[Link].

com/scientificreports

OPEN Modulation and control of

transformerless boosting inverters
for three-phase photovoltaic
systems: comprehensive analysis
Mostafa Wageh Lotfy1, Ramadan Mahmoud Mostafa1, Haitham S. Ramadan2,3,
Mahmoud F. Elmorshedy4,5 & Sherif M. Dabour5
This paper examines the performance of three power converter configurations for three-phase
transformerless photovoltaic systems. This first configuration consists of a two-stage DC–DC–AC
converter comprised of a DC–DC boost chopper and a three-phase voltage source inverter. The second
and third configurations are the single-stage quasi-Z-source inverter (qZSI) and the split-source
inverter (SSI). The performance of the presented topologies has been analyzed and compared in terms
of topological requirements, modulation techniques, and control of output voltage, considering both
ideal and parasitic cases. Moreover, the voltage and current stresses on the devices, passive elements,
and efficiency are also addressed. Simulation and experimental testing were subsequently carried out
to validate the analysis and evaluate the performance of the proposed topologies.

Keywords Split source inverter, Voltage source inverter, Photovoltaic (PV) system, quasi-Z-source inverter
(q-ZSI)

VOLTAGE-SOURCE INVERTERS (VSIs) are the most widely spread dc–ac power converters. However, VSIs
only allow for dc–ac inversion with buck capabilities, i.e., the output AC line voltage of conventional inverters
is inherently constrained by the magnitude of the available DC input voltage, which poses a significant
limitation for their application in renewable energy systems. This constraint becomes particularly problematic
in photovoltaic (PV) and fuel cell-based systems, where the input voltage is often low, variable, and subject to
fluctuations due to changes in environmental conditions such as solar irradiance or fuel cell dynamics. As a
result, these conventional inverter topologies are generally considered unsuitable for direct integration with
such energy sources, as they fail to provide the necessary voltage boosting capability and stability required for
efficient and reliable power conversion1,2. This challenge underscores the need for advanced inverter topologies,
such as Z-source or quasi-Z-source inverters, that can simultaneously perform voltage boosting and inversion
in a single stage, thereby enhancing the efficiency and adaptability of renewable energy conversion systems. The
addition of a boosting stage has thus commonly been used to increase the dc-voltage level, as clarified in Fig. 1a3.
Z-source inverters (ZSIs) that provide boosting and inversion in a single stage have recently gained attention
owing to their reduced size, cost, weight, and system complexity compared with their two-stage equivalent4,5.
The ZSI topology serves as the foundational circuit for many recently developed single-stage topologies. Over
the past two decades, more than 2000 publications on this topic have appeared in the IET and IEEE databases.
Key milestone concepts in this field are comprehensively detailed in references6–[Link] the basic ZSI’s core
purpose remains the same, its topology, modulation, boosting capability, reliability, and efficiency have been
improved7. The first improved topology is the quasi-Z-source inverter (q-ZSI), shown in Figure 1b11. The
structure of the q-ZSI is very similar to that of the basic ZSI, except that the input current is continuous, and
the voltage stresses are lower12. It is commonly used for single-stage PV systems owing to its continuous input
current and simple structure13,14. Many applications, including automotive and renewable energy systems, have
also used qZSI6,15. In the three-phase quasi-Z-source inverter (q-ZSI), an impedance network consisting of

1Department of Process Control Technology, Faculty of Technology and Education, Beni-Suef University, Beni Suef,

Egypt. 2Electrical Power and Machines Department, Faculty of Engineering, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519,
Egypt. 3ISTHY, Institut National du Stockage Hydrogène, 90120 Morvillars, Belfort Territory, France. 4Renewable
Energy Lab, College of Engineering, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh,11586, Saudi Arabia. 5Electrical Power
and Machines Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Tanta University, 31733 Tanta, Egypt. email:
[Link]@[Link]

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Fig. 1. Analyzed topologies—(a) two-stage boost inverter, (b) quasi-Z-source inverter (q-ZSI), and (c) split-
source inverter (SSI).

two inductors, two capacitors, and a fast-recovery diode is strategically placed between the input DC source
and the conventional B6 bridge. This network plays a critical role in enabling the inverter’s voltage-boosting
capability. Unlike traditional inverters, the q-ZSI introduces shoot-through (ST) states alongside the standard
eight switching states to achieve this boost in voltage. The ST states are generated by employing seven unique
combinations of the B6 bridge, which allow the inverter to momentarily short-circuit the bridge, thus storing
and releasing energy from the impedance network to elevate the output voltage. This innovative approach not
only enhances the inverter’s voltage range but also contributes to its resilience against input voltage fluctuations7.
Despite this, the qZSI has been laboratory-confirmed to perform well in PV and FC systems. Nevertheless, it
appears that it cannot be substituted for the two-stage architecture due to the need for a longer shoot-through
time to obtain a high voltage gain, affecting the system’s efficiency and output voltage quality16.
There have been several modulation schemes proposed to enhance the boosting capability. These include
maximum boost control, constant boost control, maximum constant boost control, and modified space vector
modulation. These schemes are compared and evaluated in17.
It should be noted that ZSI/qZSI work within a limited modulation index range as (0.5 < M < 1), The
modulation index and output voltage gain have an inverse relationship, meaning that as the modulation index
decreases, the output voltage gain increases. However, this inverse relationship leads to higher Total Harmonic
Distortion (THD) in the output voltage and current waveforms when a high gain is required18. Among the
shortcomings reported in19 that limit their application in the industry are:

(a) The sum of the M and ST ratios is constant and limited by 0.5. Consequently, a low value of M is chosen for
a high boosting ratio. This reduces the ac voltage quality.
(b) The DC link has a pulsating voltage.

The split-source inverter (SSI), illustrated in Fig. 1c, is a relatively new topology that has emerged by integrating
a DC-boost converter directly into the traditional three-phase voltage source inverter (VSI)19–25. This innovative
design connects the boost inductor to the AC output terminals of the inverter legs through three diodes, enabling
the inverter to achieve both voltage boosting and inversion within a single stage. This integration simplifies the
overall circuit design by reducing the need for separate boosting stages, enhancing efficiency and compactness.
The SSI topology is particularly advantageous in applications where space and efficiency are critical, as it
consolidates the functions of voltage boosting and AC power generation into a streamlined configuration.
The boost converter was first applied to dc–ac power conversion by Caceres and Barbi8 and Abdelhakim et
al.9,10,13,26–34, The earlier approach focused on integrating two boost converters to achieve a sinusoidal output

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voltage. In contrast, Split-Source Inverters (SSIs) offer a more efficient design by utilizing fewer passive
components compared to quasi-Z-source inverters (q-ZSIs). SSIs maintain a continuous input current, which is
beneficial for reducing input ripple and improving overall stability. Additionally, SSIs can employ the standard
modulation strategy that utilizes the eight conventional states of a Voltage Source Inverter (VSI), simplifying the
control process. One of the key advantages of SSIs is their ability to maintain a constant DC-link voltage with
minimal low-frequency components, which enhances the quality of the output voltage and reduces the stress
on the power switches, thereby improving the overall efficiency and reliability of the system. This makes SSIs an
attractive option for applications requiring a compact, efficient, and robust power conversion solution.
Despite significant efforts by researchers in this field, comprehensive analyses focused on switching losses
have not garnered the same level of interest10. This work, therefore, aims to review the three transformerless
topologies, including the two-stage boost inverters, q-ZSIs, and SSIs, compare their topologies, and evaluate
their performance and suitability for PV applications. Moreover, a comprehensive analysis of topological
requirements, modulation techniques, output voltage control, and current stresses is performed. This work is
organized as follows.
In “Analyzed topologies” section, the three topologies are described. A review of the available topologies and
their modulation techniques, voltage gain, and boosting action control methods are introduced in “Comparison
items and equations” section.
Finally, the simulation results and experimental validations are discussed and followed by conclusions.

Analyzed topologies
The three analyzed topologies, shown in Fig. 1, can be classified as two-stages topology and one-stage topology.
The two-stage topology depicted in Fig. 1a consists of a standard DC-DC boost chopper followed by a three-
phase Voltage Source Inverter (VSI). In contrast, the quasi-Z-source inverter (q-ZSI), shown in Fig. 1b, functions
as a DC/DC buck-boost converter, depending on the shoot-through (ST) ratio, with key components facilitating
DC/AC conversion. The q-ZSI operates in two distinct modes: non-ST and ST10,26. In non-ST mode, it functions
similarly to a traditional VSI. However, in ST mode, at least one leg of the inverter is intentionally short-circuited
to enable the voltage boosting action.
The q-ZSI achieves this boost without the need for additional active switches, leveraging the B6 bridge to
generate the ST states. During ST mode, the zero state vectors of the inverter are partially or entirely utilized
to amplify the input DC voltage Es . This voltage amplification is primarily achieved through three specific
ST control techniques: simple-boost (SB), maximum-boost, and maximum-constant-boost (MCB). These
techniques are crucial for optimizing the q-ZSI’s performance, allowing it to efficiently convert and boost voltage
within a single integrated stage27.
The recently proposed SSI topology, given in Fig. 1c, can satisfy the boosting action with the minimum
number of reactive elements, in which only one inductor and one capacitor, as in the two-stages case, are used.
However, it requires additional three power diodes. SSIs have two modes of operation, inductive charging and
inductive discharging35–40.

Comparison items and equations

To obtain a fair comparison, the inverter stage (B6 switches) of the traditional two-stage dc–dc–ac converter,
the qZSI, and the SSI are modulated via the modified space vector modulation (MSVM) schemes, in which the
modulating signals are given in Fig. 228,29.
Parameters vital for an inverter analysis are listed below.
Vdc The input voltage to the B6 bridge.
cos(Φ) Power factor.
K Boosting factor.
M The modulation index of inverters.

Fig. 2. Three-phase modulating and carrier signals of the MSVM scheme.

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V Ac peak phase voltage or output peak voltage of the inverter.( √ )

δ The average duty ratio of the ST-state, equal to Tsh /Ts = 2π − 3 3M /2π

Topology
This section provides a comparative analysis of the different topologies based on the number of active
(semiconductor) and passive components involved. In the two-stage topology, an extra boosting stage is
implemented to elevate the input DC voltage before it is converted to AC using the traditional B6 bridge inverter.
This configuration necessitates the inclusion of an additional active switch and a forward diode, along with a
single inductor (L) and a capacitor, to facilitate the necessary voltage boosting41. As a result, this architecture
comprises a greater number of components, which can influence both its complexity and overall efficiency. By
examining the component count, this comparison highlights the trade-offs between the various topologies in
terms of design simplicity and performance capabilities.
The q-ZSI performs the boosting action using the B6 switches without any additional active elements to
perform the ST operation. However, a q-ZSI employs two inductors (L1 and L2) and two capacitors (C1 and C2)
in its impedance network.
To perform the boosting action alongside dc–ac inversion stage, additional switching states outside the
conventional eight states of the standard VSI are used to obtain the ST operation.
The Split-Source Inverter (SSI) employs the same B6 bridge configuration as the traditional three-phase
Voltage Source Inverter (VSI), utilizing the standard eight switching-state combinations. In this setup, at least
one of the lower switches (Sal , Sbl , Scl ) is activated to facilitate the charging of the inductor L. This approach
not only simplifies the design by maintaining compatibility with established VSI techniques but also enhances
the inverter’s efficiency by effectively managing energy storage within the inductor. By leveraging these standard
switching states, This operation can be performed via seven switching-state combinations (V0 –V6 ). However,
the remaining switching state V7 is used to discharge the inductance L through the dc-link capacitor C , The
q-ZSI has several significant drawbacks. Firstly, the shoot-through duty ratio must always remain below 0.5,
which limits its effectiveness in applications with very low input DC voltage. Additionally, the use of high-voltage
capacitors is necessary, which contributes to increased costs and larger system size.
From the discussion mentioned above, the following conclusions can therefore be made:

• The SSI and q-ZSI configurations allow for boosting the input dc voltage as in the two-stage configuration.
• Both the SSI and q-ZSI topologies demand a greater number of active switches and diodes for the charging
and discharging of the inductor compared to the conventional two-stage solution. This increased component
requirement results in higher current stresses on the switching devices, leading to greater conduction losses.

Modulation
To get a fair comparison between the modulation schemes of the presented topologies, a high-frequency
triangular carrier, vtri is compared with the modulating signals of each to generate the switching pulses. As
shown in Fig. 2, the modulating signals are given by injecting a third-harmonic signal to the sinusoidal references
to achieve the maximum possible modulation index.

Fig. 3. Comparison of the analysis modulations-Zoom on the reference and carrier signals for one switching
cycle.

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The modulation of the two-stage dc–dc–ac architecture can be divided into two separate modulators to
perform the boosting and inversion actions, as shown in Fig. 3. The dc-boost unit is controlled by comparing
the duty cycle Dch with the carrier wave, whereas the B6 switches are controlled via MSVM signals (va , vb , vc
)10. On the other hand, the q-ZSI is modulated as given by Abdelhakim et al. in30. The operation of the q-ZSI
topology requires ST pulses to specify the output voltage13. In contrast, the operation of the SSI does not require
any generation of special pulses or modifications of the conventional three-phase inverter (i.e., the VSI) for
its standard operation. Hence, the same modulation scheme can be applied to the VSI and SSI. In this study,
the MSVM presented by Abdelhakim et al.9 was utilized to obtain lower ripples in both the input current and
the dc-link voltage and provide better output voltage waveforms. It is worth noting that dead-time zones must
implement the SSI and the two-stage architectures, while in the q-ZSI, the dead-time is unnecessary.

Space vector PWM−→techniques

The space-vector V for each of the eight switching states of the standard VSI can be synthesized by:
( )
⃗ = 2/3 Van + Vbn ej2π/3 + Vcn ej4π/3 (1)
V

Utilizing space vector modulation for the phase voltages of the inverter yields eight distinct voltage vectors,
comprising six active vectors and two zero vectors. The resulting vectors, along with their corresponding
instantaneous common mode voltage (CMV) magnitudes for each switching vector, are illustrated in Fig. 4.
This representation is crucial for understanding how the different voltage vectors contribute to the overall
performance of the inverter, particularly in terms of controlling output voltage and minimizing common mode
voltage effects.
In conventional Space Vector Pulse
( ∗Width Modulation
) (SVPWM) for a three-phase Voltage Source Inverter
(VSI), the reference voltage vector V ⃗ = Mejϑ is synthesized using two adjacent active space vectors within
→∗
− −
→ −
→
each sector, along with zero vectors. For instance, if V falls within sector A1, the active vectors V1 and V2 , as
depicted in Fig. 5, are employed. The reference vector for each sample interval Ts is then determined based on
the volt-second balance principle. This approach ensures that the synthesized output voltage accurately matches
the desired reference voltage over each sampling period, facilitating precise control of the inverter’s output while
minimizing harmonic distortion.
→∗
− −
→ −
→ −
→
Ts V = T1 V1 + T2 V2 + Tz Vz (2)

where T1 , T2 , Tz are the time of application of the active and zero vectors V1 , V2 , Vz respectively, which are
calculated by:
T1 = Ts M sin(π/3 − ϑ),
T2 = Ts M sin(ϑ), (3)
Tz = Ts − T1 − T2

In the conventional SVPWM, Tz is equally shared between the zero vectors V0 and V7 with T0 and T7 . Therefore,

Fig. 4. Switching vectors and sectors of traditional SVM used in the VSI.

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Fig. 5. The generation of the reference vector for conventional SVPWM.

T0 = T7 = .5Tz = (1 − M sin(π/3 − ϑ))(4)

Equation (4) is valid for the entire linear region in the range of 0 ≤ M ≤ 1.

Operation of SSI
The three-phase SSI uses the same B6-bridge as the conventional three-phase VSI, considering the same eight
states as shown in Fig. 6.
This inverter uses at least one of the lower semiconductor switches Sal , Sbl , and Scl , to be ON to charge the
inductor L, where seven different states exist. Meanwhile, it uses only one state to discharge this inductor and
charge the inverter dc-link capacitor, as shown in Fig. 6h when all the upper switches Sau , Sbu , and Scu , are
ON i.e., state 111. The charging of L can be done considering three semiconductor Switches as shown in Fig. 6a,
or two semiconductor switches as shown in Fig. 6b, c, and e, or one semiconductor switch as shown in Fig. 6d,
f, and g.

Voltage gain and boosting action control

Ideal case
This section focuses on the voltage supplied to the quasi-Z-source inverter (q-ZSI) with a continuous input
current. The inverter operates in two modes: shoot-through (ST) and non-shoot-through (non-ST) states.
Accordingly, the following relationships are established31:
{ 1−δ
VC1 = 1−2δ
∗E
. (5)
VC2 = δ
1−2δ
∗E

The peak dc-link voltage at the input of the inverter bridge can be expressed as
1
Vinv = E = B ∗ E(6)
1 − 2δ

a Non-ST Mode

In this mode, the diode conducts forward, and the inverter bridge operates in six active states (V1 to V6) or
two null states (V0 and V7). During this operation, the capacitors charge while the inductors transfer their stored
energy to the load.

b ST Mode

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Fig. 6. The eight operating states of a single-stage DC-AC split-source inverter.

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This mode occurs when the Z-network is short-circuited by any inverter leg. In this state, the combined voltage
across the two capacitors exceeds the supply voltage E, causing the diode to become reverse-biased. The
capacitors then charge the inductors, while the DC-link voltage Vinv becomes zero.
In contrast, during the non-ST mode, the peak value of the DC-link voltage Vinv can be expressed as shown
in Eq. (6).
where B denotes the boost factor of the q-ZSI. Utilizing the concept of power invariance, the average inductive
currents flowing through L1 and L2 can then be calculated. This analysis is essential for understanding the
voltage boosting capabilities of the q-ZSI and for ensuring efficient power conversion in various applications .
By comprehensively evaluating these relationships, engineers can optimize the design and performance of the
inverter, ultimately enhancing its operational efficiency .
IL1 = IL2 = Iin = P/Vdc (7)

The SSI, however, has two operational modes:

i. L-charging mode:
{
E = ri1 + L ∂li
∂t (8)
VL = E − ri1

ii. L-discharging mode:

E = VL + VC + ri2 ,(9)
Vdc = VC = E − VL − ri2 .(10)

The ideal case can be analyzed by setting ∂

∂t
VL = 0 as
ET1 = − (E − VC ) T2 , VC T2 = E(T2 + T1 )(11)

where VC = E/D and D = (1 − M ), and M is the modulation index.

Non-ideal case (Considering the inductor resistance)

A non-ideal case can be analyzed by setting ∂t∂
VL ̸= 0.

VL = E − riL (12)
ET1 − riL T1 = −ET2 + VC T2 + riL T2 (13)
E r ∂
VC = − iL (14)
D D ∂t

The inductive current IL can be calculated using the power balance equation as

Po = Pin − Pr (15)
3  ∂ ∂
Vph Iph cosϕ = E IL − IL 2 r(16)
2 ∂t ∂t

where iL represents average inductive current.


E± E 2 − 4r 32 Vph Iph cosϕ (17)
IL =
2r
{ √ }
BE 2r 2
VC = 1+ 1− G cosϕ (18)
2 Z
  
M BE 2r 2
Vph r = √ 1+ 1− G cosϕ (19)
3 2 Z
{ √ }
M 2r 2 M2
Gr = 1+ 1− G cosϕ (20)
2(1 − M ) Z (1 − M )2

The modulation index of an SSI can be calculated as

( √ √ )
M = 3Z + 2 6 Z ∗ r ∗ cosϕ / (3Z ∗ 8r ∗ cosϕ) ,(21)

where

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Vph = M
√B E
3
= G
√
3
E,
.(22)
Vph r = √
Gr
3
E

Mathematical derivation
The SB-MSVM strategy proposed for the three-phase q-Z-source inverter (q-ZSI) was mathematically formulated
based on the methodologies outlined by Peng26 and Zdanowski et al.13. This formulation involved the approach
introduced by Abdelhakim et al.30, which facilitated the estimation of the necessary inductance and capacitance
values for the system. The expressions derived for these parameters are as follows, the inductance Lq can be
calculated using the formula:
M · (1 − M ) · E
Lq = ,(23)
(2M − 1) · 2fs · ∆I

where M represents the modulation index, E is the input voltage, fs denotes the switching frequency, and
∆I signifies the peak-to-peak ripple in the inductor current. This relationship highlights the interplay between
the modulation index and the inductance value, emphasizing how varying these parameters affects system
performance, The capacitance C1 required for the first capacitor can be derived from the following equation:
(1 − M ) · Iin
C1 = ,(24)
fS · ∆V c1

Here, Iin represents the average input current, and ∆V c1 is the peak-to-peak voltage ripple across the capacitor
C1 . This equation underscores the significance of the modulation index and input current in determining the
capacitance needed to maintain voltage stability, Similarly, for the second capacitor, the capacitance C2 can be
expressed as:
(1 − M ) · Iin
C2 = ,(25)
fS · ∆V c2

In this case, ∆V c2 indicates the peak-to-peak voltage ripple across capacitor C2 . This equation further
demonstrates the role of the modulation index and input current in establishing the appropriate capacitance
levels necessary for effective operation.
By employing the Simple Boost Maximum Space Vector Modulation (SB-MSVM) strategy, the duty cycle Do
can be decoupled from the modulation index MMM, allowing for the introduction of two control parameters
suitable for closed-loop applications based on the mathematical derivation of the Split-Source Inverter (SSI).
The required capacitance and inductance values can be determined similarly to those in a boost converter by
focusing solely on the ripple associated with the switching frequency10. This approach facilitates precise control
over the system’s dynamic response, ensuring stability and optimal performance in various operating conditions.
Ms · E
Ls = ,(26)
fs · ∆I
(1 − Ms ) · Iin
Cs = ,(27)
fs · ∆Vdc

where the mathematical derivation of the two-stage boost inverter employs the same modulation strategy.
Following the approach introduced by32,33, the required inductance was estimated as
E·D
Ltwo = (28)
fs · ∆I

From Eqs. (23) and (26),

{ } { }
MZ · (1 − MZ ) · E MS · E
LqZSI /LSSI = / (29)
(2MZ − 1) · 2fs · ∆I fs · ∆I

MZ · (1 − MZ )
LqZSI /LSSI = .(30)
2 · (2MZ − 1) · MS

From Eqs. (26) and (28),

{ } { }
E·D MS · E
LT W O /LSSI = / ,(31)
fs · ∆I fs · ∆I
DT W O
LT W O /LSSI = .(32)
Ms

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To obtain the modulation indexes for q-ZSI, SSI, and the two-stage boost inverter for the same gain. The
normalized fundamental output peak phase voltage (Vph /E ) for q-ZSI can be estimated by

Vph M
GqZSI = = √ .(33)
E 3(2M − 1)

The SSI can then be estimated by

Vph M
GSSI = = √ .(34)
E 3(1 − M )

The two-stage can be estimated by

Vph M
GT W O = = √ .(35)
E 3(1 − Dch )

For the same voltage gain in the output. From Eq. (33),
√
3 · GqZSI
MqZSI = √ .(36)
2 3(G − 1)

From Eq. (34),

√
3 · GSSI
MSSI = √ .(37)
3G + 1

From Eq. (35),

√
MT W O = 3 (1 − Dch ) ·GT W O .(38)

The advantages gained from using the MSVPWM strategy rather than traditional continuous modulation
strategies are summarized in Table 1. The MSVPWM strategies achieved the fewest commutations using the
fewest reference signals. Employing the SV-MSVM strategy allowed for the following advantages:

• The effective switching frequency of the switches (Sau , Sbu , and Scu ) is equal to two-thirds of the carrier
frequency.
• The effective switching frequency of the switches (Sal , Sbl , andScl ) is equal to the carrier frequency.
• The number of switching variations was reduced from traditional modulation strategies.
• Relieve one every time.
• Simple generating gate signals.

Inverter features Two-stage q-ZSI27 SSI

Circuit diagram Figure 1a Figure 1b Figure 1c
No. of switches 7 6 6
No. of diodes 1 1 3
No. of inductors 1 2 1
No. of capacitors 1 2 1
THD of the output voltage Lowest Low at low-voltage gains Low at high voltage gains
Modulation Strategy SBMSV SBMSV SBMSV
Reliability Low Low Low
PWM Complexity Moderate Complex Simple
Input current waveform Continuous Continuous Continuous
1 1 1
Boosting factor 1−Dch 1−2D sh δl

M M M
Voltage gain √
3(1−Dch )
√
3(2M −1)
√
3(1−M )

1 1
=
VC2 DSh
Capacitor voltage (1−DCh ) E (1−2D Sh ) (1−DCh )

Voltage stresses Lowest Highest Low

Voltage gain control Simple Complex Moderate
dc-voltage, Vdc Continuous Pulsed Continuous
Efficiency 88% 89% 93%

Table 1. The parameters of the prototypes studied are summarized in this table.

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The analyzed topologies are compared in Fig. 7, where the SSI topology is compared with that of the q-ZSI
topology in Fig. 7a and that of the two-stage topology in Fig. 7b.
The implementation of the modulation technique relies on the use of comparators and the quantity of
modulating signals. Among the options analyzed, the Split-Source Inverter (SSI) is the simplest to modulate,
as it requires only the duty cycles for each phase. In contrast, both the standard DC–DC–AC converter and the
quasi-Z-source inverter (q-ZSI) necessitate a greater number of modulating signals and comparators.
However, the DC–DC–AC topology offers more flexibility in controlling voltage gain compared to the
q-ZSI topology, as the inverter’s operation does not restrict the performance of the boosting stage. Overall, the
proposed Simple Boost Maximum Space Vector Modulation (SB-MSVM) strategy effectively achieves the same
voltage gain and operational stresses as the Simple Boost Space Vector (SBSV) method while incorporating
the boost actions represented by (BS , Bq ), Additionally, it balances the inductances (LqZSI /LSSI ) and the
modulation indexes (MqZSI , MSSI ) between the SSI and the q-ZSI. This versatility positions the SB-MSVM
strategy as a promising approach for enhancing the performance of inverter systems in various applications.

Simulation and experimental validation

Simulation validation
To further analyze the three topologies, they were simulated via MATLAB/SIMULINK®; the parameters used
are listed in Table 2.
The analyzed topologies of the three-phase inverters were configured to supply a three-phase inductive
load (10-Ω resistance in series with 5-mH inductance) from a low-voltage dc supply; an input dc voltage or
Photovoltaic Panel of 100 V was assumed for the simulation, whereas 20 V was used in the experimental design.
The required load power and voltage, according to the site temperature and solar conditions and the possible

Fig. 7. outcomes of analytical comparisons between the various topologies examined. (a) Results of the Split-
Source Inverter (SSI) in relation to the quasi-Z-source inverter (q-ZSI), while (b) comparison between the SSI
and the two-stage topology.

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Parameter Two-stage q-ZSI SSI

√
M1 3 0.612 0.838
2

Frequency FI 20,000 HZ
Frequency FO 50 HZ
L = 5 mH L = 5 mH L = 5 mH
Inductance and capacitance
C = 470 μF C = 470 μF C = 470 μF
dc voltage 100 V
Boosting factor 3

Table 2. Parameters used for the simulation of the analyzed topologies.

boosting gain range, we can estimate the maximum power voltage range. Using any of the known MPPT method
[perturb and observe, incremental conductance, etc], the DC gain can be altered to reach the maximum point,
and at the same time, the required output voltage is secured by the suitable modulation index. A leading-edge
sawtooth carrier wave with a frequency of 20 kHz was used. For the SSI, the inductance and capacitance of the
dc-link capacitor were assumed as 5 mH and 470 µF. For the q-ZSI, the network impedance and capacitance
were assumed as 5 mH and 470 μF, whereas those of the two-stage dc–dc–ac converter were 5 mH and 470 μF.
The obtained simulation results of the q-ZSI, SSI, and two-stage three-phase inverter are shown in Figs. 8, 9,
and 10, including the phase and line voltages, output currents, and capacitor voltage, dc-link voltage waveforms
and the total harmonic distortion analysis of inverters at phase voltage. The simulation results exhibit high-
quality sinusoidal output currents. The detailed simulation results for the q-ZSI, SSI, and two-stage three-phase
inverter are presented in Figs. 8, 9, and 10, highlighting critical performance parameters such as phase and line
voltages, output currents, capacitor voltages, DC-link voltage waveforms, and total harmonic distortion (THD)
analysis at the phase voltage.
Upon examination, the simulation results reveal that all three inverter configurations successfully generate
high-quality sinusoidal output currents, which are essential for maintaining grid compatibility and load
efficiency. The phase voltage waveforms are smooth and free from significant distortions, indicating effective
modulation strategies for stable power delivery.
The THD analysis shows notable differences between the configurations. The SSI demonstrates superior
harmonic performance, with lower THD compared to the two-stage DC–DC–AC inverter, thanks to its
continuous current path and shoot-through capability that enhances power quality. The q-ZSI also performs
well due to its inherent capability to boost and condition the voltage in a single stage, thereby reducing switching
losses and harmonic content.
Capacitor and DC-link voltage waveforms provide insight into the stability of energy storage and transfer
within each topology. The SSI maintains a more stable capacitor voltage, contributing to smoother inverter
operation and enhanced power conversion efficiency. Meanwhile, the two-stage configuration shows larger
voltage fluctuations, which could affect long-term reliability and thermal management.
These findings underscore the advantages of single-stage inverter topologies, particularly the SSI and q-ZSI,
in terms of reduced harmonic distortion, improved energy management, and enhanced output quality. The
comparative simulation analysis highlights the potential of these advanced inverter designs for transformerless
photovoltaic systems and other renewable energy applications.

Experimental validation
To verify the performance of the analyzed topologies, a small-scale prototype of the Split-Source Inverter (SSI) was
developed and implemented in the laboratory, utilizing a custom-designed and configurable power electronics
development kit from PEModule®42. The parameters employed in the prototype are detailed in Table 3, and the
experimental setup is depicted in Fig. 11. The SSI was constructed using the Texas Instruments LaunchPad
LAUNCHXL-F28379D DSP board, which is responsible for generating the gating pulses for the Maximum
Space Vector Modulation (MSVM) and the associated dead-time generation, set at 2 µs. Based on equations
(26) and (27), inductor and capacitor values of 2.5 mH and 150 µF were selected for this implementation. This
experimental setup allows for comprehensive testing and analysis of the SSI’s performance, enabling further
insights into its operational characteristics and potential applications in power conversion systems
The TI-F28379D DSP board, highlighting its real-time control capabilities, high processing speed, and
compatibility with advanced modulation strategies, the results of the case studies conducted on the Split-Source
Inverter (SSI), detailed in Table 1, are illustrated in Fig. 12, which presents various waveforms that offer critical
insights into the inverter’s performance. Panel (a) showcases the captured waveforms of the input and output
currents, revealing how the SSI interacts with the input source and delivers power to the load. Panel (b) further
depicts the output line voltage and output current Ib , along with the output phase voltage, highlighting the
inverter’s ability to maintain voltage levels while supplying current. To provide a deeper understanding of the
transient behavior, zoomed-in views of a one-millisecond interval for the input and output currents, as well as
the DC-link voltage, are shown in panels (c), (d), and (f), respectively. These detailed views are essential for
assessing current ripple, load regulation, and the stability of the DC-link voltage, which directly influences the
quality of the AC output. Collectively, these waveforms facilitate a comprehensive analysis of the SSI’s operational
efficiency and effectiveness, informing potential design optimizations and enhancing the overall performance of
power electronic systems.

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Fig. 8. Simulation results of the q-ZSI using the proposed SB-MSVM strategy, where (a) inverter phase
voltage, (b) output line currents, (c) inverter line voltage, (d) dc-link voltage, voltage of the (e) C1 and (f) C2
capacitors, (g) inductor voltage waveforms, and (h) THD analysis of q-ZSI inverter at phase voltage.

Conclusion
This paper presents a comparative analysis of the three-phase Split-Source Inverter (SSI), quasi-Z-source inverter
(q-ZSI), and the conventional two-stage DC–DC–AC inverter. The findings indicate that the SSI outperforms
both the q-ZSI and the two-stage boost inverter. Furthermore, the SSI can utilize the same standard modulation
techniques as the traditional two-stage DC–DC–AC inverter, while also accommodating continuous input
current and offering a shorter commutation path compared to the q-ZSI. Additionally, the modified Space
Vector Pulse Width Modulation (SVPWM) scheme significantly enhances the SSI’s performance by effectively
mitigating low-frequency components in the input inductor current and DC-link capacitor voltage. This
improvement underscores the advantages of adopting the Simple Boost Maximum Space Vector Modulation
(SB-MSVM) strategy, which optimizes system efficiency and stability. The comparative assessment presented in
this paper offers valuable insights for researchers, enabling a deeper understanding of the differences between
various modulation schemes and guiding the selection of the most appropriate technique for specific power
conversion applications.
Furthermore, this paper also introduces a comparative study between the analyzed topologies. These
topologies (i.e., the conventional two-stage inverter, SSI, and q-ZSI) were theoretically analyzed and verified
using MATLAB/SIMULINK®. The SSI experimental prototype was then investigated.

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Fig. 9. Simulation results of the SSI using the proposed SB-MSVM strategy, where (a) inverter phase voltage,
(b) output line currents, (c) inverter line voltage, (d) inductor current, (e) capacitor voltage waveforms, and (f)
THD analysis of SSI inverter at phase voltage.

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Fig. 10. Simulation results of the traditional two-stage inverter using the proposed MSVM strategy, where (a)
inverter phase voltage, (b) output line currents, (c) inverter line voltage, (d) inductor current and (e) capacitor
voltage waveforms, and (f) THD analysis of traditional two-stage inverter at phase voltage.

Parameter Value Parameter Value

Switching frequency 20 kHz DSP TI-F28379D
Dead time 2 µs M .5
Inductor 2.5 mH Load 11 Ω & 5 mH
Capacitor 150 µF/400 V

Table 3. Experimental study parameters for the SSI.

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Fig. 11. Photographs of the experimental setup, where (1) six IGBT modules, (2) Six Modules Signal Collector
Board, (3) F28379D Launchpad Kit Card™, (4) The oscilloscope, (5) The rectifier circuit, (6) digital multimeter,
(7) LS With three fast-recovery diodes, (8) Clamp ampere, (9) dc supply, (10) Six current sensors and (11)
RL-loads.

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Fig. 12. Obtained experimental results of the three-phase SSI using the proposed SB-MSVM strategy, where
(a) dc current and output line currents (Ia ,Ib, Ic ), (b) line voltage, Ib , (c) zoomed-in views of dc current and
output line currents (Ia ,Ib, Ic ), capacitor voltage, (d) zoomed-in views of line voltage, Ib , (e) phase voltage and
output line current Ib , and (f) zoomed-in views of the phase voltage and output line current Ib waveforms.

Data availability
The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding
author on reasonable request.

Received: 23 November 2024; Accepted: 10 March 2025

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Author contributions
Mostafa Wageh Lotfy, Ramadan Mahmoud Mostafa, and Sherif M. Dabour. wrote the main manuscript text and
Mostafa Wageh Lotfy, Ramadan Mahmoud Mostafa, Haitham S. Ramadan, Mahmoud F. Elmorshedy and Sherif
M. Dabour prepared all figures. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Funding
Open access funding provided by The Science, Technology & Innovation Funding Authority (STDF) in cooper-
ation with The Egyptian Knowledge Bank (EKB).

Declarations

Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethical approval
The paper is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere.

Additional information
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