil.
Analogy with Electric circuits
Similarities:
Electric circuit Magnetic circuit
Quantity Unit Quantity Unit
EMF (E=IR) Volt (V) MMF (F=ɸS) Ampere-turns
Current (I) Ampere (A) Flux (ɸ) Weber (Wb)
Current density (J) A/ m2 Flux density (B) Wb / m2 or Tesla

Resistance (R) Ohm (Ω) Reluctance (S) Ampere-turns/Wb

Electric field Volts/m Magnetic field Ampere-turns/m
strength (E) strength (H)
Conductivity (σ) Siemen/m Permeability, µ Henry/m
σ=l/RA µ=l/SA
‘l’ is the length and ‘A ‘is the area of cross section of the conductor
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Transformers
• Electrical transformer is a static electrical machine which transforms
electrical power from one circuit to another circuit, without changing the
frequency.

• Transformer can increase or decrease the voltage with corresponding

decrease or increase in current.

Working principle of transformer

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• The basic principle behind working of a transformer is the phenomenon
of mutual induction between two windings linked by common magnetic flux.
The figure at right shows the simplest form of a transformer.

• Basically a transformer consists of two inductive coils; primary winding and

secondary winding. The coils are electrically separated but magnetically
linked to each other. When, primary winding is connected to a source of
alternating voltage, alternating magnetic flux is produced around the
winding. The core provides magnetic path for the flux, to get linked with the
secondary winding. Most of the flux gets linked with the secondary winding
which is called as 'useful flux' or main 'flux', and the flux which does not get
linked with secondary winding is called as 'leakage flux'.

• As the flux produced is alternating (the direction of it is continuously

changing), EMF gets induced in the secondary winding according to
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. “This emf is called 'mutually
induced emf', and the frequency of mutually induced emf is same as that of
supplied emf.”

• If the secondary winding is closed circuit, then mutually induced current

flows through it, and hence the electrical energy is transferred from one
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circuit (primary) to another circuit (secondary).
Basic construction of transformer

• Basically a transformer consists of two inductive windings and a laminated

steel core. The coils are insulated from each other as well as from the steel
core.

• A transformer may also consist of a container for winding and core assembly
(called as tank), suitable bushings to take our the terminals, oil
conservator to provide oil in the transformer tank for cooling purposes etc.
The figure at left illustrates the basic construction of a transformer.

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Basic Construction of Transformer

• In all types of transformers, core is constructed by assembling (stacking)

laminated sheets of steel, with minimum air-gap between them (to achieve
continuous magnetic path). The steel used is having high silicon content and
sometimes heat treated, to provide high permeability and low hysteresis loss.
Laminated sheets of steel are used to reduce eddy current loss.

• The sheets are cut in the shape as E, I, and L. To avoid high reluctance at
joints, laminations are stacked by alternating the sides of joint.

• That is, if joints of first sheet assembly are at front face, the joints of following
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assemble are kept at back face.
Types of transformers

• Transformers can be classified on different basis, like types of construction, types

of cooling etc.

(A) On the basis of construction, transformers can be classified into two types as;

(i) Core type transformer, and

(ii) Shell type transformer

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(i) Core type transformer

In core type transformer, windings are cylindrical former wound, mounted on

the core limbs as shown in the figure above. The cylindrical coils have different
layers and each layer is insulated from each other. Materials like paper, cloth or
mica can be used for insulation. Low voltage windings are placed nearer to the
core, as they are easier to insulate.

(ii) Shell type transformer

The coils are former wound and mounted in layers stacked with insulation
between them. A shell type transformer may have simple rectangular form (as
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shown in above fig), or it may have a distributed form.
(B) On the basis of their purpose

1. Step up transformer: Voltage increases (with subsequent decrease in current) at

secondary.
2. Step down transformer: Voltage decreases (with subsequent increase in
current) at secondary.

(C) On the basis of type of supply

1. Single phase transformer

2. Three phase transformer

(D) On the basis of their use

1. Power transformer: Used in transmission network, high rating

2. Distribution transformer: Used in distribution network, comparatively lower rating
than that of power transformers.
3. Instrument transformer: Used in relay and protection purpose in different
instruments in industries. Current transformer (CT), Potential transformer (PT)
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Open Circuit and Short Circuit Test on transformer

• These two transformer tests are performed to find the parameters of

equivalent circuit of transformer and losses of the transformer.

• Open circuit test and short circuit test on transformer are very economical
and convenient because they are performed without actually loading of the
transformer.

Open circuit or No load test on Transformer

• Open circuit test or no load test on a transformer is performed to determine

'no load loss (core loss)' and 'no load current I0'.

• The circuit diagram for open circuit test is shown in the figure below.

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• Usually high voltage (HV) winding is kept open and the low voltage (LV)
winding is connected to its normal supply.

• A wattmeter (W), ammeter (A) and voltmeter (V) are connected to the LV
winding as shown in the figure.

• Now, applied voltage is slowly increased from zero to normal rated value of the
LV side with the help of a variac. When the applied voltage reaches to the
rated value of the LV winding, readings from all the three instruments are
taken.

• The ammeter reading gives the no load current I0. As I0 itself is very small, the
voltage drops due to this current can be neglected.
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• The input power is indicated by the wattmeter (W). And as the other side of
transformer is open circuited, there is no output power.

• Hence, this input power only consists of core losses and copper losses. As
described above, no-load current is so small that these copper losses can be
neglected.

• Hence, now the input power is almost equal to the core losses.

• Thus, the wattmeter reading gives the core losses of the transformer.

• Sometimes, a high resistance voltmeter is connected across the HV winding.

Though, a voltmeter is connected, HV winding can be treated as open circuit
as the current through the voltmeter is negligibly small. This helps in to find
voltage transformation ratio (K). 30
Short circuit or Impedance test on Transformer

• The connection diagram for short circuit test or impedance test on

transformer is as shown in the figure below.

• The LV side of transformer is short circuited and wattmeter (W), voltmere

(V) and ammeter (A) are connected on the HV side of the transformer.
Voltage is applied to the HV side and increased from the zero until the
ammeter reading equals the rated current.

• All the readings are taken at this rated current.

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• The ammeter reading gives primary equivalent of full load current (Isc).

• The voltage applied for full load current is very small as compared to rated
voltage. Hence, core loss due to small applied voltage can be neglected.
Thus, the wattmeter reading can be taken as copper loss in the
transformer.

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Why Transformers are rated in kVA?

From the above transformer tests, it can be seen that Cu loss of a transformer
depends on current, and iron loss depends on voltage. Thus, total transformer
loss depends on volt-ampere (VA). It does not depend on the phase angle
between voltage and current, i.e. transformer loss is independent of load
power factor.
This is the reason that transformers are rated in kVA.

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Losses in transformer:

• In any electrical machine, 'loss' can be defined as the difference between

input power and output power.

• An electrical transformer is an static device, hence mechanical losses (like

windage or friction losses) are absent in it.

• A transformer only consists of electrical losses (iron losses and copper

losses). Transformer losses are similar to losses in a DC machine, except
that transformers do not have mechanical losses.

Losses in transformer are explained below

(i) Core losses or Iron losses

Eddy current loss and hysteresis loss depend upon the magnetic properties of
the material used for the construction of core. Hence these losses are also
known as core losses or iron losses.
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 Hysteresis loss in transformer:

Hysteresis loss is due to reversal of magnetization in the transformer core. This

loss depends upon the volume and grade of the iron, frequency of magnetic
reversals and value of flux density.

 Eddy current loss in transformer:

In transformer, AC current is supplied to the primary winding which sets up

alternating magnetizing flux.
When this flux links with secondary winding, it produces induced emf in it. But
some part of this flux also gets linked with other conducting parts like steel core
or iron body or the transformer, which will result in induced emf in those parts,
causing small circulating current in them.

This current is called as eddy current. Due to these eddy currents, some
energy will be dissipated in the form of heat.

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(ii) Copper loss in transformer

• Copper loss is due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings. Copper

loss for the primary winding is I12R1 and for secondary winding is I22R2.

Where, I1 and I2 are current in primary and secondary winding

respectively, R1 and R2 are the resistances of primary and secondary
winding respectively.

• It is clear that Cu loss is proportional to square of the current, and current

depends on the load. Hence copper loss in transformer varies with the load.

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Efficiency of Transformer

• Efficiency of a transformer can be defined as the output power divided by the

input power. That is efficiency = output / input .

• Transformers are the most highly efficient electrical devices. Most of the
transformers have full load efficiency between 95% to 98.5% .

• As a transformer being highly efficient, output and input are having nearly same
value, and hence it is impractical to measure the efficiency of transformer by
using output / input.

• A better method to find efficiency of a transformer is using,

Efficiency = (input - losses) / input = 1 - (losses / input).

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DC Machines: Motor and Generator

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