SECOND TERM ENOTE

CLASS : SS 3

Parallel database

A parallel database system seeks to improve performance through parallelization

of various operations, such as loading data, building indexes and evaluating
queries. Although data may be stored in a distributed fashion, the distribution is
governed solely by performance considerations. Parallel databases improve
processing and input/output speeds by using multiple CPUs and disks in parallel.
Centralized and client–server database systems are not powerful enough to handle
such applications. In parallel processing, many operations are performed
simultaneously, as opposed to serial processing, in which the computational steps
are performed sequentially.

Architectures of parallel Database

Shared memory architecture

Where multiple processors share the main memory (RAM)space but each
processor has its own disk (HDD). If many processes run simultaneously, the
speed is reduced, the same as a computer when many parallel tasks run and the
computer slows down.

Shared disk architecture

Where each node has its own main memory, but all nodes share mass storage,
usually a storage area network. In practice, each node usually also has multiple
processors.

Shared nothing architecture

Where each node has its own mass storage as well as main memory.

The Benefits of Parallel Database

Parallel database technology can benefit certain kinds of applications by enabling:
*. Higher Performance
*. Higher Availability
*. Greater Flexibility
*. More Users

Higher PerformanceWith more CPUs available to an application, higher speedup

and scaleup can be attained.

Higher Availability Nodes are isolated from each other, so a failure at one node
does not bring the whole system down.

Greater Flexibility An OPS environment is extremely flexible. Instances can be

allocated or deallocated as necessary.

More UsersParallel database technology can make it possible to overcome memory

limits, enabling a single system to serve thousands of users.

Distributed Database

In a distributed database, data is stored in different systems across a network. For

Example, in mainframes, personal computers, laptops, cell phones, etc.

Advantages of distributed database:

1) In a distributed database, data can be stored in different systems like personal
computers, servers, mainframes, etc.
2) A user doesn’t know where the data is located physically. Database presents the
data to the user as if it were located locally.
3) Database can be accessed over different networks.
4) Data can be joined and updated from different tables which are located on
different machines.
5) Even if a system fails the integrity of the distributed database is maintained.
6) A distributed database is secure.

Disadvantages of distributed database:

1) Since the data is accessed from a remote system, performance is reduced.

2) Static SQL cannot be used.
3) Network traffic is increased in a distributed database.
4) Database optimization is difficult in a distributed database.
5) Different data formats are used in different systems.
6) Different DBMS products are used in different systems which increases in
complexity of the system.
7) Managing system catalog is a difficult task.
8) While recovering a failed system, the DBMS has to make sure that the
recovered system is consistent with other systems.
9) Managing distributed deadlock is a difficult task.

Types of Distributed Databases

Distributed databases can be broadly classified into homogeneous and

heterogeneous distributed database

Homogeneous Distributed Databases

In a homogeneous distributed database, all the sites use identical DBMS and
operating systems.

Heterogeneous Distributed Databases

In a heterogeneous distributed database, different sites have different operating
systems, DBMS products and data models.

Architectural Models
Some of the common architectural models are −
Client - Server Architecture for DDBMS
Peer - to - Peer Architecture for DDBMS
Middleware (distributed applications)
provides services for the various components of a distributed system

Networking
Networking
Networking is the practice of linking two or more computing devices together for
the purpose of sharing data. Networks are built with a mix of computer hardware
and computer software.

Network Design
Computer networks also differ in their design. The two basic forms of network
design are called client/server and peer-to-peer. Client-server networks feature
centralized server computers that store email, Web pages, files and or applications.

A Network Topology
A network topology represents its layout or structure from the point of view of data
flow.

Network Protocols
Communication languages used by computer devices are called network protocol.
Yet another way to classify computer networks is by the set of protocols they
support. Networks often implement multiple protocols with each supporting
specific applications. Popular protocols include TCP/IP, the most common
protocol found on the Internet and in home networks.

The Internet
The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networksthat use the
Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link devices worldwide. It is anetwork of
networks that consists of private, public, academic, business, and government
networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless,
and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range of
information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents
and applications of the World Wide Web(WWW), electronic mail, telephony, and
peer-to-peer networks for file sharing.

An intranet

An intranet is a private network that is contained within an enterprise. It may

consist of many interlinked local area networks and also use leased lines in the
wide area network. Typically, an intranet includes connections through one or
more gateway computers to the outside Internet. The main purpose of an intranet is
to share company information and computing resources among employees. An
intranet can also be used to facilitate working in groups and for teleconferences.

An extranet

An extranet is a private network that uses Internet technology and the public
telecommunication system to securely share part of a business's information or
operations with suppliers, vendors, partners, customers, or other businesses. An
extranet can be viewed as part of a company's intranet that is extended to users
outside the company. It has also been described as a "state of mind" in which the
Internet is perceived as a way to do business with other companies as well as to
sell products to customers.

A personal area network-PAN

Definition: A personal area network-PAN- is a computer network organized

around an individual person. Personal area networks typically involve a mobile
computer, a cell phone and/or a handheld computing device such as a PDA. You
can use these networks to transfer files including email and calendar appointments,
digital photos and music.

Local area network

A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a
limited geographical area such as home, school, computer laboratory, office
building, or closely positioned group of buildings. Each computer or device on the
network is a node.

Metropolitan area network

A Metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that usually

spans a city or a large campus.

Wide area network

A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large geographic
area such as a city, country, or spans even intercontinental distances, using a
communications channel that combines many types of media such as telephone
lines, cables, and air waves. A WAN often uses transmission facilities provided by
common carriers, such as telephone companies.

Client-Server Network

Aclient-server networkis designed for end-users, calledclients, to access resources

such as files, songs, video collections, or some other service from a central
computer called a server.

A Peer-To-Peer (P2p) Network

In its simplest form, a peer-to-peer (P2P) network is created when two or more PCs
are connected and share resources without going through a separate server
computer. A P2P network can be an ad hoc connection—a couple of computers
connected via a Universal Serial Bus to transfer files.

Network Topology
A network topology is the pattern in which nodes(i.e., computers, printers, routers
or other devices) are connected to a local area network(LAN) or other network via
links (e.g., twisted paircopper wire cable or optical fiber cable).
There are four principal topologies used in LANs: bus, ring, star and mesh. The
most widely used of these is bus, because it is employed by Ethernet, which is the
dominant LAN architecture. In a bus topology all devices are connected to a
central cable, called the bus or backbone. This topology is relatively inexpensive
and easy to install for small networks.
In a ring topology each device is connected directly to two other devices, one on
either side of it, to form a closed loop. This topology is relatively expensive and
difficult to install, but it offers high bandwidth and can span large distances. A
variation is the token ring, in which signals travel in only one direction around the
loop, carried by a so-called token from node to node.
In a star topology all devices are connected directly to a central computer or server.
Such networks are relatively easy to install and manage, but bottlenecks can occur
because all data must pass through the central device.

The mesh topology can be either a full mesh or a partial mesh. In the former, each
computer is connected directly to each of the others. In the latter, some computers
are connected to most of the others, and some are connected only to those other
nodes with which they exchange the most data.

The several basic network topologies can be combined in various ways to form
hybrid topologies, such as a ring-star network or a tree network. The latter consists
of two or more star networks connected to a linear bus.
The word topology comes from the Greek words topos meaning place and logos
meaning study. It is a description of any locality in terms of its layout. Topology is
a branch of mathematics concerned with properties of geometric figures that are
distorted without tearing or bonding together.

Internet security
Internet security is a branch of computer security,Its objective is to establish rules
and measures to use against attacks over the Internet. [1]The Internet represents an
insecure channel for exchanging information leading to a high risk of intrusionor
fraud, such as phishing.

Malware
Malware, short for malicious software, is any software used to disrupt computer
operation, gather sensitive information, or gain access to private computer systems.
Malware is defined by its malicious intent, acting against the requirements of the
computer user, and does not include software that causes unintentional harm due to
some deficiency.

A botnet

A botnet is a network of zombie computersthat have been taken over by a robot or

bot that performs large-scale malicious acts for the creator of the botnet.

Computer Viruses

Computer Viruses are programs that can replicate their structures or effects by
infecting other files or structures on a computer. The common use of a virus is to
take over a computer to steal data.

*. Computer worms

*. Computer worms are programs that can replicate themselves throughout a

computer network, performing malicious tasks throughout.

*. Ransomware

*. Ransomware is a type of malware which restricts access to the computer system

that it infects, and demands a ransom paid to the creator(s) of the malware in order
for the restriction to be removed.

*. Spyware

*. Spyware refers to programs that surreptitiously monitor activity on a computer

system and report that information to others without the user's consent.
*.A Trojan horse

*.A Trojan horse, commonly known as aTrojan, is a general term for malicious
software that pretends to be harmless, so that a user willingly allows it to be
downloaded onto the computer.

Denial-of-service attacks

A denial-of-service attack (DoS attack) or distributed denial-of-service attack

(DDoS attack) is an attempt to make a computer resource unavailable to its
intended users.

Phishing

Phishing occurs when the attacker pretends to be a trustworthy entity, either via
email or web page. Victims are directed to fake web pages, which are dressed to
look legitimate, via spoof emails, instant messenger/social media or other avenues.
Often tactics such as email spoofingare used to make emails appear to be from
legitimate senders

Application Vulnerability

Applications used to access Internet resources may contain security vulnerabilities

such as memory safety bugs or flawed authentication checks. The most severe of
these bugs can give network attackers full control over the computer.