Lecture 7

Routing Fundamentals and Routing Protocols

Prof. Dr. Salah Abdulghani

University of Mosul
Computer Engineering Department
Routing Overview

A router is a network layer device that uses one or more

routing metrics to determine the optimal path.

Routing metrics are values used in determining the

advantage of one route over another.

Routing protocols use various combinations of metrics for

determining the best path for data.
Routed, Routable and Routing Protocols
Routed Protocols: These are protocols that are used to actually transmit data packets from
one network to another. They provide the necessary information for data packets to be routed
through a network of interconnected devices (routers) to reach their destination. Examples of
routed protocols include Internet Protocol (IP) and IPv6.

Routable Protocols: Routable protocols are protocols that can be used with routers to forward
data packets from one network to another. In essence, any protocol that supports addressing
and routing of data packets across networks can be considered routable. These protocols
typically define a set of rules for addressing, encapsulation, and routing. Examples include IP,
IPv6, Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX), and AppleTalk.

Routing Protocols: These are protocols specifically designed to facilitate the routing of data
packets within a network or across multiple networks. They enable routers to dynamically learn
about the network topology, exchange routing information with other routers, and make
decisions on the best paths for forwarding packets. Routing protocols include protocols like
Routing Information Protocol (RIP), Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), Border Gateway
Protocol (BGP), and Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP).
Routable and Routed Protocols
Routed protocols refer to the protocols that actually carry data across a network.
They provide the necessary addressing and packet structure for data transmission.
A routed protocol allows the router to forward data between nodes on different
networks.

Routable protocols, on the other hand, are protocols that can be used by routers
to forward data packets. They define the rules and addressing schemes that routers
understand to efficiently route data between networks.
In order for a protocol to be routable, it must provide the ability to assign a network
number and a host number to each individual device.

In essence, all routed protocols are routable, but not all routable protocols are
routed. For instance, IP is both a routed and routable protocol because it carries
data packets across networks and can be routed by routers. However, protocols
like IPX and AppleTalk are considered routable but not necessarily routed, as they
might not be commonly used for data transmission in modern networks.
Routable/Routed Protocols

• Some protocols, such as Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX), require

only a network number because these protocols use the host's MAC
address for the host number.

• Other protocols, such as the Internet Protocol (IP), require a complete

address consisting of a network portion and a host portion. IP as a
Routed Protocol .

• The network address is obtained by ANDing the address with the

network mask.

• The reason that a network mask is used is to allow groups of sequential

IP addresses to be treated as a single unit.
 In terms of: Routed protocols Routable protocols
Purpose Used for actual transmission of data Support routing functionality by providing
packets between nodes on different addressing schemes that routers can
networks. understand to forward data packets.
Functionality Define the structure of data packets and Define addressing schemes and rules that
how they are transmitted across enable routers to route data packets
networks. across networks.
Examples IPv4, IPv6 and IPX. IP, IPv6, IPX, and AppleTalk.

Addressing Provide addresses that routers use to Support addressing schemes that allow
forward packets to their destinations. routers to identify both network and host
portions of addresses.
Transmission Actually carry data packets across Enable routers to route data packets by
networks. providing the necessary addressing and
encapsulation.
Network Layer Define how data is addressed and Focus specifically on providing addressing
Functions routed across networks. and routing capabilities.
Configuration Have limitations in terms of scalability. Designed with scalability to support
efficient routing.
 Routed and Routing Protocols
Routed protocols are network protocols that define the format and structure of data
packets and provide enough information in their network layer addresses to allow
routers to forward them to their destinations across different networks.
Routed protocols:
• Includes any network protocol suite that provides enough information in its network
layer address to allow a router to forward it to the next device and finally to its
destination.
• Defines the format and use of the fields within a packet.
Routing protocols are protocols used by routers to determine the optimal path for
forwarding data packets from their source to their destination across an interconnected
network. These protocols facilitate the exchange of routing information between
routers, allowing them to build and maintain routing tables that contain information
about network topology and available routes.
Routing protocols:
• Provides processes for sharing route information.
• Allows routers to communicate with other routers to update and maintain the routing
tables.
 In terms of: Routed protocols Routing protocols
Functionality focus on defining addressing and packet focus on facilitating the exchange of
structure. routing information between routers
Purpose: Facilitate data transmission between Determine best paths for forwarding data
hosts. between networks.
Scope: End-to-end host communication. Inter-router communication, path
determination.
Packet Handling Define packet format. Exchange routing info between routers.

Updates: Infrequent updates. Constant updates for network changes.

Addressing: Define host/network addressing. Rely on routed protocols' addressing for
routing.
Complexity: Routed protocols are simpler. involve complex algorithms.
Configuration: on hosts and routers. on routers for info exchange and path
determination.
Transmission vs. involved in the actual transmission of involved in the exchange of routing
Exchanging data packets information between routers
Granularity: deal with individual packets. manage routing tables and paths.
Packet Propagation and Switching Within a Router
1. As a frame is received at a router interface.

2. The MAC address is checked to see if the frame is directly addressed to the router
interface, or a broadcast.

3. The frame header and trailer are removed and the packet is passed up to Layer 3.

4. The destination IP address is compared to the routing table to find a match.

5. The packet is switched to the outgoing interface and given the proper frame
header.

6. The frame is then transmitted.

Router Functions

The router uses two basic functions:

• A path determination function

• A switching function

Path determination occurs at the network layer. The router uses the
routing table to determine the best path and then uses the switching
function to forward the packet.

The switching function is the internal process used by a router to accept

a packet on one interface and forward it to a second interface on the
same router.
 Path Determination
Path determination enables a router to compare the destination address to the
available routes in its routing table, and to select the best path.

The routers learn of these available routes through static routing or dynamic routing.

Routes configured manually by the network administrator are static routes.

Routes learned by others routers using a routing protocol are dynamic routes.

The router uses path determination to decide which port an incoming packet should be
sent out of to travel on to its destination.

This process is also referred to as routing the packet.

Each router that the packet encounters along the way is called a hop.
The hop count is the distanced traveled.

Similarly, routers can make decisions based on the load, bandwidth, delay, cost, and
reliability of a network link.
Routing Algorithms and Metrics
Routing protocols have one or more of the following design goals:

 Optimization
 Simplicity and low overhead
 Robustness and stability
 Flexibility
 Rapid convergence

An algorithm is a software that provide detailed solution to a problem.

In the case of routing packets, different routing protocols use different

algorithms to decide which port an incoming packet should be sent to.

Routing algorithms depend on metrics to make these decisions.

Routing Algorithms and Metrics (Cont.)

The goal of a routing protocol is to build and maintain a routing table. This
table contains the learned networks and associated ports for those networks.
Routers use routing protocols to manage information received from other
routers and its interfaces, as well as manually configured routes.

The routing protocol learns all available routes, places the best routes into
the routing table, and removes routes when they are no longer valid.

The routing algorithm is fundamental to dynamic routing.

Most routing algorithms can be classified into one of two categories:

1. Distance vector
2. Link-state
Routing Tables
Routers use routing protocols to build and maintain routing tables that contain route information.
Routers keep track of important information in their routing tables, including the following:

 Protocol type
 Destination/next-hop associations
 Routing metric
 Outbound interfaces

Routers communicate with one another to maintain their routing tables through the transmission
of routing update messages.

Some routing protocols transmit update messages periodically, while others send them only
when there are changes in the network topology.
Some protocols transmit the entire routing table in each update message, and some transmit
only routes that have changed.

By analyzing the routing updates from the neighboring routers, a router builds and maintains its
routing table.
Types of Routing Protocols Routing
Protocols

Intra Inter
Domain Domain
IGP EGP

Path
Dynamic Static
Vector

Distance Link State Normal Default

Vector Static Static

RIP OSPF

RIP 2 IS-IS

IGRP

EIGRP
Inter-domain and Intra-domain

Today, an internet can be so large that one routing protocol cannot handle
the task of updating the routing tables of all routers. For this reason, an
internet is divided into autonomous systems.

An autonomous system (AS) is a group of networks and routers under the

authority of a single administration.

 Routing inside an autonomous system is called Intra-domain routing.

 Routing between autonomous systems is called Inter-domain routing.

IGP and EGP

Intra-domain routing: IGPs route data within an autonomous system.

RIP, RIPv2, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF, IS-IS

Inter-domain routing: EGPs route data between autonomous systems.

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

IGPs: EGPs: BGP

RIP,IGRP

Autonomous System 100 Autonomous System 200

Inter-domain EGP

Inter-domain Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) refers to a category of

routing protocols used to exchange routing information between different
autonomous systems (ASes) or domains.

Inter-domain EGPs typically handle routing between separate entities or

organizations and are crucial for internet-wide connectivity.

Common types of Inter-domain EGPs include Border Gateway Protocol

(BGP), which is widely used for this purpose.
Inter-domain EGP - (BGP)

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) serves as an External Gateway Protocol (EGP),

facilitating the exchange of routing information between autonomous systems while
ensuring loop-free path selection.

Widely adopted by major companies and Internet Service Providers (ISPs), BGP is
the primary route advertising protocol used on the Internet.

BGP4, the latest version, introduced support for classless Inter-domain routing
(CIDR) and route aggregation.

Unlike common Internal Gateway Protocols (IGPs) such as RIP, OSPF, and EIGRP,
BGP does not rely on metrics like hop count, bandwidth, or delay.

Instead, it makes routing decisions based on network policies, employing various

BGP path attributes to determine the best path.
Intra-domain IGP

Intra-domain Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) refers to routing protocols used

within a single autonomous system (AS) or domain to exchange routing
information between routers.

Intra-domain IGPs can be categorized into two main types: static and
dynamic routing protocols.

Each type has its own set of features and variations, which we will discuss in
detail.
Static and Dynamic Routes

Static Routes uses preconfigured routes to send traffic to its destination.

Dynamic Routes uses algorithms to determine the best path.

 Static Routing
1. Normal Static
Static routing is a method of manually configuring the routing table on a router or
network device. With static routing, network administrators manually specify the
paths to reach specific destinations in the network. A static route defines where to
send traffic for specific destination networks. Static routes are typically configured by
specifying the destination network or host and the next-hop router or exit interface to
reach that destination.

2. Default Static

Default routing is a special case of static routing where a router is configured to

forward packets destined for any network not explicitly listed in its routing table to a
specific next-hop router or exit interface. In default routing, all packets that do not
match any specific static route in the routing table are forwarded according to the
default route. A default route is simply a static route with 0.0.0.0/0 as the destination
IP address.
Static-Default Method

Host A

Destination Next Hop Network 1 Network 2

Network 2 R1

Any Other R2
Host B

Routing table for host A

Destination Next Hop
Network 2 R1

Rest of the Internet Any Other R2

Routing table for host B

 Dynamic Routing

1. Distance Vector

Distance-Vector Routing Protocol is a type of routing protocol where routers

periodically exchange routing tables, containing information about the distance and
direction to reachable destinations, and update their own routing tables based on this
information.

2. Link State

Link-State Routing Protocol is a type of routing protocol where each router

constructs a map of the connectivity of the network and calculates the shortest path
to each destination.
Distance Vector Routing Protocol
Each router that uses distance vector routing first identifies its neighbors.

In distance-vector routing, the first thing each node creates is its own least-cost routing table with
the primary information it has about its immediate neighbors.

The interface that leads to each directly connected network has a distance of 0.
The distance vector routing algorithm passes periodic copies of a routing table from router to
router.
These regular updates between routers communicate topology changes.

Distance vector routing protocols use hop count as the metric to determine the best path to a
destination network. Each hop represents a router along the path to the destination, and the
route with the fewest hops is considered the best route.

The distance vector routing algorithm is also known as the Bellman-Ford algorithm.

As the distance vector discovery process proceeds, routers discover the best path to destination
networks based on the information they receive from each neighbor.
 01 Distance Vector Routing Protocol – RIPv1

RIPv1 is one of the oldest distance-vector routing protocols used in computer networks

It exchanges routing information between routers within the same autonomous system (AS).

RIP is a distance vector routing protocol that uses hop count as its metric.

Because hop count is the only routing metric used by RIP, it does not always select the fastest
path to a destination.

If the hop count is greater than 15, the packet is discarded.

Routing updates are broadcast every 30 seconds, by default.

RIP Version 1 (RIPv1) requires that all devices in the network use the same subnet mask
(default), because it does not include subnet mask information in routing updates. This is also
known as classful routing.
02 Distance Vector Routing Protocol – RIPv2

RIPv2 is an enhanced version of RIPv1 that addresses some of its

limitations, such as the lack of support for subnetting and classless routing.

RIP Version 2 (RIPv2) provides prefix routing, and does send subnet mask
information in routing updates. This is also known as classless routing.

With classless routing protocols, different subnets within the same network
can have different subnet masks.

The use of different subnet masks within the same network is referred to as
variable-length subnet masking (VLSM).
 03 Distance Vector Routing Protocol – IGRP
IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) is a distance-vector routing protocol developed by
Cisco.

IGRP was developed specifically to address problems associated with routing in large and
complex networks that were beyond the range of protocols such as RIP.

IGRP uses a composite metric to select the best and fastest available path to a destination
network path based on delay, bandwidth, load, and reliability.

IGRP also has a much higher maximum hop count limit than RIP, The maximum configurable
hop count of IGRP-routed packets is 255 (default 100).
Routing updates are broadcast every 90 seconds, by default.

IGRP uses only classful routing, meaning it does not include subnet mask information in its
routing updates. It assumes that all subnets within a classful network use the same subnet mask.

IGRP, like RIP version 1 (RIPv1), cannot support VLSM because it does not include subnet
mask information in its routing updates.
 04 Distance Vector Routing Protocol – EIGRP
EIGR (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) is a distance-vector routing
protocol developed by Cisco.

EIGRP is considered a hybrid routing protocol because it incorporates characteristics

of both distance-vector and link-state routing protocols. It uses distance-vector
algorithms for route calculation and link-state characteristics for neighbor discovery
and update propagation.

EIGRP uses a sophisticated composite metric known as the "metric" or "cost" to

determine the best path to a destination network. This metric considers factors such
as bandwidth, delay, reliability, and load along the path.

EIGRP is designed for fast convergence in response to changes in network topology.

EIGRP is a classless routing protocol which supports Variable Length Subnet Masking
(VLSM).
 IGRP Routing Metric Components

Bandwidth – The lowest

bandwidth value in the path.

Delay – The cumulative

interface delay along the path. Delay Delay Delay Delay
Reliability – The reliability on
the link towards the
destination as determined by
the exchange of keep lives.
Routing
Load – The load on a link Metric
towards the destination based
on bits per second.
 RIPv1 RIPv2 IGRP EIGRP
Routing Distance Distance Distance Hybrid
Protocol Vector Vector Vector
Class
Classful vs Classful Classless Classful Classless
Classless
Metrics Hop counts Hop counts Composite Composite
Max no. of 15 15 255 255
hops
Routing Periodically Triggered Periodically Triggered
updates
VLSM Support Not Support Support Not Support Support
Convergence Slow Fast Fast Very Fast
time
Mem size Small Medium Medium Large
CPU Usage Low Moderate Moderate High
Complexity Simple Moderate Complex Very Complex
Distance Vector Network Discovery Routing Tables
Black: The Initialization
for each router.

Blue: Networks coming

from the neighbor
N1 N2 N3 N4 routers.

Gray: Networks coming

R1 R2 R3 from other far routers.

Routing table for Router 1 Routing table for Router 2 Routing table for Router 3

Network Direction No. of Network Direction No. of Network Direction No. of

hops hops hops
N1 0 N2 0 N3 0

N2 0 N3 0 N4 0

N3 1 N4 1 N2 1

N4 2 N1 1 N1 2
Distance Vector Routing – Initialization Tables Meanings for the routing table

To: Destination
A’s Table B’s Table Co: Cost (Metric)
To Co Ne To Co Ne Ne: Next Hop
Each router first identify
A 0 - A 5 B A 5 -
its neighbors in its
B 5 - B 0 - routing table.
C 2 - C 4 -
2 Each router will mention
D 3 - 4 D ∞ the cost to reach to each
E ∞ C 3 E 3 - other node.

3 ∞ : Means that this

router is not direct
D’s Table C’s Table 4 E’s Table connect with this router.
To Co Ne To Co Ne To Co Ne

A 3 - A 2 - E A ∞
B ∞ B 4 - B 3 -

C ∞ D C 0 - C 4 -

D 0 - D ∞ D ∞
E ∞ E 4 - E 0 -
Distance Vector Routing – Final Tables

A’s Table B’s Table

To Co Ne To Co Ne

A 0 - A 5 B A 5 -

B 5 - B 0 -

C 2 - C 4 -

D 3 - 2 4 D 8 A

E 6 C
C 3 E 3 - In distance vector routing,
each router shares its routing
3 table with its
immediate neighbors
D’s Table C’s Table 4 E’s Table periodically and when there is
To Co Ne To Co Ne To Co Ne a change.

A 3 - A 2 - E A 6 C

B 8 A B 4 - B 3 -

C 5 A C 0 - C 4 -
D
D 0 - D 5 A D 9 C

E 9 A E 4 - E 0 -
Link State Routing Protocol
Link-state routing protocols maintain a complete and detailed understanding of the entire
network topology. Each router has knowledge of all other routers in the network and the links
connecting them.

The link-state routing algorithm maintains a complex database of topology information.

The distance vector algorithm has nonspecific information about distant networks and no
knowledge of distant routers. The link-state routing algorithm maintains full knowledge of
distant routers and how they interconnect.

Link-state routing protocols quickly detect changes in the network topology, such as link
failures or additions, and propagate this information throughout the network.

Link-state routing protocols support hierarchical network designs by dividing large networks
into areas or domains. Each area has its own link-state database and runs a separate SPF
algorithm.
The link-state algorithm is also known as Dijkstra's algorithm (Which is an algorithm used to
build the routing table) or as the shortest path first (SPF) algorithm.
Link State Routing Protocol (Cont.)
Link-state routing uses the following features:

• link-state advertisements (LSAs) - In a link-state routing domain, routers exchange

information about the state of their links with neighboring routers using link state
advertisements (LSAs). These LSAs are small packets of routing information that include
details about the router's directly connected links, such as their state, cost, and other
attributes.

• Topological database - a collection of information gathered from LSAs which provides

routers with the necessary information to calculate shortest paths, achieve rapid
convergence, prevent routing loops, and efficiently forward traffic in the network.

• SPF Algorithm – Link state routing protocols use a Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm, such
as Dijkstra's algorithm. This algorithm calculates the shortest path to each network
destination based on the network topology information provided by LSAs. The result is an
SPF tree or routing table, which contains a list of known paths and interfaces for reaching
each destination.
 01 Link State Routing Protocol – OSPF
Open Short Path First (OSPF) is a link-state routing protocol developed by the
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) in 1988.

OSPF was written to address the needs of large, scalable internetworks that RIP
could not.

While EIGRP may be easier to configure, it only works on Cisco routers, OSPF does
not have that limitation.

OSPF is designed for fast convergence in response to changes in the network

topology, Routing updates are flooded as topology changes occur.

OSPF uses the SPF (Shortest Path First) algorithm to quickly calculate the shortest
path and lowest cost to each destination based on the network topology information
provided by LSAs.
OSPF supports Variable Length Subnet Masking (VLSM).
 02 Link State Routing Protocol – IS-IS
Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS) is a link-state routing protocol
used for routed protocols other than IP.

IS-IS is similar to OSPF, that maintains a detailed and up-to-date view of the network
topology by exchanging link-state information between routers.

IS-IS supports large, complex and hierarchical network designs.

IS-IS is designed for fast convergence in response to changes in the network

topology, it also uses SPF algorithm.

IS-IS can run over multiple network layer protocols, including IPv4 and IPv6, making it
versatile and adaptable to different network environments.

Integrated IS-IS is an expanded implementation of IS-IS that supports multiple routed

protocols including IP.
Concept of Link State Routing
System seen by A System seen by B
5 B A 5

2
C
4 A 5 B 2
C
4
3 3 3
3
4 4

E E
D 2 4 D

Each router
C 3 sees itself
System seen by E
3 as the root
4 A 5 B router.
System seen by D 2 4
C 3
3
A 5 B 4
A 5 B E
2 4
C 3 2 4
3 D
4 3
D 3
4
E
E
D

System seen
byCB
Example 1. Forming shortest path three for router A in a graph - OSPF

Topology
2 5
A B C 3 Root node

3 4 4 G Node in the path

D E F 1
5 2 Node not in the path

0 2 ∞ Path

A B C
∞
Initialization G

D E F
3 ∞ ∞
Example 1. (Cont.)
0 2 7
A B C
∞
Iteration 1 G
D E F
3 6 ∞
0 2 7
A B C
∞
Iteration 2 G
D E F
3 6 ∞
0 2 7
A B C
∞
Iteration 3 G
D E F
3 6 8
 Routing Table for Node A
Example 1. (Cont.)
Destination Cost Next
Router
A 0 -
Iteration 4 B 2 -
0 2 7 C 7 B
A B C
9 D 3 -
G E 6 B
D E F F 8 B
3 6 8 G 9 B

Iteration 5 Iteration 6
0 2 7 0 2 7
A B C A B C
9 9
G G
D E F D E F
3 6 8 3 6 8
Example 1. (Cont.) - Least-cost trees for each node
0 2 7 2 0 5

The shortest path A B C 9 A B C 7

tree for each node G G

is different, so here D E F D E F
is the shortest path 3 6 8 5 4 6

tree for each node 7 5 0 3 5 10

of this topology. A B C 3
A B C 8 A least-cost tree
G G Is a tree with the source
D E F D E F router as the root that
10 6 4 0 5 7 spans the whole graph
9 7 3 6 4 6 (visits all other nodes) and
A B C 0 A B C 3 in which the path between
G G the root and any other
D E F D E F node is the shortest.
8 3 1 5 0 2

8 6 4
Root of the tree
A B C 1
G Intermediate or end mode

D E F 1,2,… Total cost from the root

7 2 0
Example 1. (Cont.) A 0 A 2 A ∞
The Initialization Distance Vector for the topology B 0 B 0 B 5
C ∞ C 5 C 0
D 3 D ∞ D ∞
E ∞ E 4 E ∞
F ∞ F ∞ F 4
G ∞ G ∞ G 3 A ∞
A
2
B
5
C 3
B ∞
C 3

3 4 4 G D ∞
D E F 1
E ∞
5 2 F 1
A 3 A ∞ A ∞ G 0
B ∞ B 4 B ∞
C ∞ C ∞ C 4
D 0 D 5 D ∞
E 5 E 0 E 2
F ∞ F 2 F 0
G ∞ G ∞ G 1
Example 1. (Cont.)
The Final Tree and Distance Vector for node A

0 2 7
A 0
A B C
9 B 2
G C 7

D E F D 3

3 6 8 E 6
F 8
G 9

a. Tree for node A b. Distance Vector for node A

 Distance-Vector Routing Link-state Routing
protocol Protocol
Topology Knowledge: Limited knowledge of the Complete knowledge of the
network topology. network topology.
Routing Updates: Periodic updates. Only when the network
topology changes.
Routing Algorithm: Iterative Bellman-Ford Dijkstra's SPF algorithm.
algorithm.
Convergence Time: Longer convergence times. Faster convergence times.
Routing Table Size: Smaller routing tables Larger routing tables
(Memory size) (Small). (Large).
Bandwidth Usage: Generate more traffic with Less bandwidth for updates
periodic updates. when topology changes.
Robustness: Less robust in complex More robust and resilient to
network environments. network failures.
Processing delay: Lower processing delays. Higher processing delays.

Route Calculation: Based on hop counts and Based on the shortest path.
neighbor's information.
 Static Routing Dynamic Routing

Configuration: Manual configuration of Automatically using some

routes. algorithms.
Configuration Time: Longer configuration time. Shorter initial configuration
time.
Scalability: Less scalable, suitable for High scalable, suitable for
small and simple networks. large and complex networks.
Network Changes Remain unchanged until Adapt to network changes
Handling: manually modified. by updating routing tables
dynamically automatically.
Convergence Time: Longer convergence times. Faster convergence times.
CPU usage: Consumes less CPU Consume more CPU
resources. resources.
Convergence Time: Slower convergence times. Aster convergence times.

Bandwidth Usage: Less bandwidth usage. More bandwidth usage.

Adaptability to Change: Lacks adaptability to change More adaptable to changes

in network topology. in network topology.
 Route Method versus Next-hop Method

a. Routing Table based on route b. Routing Table based on next hop

Destination Route Destination Next hop

Routing Table for Host A
Host B R1,R2,Host B Host B R1

Destination Route Destination Next hop

Routing Table for R1
Host B R2,Host B Host B R2

Destination Route Destination Next hop

Routing Table for R2
Host B Host B Host B ---

Host A Host b

R1 R2

Network Network Network

 Host-specific versus network-specific method

Routing table for host S based

on host-specific method.

Destination Next hop Routing table for host S based

A R1 on network-specific method.

B R1 Destination Next hop

C R1 N2 R1
D R1
S A B C D

R1

Network 1 Network 2