SUBSTATIONS

OFENERGY
1st EDITION

DEFINITIONS,
CONCEPTS,
APPLICATIONS.
SUBSTATIONS
OFENERGY 1st EDITION

DEFINITIONS,
CONCEPTS
EAPLICATIONS.

PREPAREDBY

LEARN
SUMMARY
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................... 9

BASIC CONCEPTS......................................................................................................................... 10

CLASSIFICATION OF SE’s.............................................................................................................. 11
FUNCTIONO 12

INSTALLATION................................................................................................................................ 13

LEVEL OF STRESS15

Chapter 2 EQUIPMENTS 16

lightning rodS16

INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................. 16

FUNCTIONO 17

CONSTRUCTIVE DETAILS...................................................................................................... 18

CLASS18
STANDARDS19

DISCONNECTOR.................................................................................................................................. 22

INTRODUCTION22

FUNCTIONO 23

TYPES OF OPENINGS................................................................................................................ 26

RULES...................................................................................................................................... 35

Potential Transformer (PT)...................................................................................... 36

INTRODUCTION36

CONSTRUCTIVE DETAILS..................................................................................................... 37

FOUNDATIONS .......................................................................................................................... 39

TYPES 39
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

STANDARDS...................................................................................................................................... 44

CURRENT TRANSFORMER (CT)....................................................................................... 45

INTRODUCTION45

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY one

 FUNCTIONO ....................................................................................................................................... 47

CLASSIFICATION........................................................................................................................... 47

ENCASES53
STANDARDS54

Circuit breakerS .................................................................................................................................. 56

INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................. 56

FUNCTIONO 57

TYPES 57

CONSTRUCTIVE DETAILS62

NORMS64

POWER TRANSFORMERS........................................................................................... 65

INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................. 65

CONSTRUCTIVE DETAILS...................................................................................................... 67

TYPES ............................................................................................................................................ 72

CHARACTERISTICS....................................................................................................................... 73

NORMS75

CAPACITOR BANK............................................................................................................. 79

INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................. 79
TYPES OF CONNECTIONS................................................................................................................... 80

CAPACITOR BANK IN SERIES........................................................................................ 83

REACTORS84

INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................. 84

CONSTRUCTIVE DETAILS...................................................................................................... 85

DERIVATIVE REACTORS....................................................................................................... 85

THYRISTOR CONTROLLED REACTORSS ........................................................................ 86

CURRENT LIMITING REACTORS................................................................................ 86

REGULATIONS............................................................. 87

Chapter 3 BAR SETTINGS......................................................................................... 88

INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................. 88

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARNING ELECTRICAL 2

 TYPES OF ARRANGEMENTS...................................................................................................................... 88

SIMPLE BARSS ........................................................................................................................ 90

SIMPLE BAR WITH THE USE OF BY-PASS KEY............................................. 91

MAIN BAR AND TRANSFER..................................................................................... 92

DOUBLE BAR WITH A CIRCUIT BREAKER....................................................................................... 93

DOUBLE BAR WITH TWO BREAKERS................................................................................ 94

DOUBLE BAR WITH DISCONNECTOR AND MEIO ................................................................................ 95

RING BARRAGE............................................................................................................ 96
Chapter 4 PROTECTION........................................................................................................................ 97

PROTECTION SYSTEMSO .............................................................................................................. 97

CONCEPTUALIZATION OF THE PROTECTION SYSTEMO........................................................................... 97

ANSI TABLE................................................................................................................................ 98

OVERCURRENT RELAYS (50) ........................................................................................... 105

TIME DELAY OVERCURRENT RELAYS (51)) ............................................................... 107

DIRECTIONAL OVERCURRENT RELAY (67))...................................................................... 109

OVERVOLTAGE RELAYS (59)................................................................................................ 111

UNDER-VOLTAGE RELAYS (27)..................................................................................................... 112

DISTANCE RELAYS (21)........................................................................................................ 113

DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION RELAYS (87)............................................................................... 115

DISCONNECT RELAY (94) ................................................................................................ 118

AUXILIARY BLOCKING RELAY (86))...................................................................................... 120

GAS RELAY - BUCHHOLZ (63)............................................................................................. 122

OIL TEMPERATURE INDICATOR (26) .................................................................... 125

Winding Temperature Indicator (49).................................................. 126

PROTECTION AGAINST LACK OF OIL IN TRANSFORMERS (71).............................. 127

Protection relays................................................................................................................... 128

ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAYS..................................................................................................... 130

STATIC RELAYSS ..................................................................................................................... 132

DIGITAL RELAYS......................................................................................................................... 133

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARNING ELECTRICAL 3

 PROTECTION RELAYS - A PRACTICAL ANALYSIS...................................................................... 138

Chapter 5 AUXILIARY SERVICES.................................................................................................. 140

BATTERY BANK................................................................................................................... 142

RECTIFIERS............................................................................................................................. 144

EARTH LEAKAGE DETECTION SYSTEM IN C CIRCUITSC ............................................ 146

SERVICE AUXILIARY TRANSFORMERS (TSA)........................................................... 147

AUXILIARY SERVICES– PRACTICAL APPLICATION......................................................................... 150

BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES...................................................................................................... 152

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 4

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 - Transmission Lineo 11

Figure 2 - Substation at the timeo ...................................................................................................... 13
Figure 3 - Sheltered substation........................................................................................................ 13
Figure 4 - Gas-insulated substation.............................................................................................. 14
Figure 5 - Hybrid Substation.......................................................................................................... 14
Figure 6 - Line entry (Lightning rod and TP).................................................................................. 16
Figure 7 - 230kV Disconnector............................................................................................................. 22
Figure 8– Main components of the disconnector............................................................................ 24
Figure 9 - Side Opening Switch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Figure 10 - Double Side Opening Switch27
Figure 11 - Vertical Opening Disconnect Switch....................................................................................... 28
Figure 12 - Reverse Vertical Opening.............................................................................................. 29
Figure 13 - Central Opening Switch30
Figure 14 - Semi Pantographic Horizontal Switchl ................................................. 31
Figure 15 - Vertical Semi Pantographic Opening Switch...................................................... 32
Figure 16 - Pantographic Breaker.............................................................................. 33
Figure 17 - Construction scheme of the types of keys................................................................. 34
Figure 18 - Potential transformer......................................................................................... 36
Figure 19 - Potential transformer representation.............................................................. 37
Figure 20– TP 145kV Characteristic Plates ............................................................................... 38
Figure 21 - Inductive potential transformer......................................................................... 40
Figure 22 - Capacitive potential transformero ...................................................................... 41
Figure 23 - Current transformers...................................................................................... 45
Figure 24 - Current transformer representation46
Figure 25 - TC 362kV Characteristic Plate46
Figure 26 - Wound type current transformer...
Figure 27 - Bus type current transformera 48
Figure 28 - Window type current transformer49
Figure 29 - Bushing type current transformer...................................................................... 49
Figure 30 - Split core type current transformer50
Figure 31 - Current Transformer Type with Multiple Primary Windings............... 50
Figure 32 - Current Transformer Type with Multiple Cores51
Figure 33– Circuit breaker.......................................................................................................................... 56
Figure 34 - Power transformer (Transformer)............................................................ 65

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 5

Figure 35 - Power transformer representation67
Figure 36 - Capacitor bank........................................................................................................ 79
Figure 37 - Capacitor bank delta connection..................................................................... 80
Figure 38 - Capacitor Bank star connection groundeda ................................................. 81
Figure 39 - Capacitor bank double star grounded connection...................................... 81
Figure 40 - Capacitor Bank double isolated star connection......................................... 82
Figure 41 - Capacitor bank bridge type connectionH ............................................................... 82
Figure 42– Single-phase reactor 550kV............................................................................................ 84
Figure 43 - Simple Bar Arrangement.................................................................................................... 90
Figure 44 - Simple Bar Arrangement using a by-pass key................................. 91
Figura 45 - Arranjo Barra Principal e Transferência...................................................................... 92
Figure 46 - Double Bar Arrangement with a Circuit Breakerr ...................................................................... 93
Figure 47 - Double Bar Arrangement with two Circuit Breakers................................................................ 94
Figure 48 - Double Bar Arrangement with Breaker and Half. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Figure 49 - Ring Barrage Arrangement....................................................................................... 96
Figure 50 - Overcurrent relays (50) - Single-line connection diagramr ................................... 105
Figure 51 - Overcurrent relays (50) - Three-wire connection diagram..................................... 106
Figure 52 - Timed overcurrent relays (51) - Operation schematic...................... 107
Figure 53 - Timed overcurrent relays (51) - Single line connection diagramr ........... 108
Figure 54 - Time Delay Overcurrent Relays (51) - Three-Wire Connection Diagram............. 108
Figure 55 - Directional overcurrent relay (67) - Operation diagram.............................. 109
Figure 56 - Directional Overcurrent Relay (67) - Operation Diagram.............................. 109
Figure 57 - Directional overcurrent relay (67) - Single line connection diagram.................. 110
Figure 58 - Directional overcurrent relay (67) - Three-wire connection diagramr .................... 110
Figure 59 - Overvoltage Relays (59) - Single Line Wiring Diagram...................................... 111
Figure 60 - Overvoltage relays (59) - Three-wire connection diagramr ........................................ 111
Figure 61 - Undervoltage relays - Single line connection diagram.................................................. 112
Figure 62 - Undervoltage relays - Three-phase wiring diagram................................................... 112
Figure 63 - Distance Relays - Single-line connection diagram.................................................... 113
Figure 64 - Distance Relays - Three-wire connection diagramr ...................................................... 114
Figure 65 - Distance Relays - Scheme of the operating zones............................................. 115
Figure 66 - Differential protection relays - Single line connection diagram................................. 116
Figure 67 - Differential protection relays - Current flow diagram............................ 116
Figure 68 - Differential protection relays - Three-wire connection diagram................................... 117
Figure 69 - Disconnect Relay - Protection Actuation Circuit...................................... 118
Figure 70 - Disconnection Relay - Operating Circuit............................................................ 120
Figure 71 - Gas protection (Buchholz)........................................................................................ 122

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARNING ELECTRICITY 6

Figure 72 - Gas protection (Buchholz) - Operation diagram of the protection......................... 123
Figure 73 - Schematic of the oil temperature protection operationo .................... 125
Figure 74 - Diagram of the temperature protection operation of the winding.... 126
Figure 75 - Schematic of the oil level protection operation.................................. 128
Figure 76 - Graph of protection relay production between 1975 and 2000............................ 129
Figure 77 - Electromechanical relays................................................................................................. 130
Figure 78 - Electromechanical relay - Protection circuit............................................................. 131
Figure 79 - Static relayo .................................................................................................................. 132
Figure 80 - Digital protection relay............................................................................................... 133
Figure 81 - Composition of digital protection relaysl............................................................... 134
Figure 82 - Digital inputs of digital protection relays........................................................ 136
Figure 83 - Digital outputs of digital protection relaysl ............................................................ 136
Figure 84 - Analog inputs of the digital protection relays................................................. 137
Figure 85 - SEL-751 digital relay for feeder application.......................................... 138
Figure 86 - SEL-751 Digital Relay - Overview of Connections and Protection Functions............... 139
Figure 87 - Flowchart of the Auxiliary Services system........................................................ 140
Figure 88 - Main loads of Auxiliary Services................................................................. 141
Figure 89 - Installed battery bank....................................................................................... 143
Figure 90 - Battery Bank - Connection Diagram................................................................. 143
Figure 91– Rectifiedr..................................................................................................................... 144
Figure 92 - Schematic connection between Rectifier, load, and battery bank...................... 145
Figure 93 - Ground fault detection circuit - Normal operation............................ 146
Figure 94 - Ground fault detection circuit - Abnormal operation......................... 147
Figure 95 - Oil and Dry Insulated Auxiliary Service Transformerso...................... 149
Figure 96 - Electrical diagram of the AC Auxiliary Services system........................................ 150
Figure 97 - Electrical diagram of the DC Auxiliary Services system........................................ 151

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 7

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 - Tension Levelso15

Table 2 - Disconnecting Switch - Main Componentss ......................................................................... 24
Table 3 - Specification of the AT isolating switches................................................................. 25
Table 4 - Specification of Protection High Voltage Potential Transformers.......................... 43
Table 5 - Specification of high voltage potential transformers for measurement........................... 43
Table 6 - Specification of High Voltage Current Transformers for Protection........................... 52
Table 7 - Specification of high voltage current transformers for measurement............................ 52
Table 8 - Current transformer nominal ratios.......................................................... 54
Table 9 - Circuit Breaker Comparison...
Table 10 - Specification of Circuit Breakers AT ................................................................................ 63
Table 11 - Specification of the MT distribution cubicles....................................................... 63
Table 12 - Nature of the cooling medium of Potential Transformer......................... 71
Table 13 - Order of transformer cooling symbols................................... 71
Table 14 - Types of transformers............................................................................................ 72
Table 15 - Specification of transformer AT 74
Table 16 - Types of busbars................................................................................................... 89
Table 17 - ANSI Table................................................................................................................... 101
Table 18 - Completion of the ANSI Table............................................................................. 102
Table 19 - Differential Protection - ANSI 87.................................................................................. 103
Table 20 - Data communication device - ANSI 16104
Table 21 - Transformer voltages without taps. Source: NBR 5440, table 2....... 148
Tabela 22 - Tensões de transformadores com derivações. Fonte: NBR 5440, tabela 3. ...... 149

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 8

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

Welcome and thank you for believing in our work at APRENDER ELÉTRICA.

Have you ever wondered why it is so difficult to find quality and easily accessible material?

understanding about substations (SEs)?

This topic is of great complexity, which is why no one wants to talk about it, but we

We will clearly and objectively teach you everything you need to learn about substations.

Those who are knowledgeable about this topic have a significant advantage in the job market.

a market that does not go through financial crises.

You will understand more about substations as soon as you finish this e-book.

The market is always looking for people who have expertise in this subject and

this person could be you.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 9

BASIC CONCEPTS

There are countless ways to approach this topic, but any of them involves

mandatory by the presentation of its definition.

Definition: "Set of electrical installations at medium or high voltage that groups the
equipment, conductors, and accessories, intended for protection, measurement, operation and

transformation of electrical quantities.

Subestação é uma das partes mais importante do sistema elétrico de potência (SEP), pois

all the electric energy to be consumed goes through it. Its shutdown implies in

paralysis of the economy.

Your main functions are:

Monitor electrical quantities, aiming for control, protection, supervision and

automation of SEP;

Provide operational resources to the SEP;

Carry out voltage regulation;

Modify the voltage level;

Carry out the conversion of energy.

The electrical system is responsible for providing electrical energy to large and medium users.

small, with quality and at the moment requested, but following some requirements

necessary, being them:

Reliability;

Flexibility;

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 10

 Security;

Operationality;

Short-circuit withstand capability;

Speed to recover after a failure.

In order to have economic and productive expansion in the country, it is necessary to increase the load.

of energy and consequently expand the substations.

The lifestyle of modern society would be impractical without electricity and for

Meeting this demand is essential for the system to be in constant evolution.

Therefore, for a country to develop, it is necessary to expand the electrical system, generating,

transmitting and distributing electricity always efficiently.

CLASSIFICATION OF SE's

Substations are classified according to their function, installation, and voltage level.

Figure 1 - Transmission Line

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 11

FUNCTION

Elevators: They are built at the exit of generating plants with the purpose of elevating.

tension, aiming to reduce the current and consequently reducing the losses and the

thickness of the conductors, making the transport of energy economical.

Reducer: Located close to the loads, they reduce tension levels, preventing.

inconveniences for the population.

Distribution: They reduce the voltage to the primary distribution level (13.8kV-34.5kV), the

power is delivered directly to the consumer.

Shunt: Interconnect circuits at the same voltage level, allowing parts of the

system, inserting or removing them from service.

Converters: Associated with DC transmission systems (Rectifier Station and Inverter Station).

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 12

INSTALLATION

In due time: Built outdoors in wide open areas, the equipment must
to withstand the adverse atmospheric conditions they will be exposed to, requiring therefore,

more frequent maintenance and reducing the effectiveness of the insulations.

Figure 2 - Substation over time

Sheltered: Built in sheltered locations. The equipment is not subject to

bad weather

Figure 3 - Sheltered substation

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 13

Armored: Built in sheltered places. The equipment is completely isolated.

in oil or in gas.

Figure 4 - Gas-insulated substation

Hybrid: Combination of SF6 gas-insulated equipment with air-insulated equipment.

Figure 5 - Hybrid Substation

Substation - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 14

LEVEL OF TENSION

The table below details the voltage levels and their respective regulations.

Tension Levels OBJECTIVE LEGISLATION

750 kV
440kV Energy transmission
Extra / High voltage
electricity from the plants for
Transmission tension 345kV
cities There is no legislation
e 230kV
Transmission tension and
subtransmission 138kV subtransmission.
69kV

34.5kV
NR14039 -
15kV Energy transmission
Installations
Distribution voltage electricity in the urban context
medium voltage
6.6kV / rural.
voltage 1 to 36.2kV
2.3kV

127/220V
NR5410-
220/380V
Residential, lighting, Facilities
Low voltage
engines, urban traction. low voltage
380V
voltage 50V to 1kV
440V

Table 1 - Voltage levels

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 15

Capítulo 2 EQUIPAMENTOS

As we have already seen, a Substation is a set of equipment (Circuit Breakers, Disconnectors,

Transformers, etc.) that are part of the Electric Power System (EPS) and have the
The objective is to modify the characteristics of electric energy allowing the flow of this energy.

Let's now get to know the main equipment that makes up a substation and its

characteristics.

LIGHTNING ROD

Figure 6 - Line entry (Lightning rod and TP)

INTRODUCTION

Lightning rods are devices designed to protect the electrical system against

transient overvoltages from switching operations or those arising from lightning strikes

(lightning), that is, short-duration overvoltages.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 16

In substations, lightning rods are most commonly used at the entrances of transmission lines,
inputs from the feeders, at the busbar and at the high and low sides of the transformers.

FUNCTION

The installation of a lightning protection system has two functions:

Neutralize, by the power of attraction of the ends, the growth of the gradient of

electric potential between the ground and the clouds, through the permanent flow of

electric charges from the environment to the ground.

To offer the electric discharge that will fall in its vicinity a path

preferential, reducing the risks of their incidence on the structures.

The most efficient way to minimize the effects arising from incidents of
atmospheric discharges in electrical systems consist of the use of shielding, through
of lightning rods and protective masts, in order to avoid direct incidence of
downloads in the conductor cables of a transmission line or in the busbars of a
substation.

They are equipment responsible for protecting the electrical system, being connected.

close to the main equipment of the substation, prevent overvoltages

reach values higher than those for which the equipment was designed.

Lightning rods should be installed at the entries of transmission lines, at the connections of

power transformer units, shunt reactors, and banks of

non-self-protecting capacitors.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 17

CONSTRUCTIVE DETAILS

A lightning rod is composed of nonlinear resistors, connected in series with

spark gaps (conventional lightning rods made of silicon carbide) or without spark gaps

(lightning rod to metal oxide).

Despite their important mission, lightning rods are low-cost equipment and

of small dimensions compared to the equipment they protect.

Your correct selection associated with your optimal positioning within the substations

may result in a decrease in the costs of other equipment.

The lightning rods must be of the station type, made of metal oxide, without a spark gap. It should be

demonstrated through isolation coordination studies, that the equipment

from the substation are adequately protected, that is, the equipment are not

submitted to a risk of failures higher than those that use metal oxide lightning rods.

Currently, almost all lightning rods purchased are of the Zinc Oxide (ZnO) type without

spark gaps, replacing the conventional Silicon Carbide (SiC) lightning rods.

CLASS

The class of the lightning rod must be selected based on the required level of protection and the

other data described below:

Available nominal voltages;

Limit of the overpressure relief current, or of fault supportability, which

it cannot be exceeded by the magnitude and duration of short-circuit currents

existing at the location of the lightning rod;

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 APRENDER ELÉTRICA 18

 Durability characteristics that are suitable for system requirements.

The selected lightning rod class can be influenced by the importance of the substation.

the equipment to be protected. For example, station class lightning rods must be

used in large substations; intermediate class lightning rods for energy absorption

they can be used in smaller substations, in lines and in terminal poles of

subtransmission of 138 kV and below; lightning arresters of distribution class must be used in

small distribution substations for the protection of their busbars.

Thus, lightning rods are classified by their nominal discharge current,

discharge capacity of transmission lines and fault current withstand capability

(Overpressure relief, or Short-circuiting Capacity). Regarding the first

parameter, lightning rods are classified as:

Conventional lightning rods made of silicon carbide with spark gaps:

class station: 20 kA, 15 kA and 10 kA (heavy service and light service);

class distribution: 5 kA;

secondary class: 1.5 kA.

Metal oxide lightning rods without spark gaps:

class station: 20 kA and 10 kA;

class distribution: 10 kA and 5 kA.

STANDARDS

The main regulations applicable to lightning rods for power systems are:

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 19

 ABNT NBR 6936 – High Voltage Electrical Testing Techniques.
ABNT NBR 8186 - Guide for the application of insulation coordination.

ABNT NBR 5287 – Non-linear resistor silicon carbide lightning rods for
AC power circuits - Specification.

ABNT NBR 5424–Guide for the Application of Non-linear Resistor Lightning Rods
power circuits - Procedure.

ABNT NBR 16050 –Metal oxide varistor surge protectors without

spark extinguishers, for alternating current power circuits.

ANSI, IEEE C 92.1 –American National Standard Voltage Values for Preferred
transient insulation levies.

ANSI, IEEE C.62.1–IEEE Standard for Gapped Silicon–Carbide Surge Arresters for
A. C. Power Circuits.

ANSI, IEEE C.62.11–IEEE Guide of Gapped Silicon–Carbide Surge Arresters for

Alternating Current Systems.

ANSI, IEEE C.62.2 –IEEE Guide for the Application of Gapped Silicon –Carbide
Surge Arresters for A. C. Systems.

ANSI, IEEE C.62.22–IEEE Guide for the Application of Metal Oxide Surge Arresters
for Alternating Current Systems.

ANSI, IEEE C 57.12 –00–IEEE Standard General Requirements for Liquid Im-
mersed Distribution, Power, and Regulating Transformers.

IEC 60099-1 –Surge arresters - Part 1: Non-linear resistor type gapped surge
arresters for A. C. systems.

IEC 60099-3 - Surge arresters - Part 3: Artificial pollution testing of surge arresters.

IEC 60099-4–Surge arresters - Part 4: Metal-oxide surge arresters without gaps for
A. C. systems.

IEC 60099-5 - Surge arresters - Part 5: Selection and application recommendations.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 20

 IEC 60099-6–Surge arresters - Part 6: Surge arresters containing both series and
parallel gapped structures - Rated 52 kV and less.

IEC 60099-8–Surge arresters - Part 8: Metal-oxide surge arresters with external

series gap (EGLA) for overhead transmission and distribution lines of A. C. systems

above 1 kV.

IEC 61643-1 Surge Protective Devices Connected to Low –Voltage Power

Distribution Systems–Part 1: Performance Requirements and Testing Methods.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 21

SECTIONAL

Figure 7 - 230kV Disconnecting Switch

INTRODUCTION

Sectional switches are load disconnecting devices used in

electrical systems. Unlike the circuit breaker, a disconnect switch can only be operated

without load.

The appropriate selection of disconnectors in high voltage systems must be observed.

the characteristics of the system where they will be applied and the function they must

perform.

Generally, the disconnect switches used in substations for voltage levels above
the 69kV are three-phase and motorized with simultaneous activation of the three phases by

intermediary of a single command.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 22

At lower levels, other types of sectioners, such as monopolar, can be used.

and manual command for example.

FUNCTION

One of the main functions of the disconnector is to ensure a safe isolation distance.

after the opening of the main circuit lock device, usually a

circuit breaker, allowing equipment or transmission lines to be

surely isolated.

The circuit breakers, by themselves, are not capable of providing this guarantee, due to the small

isolation distance between contacts after opening.

From the dielectric point of view, the disconnect switch must still ensure perfect coordination.

of isolation to ground and between open contacts (open-gap).

In this way, even under extreme conditions, if a disruption is inevitable, this

it should occur on land, and never in the gap.

Some functions of the switchgear within a power substation are:

By-pass of equipment (execution of maintenance or operation);

Bar transfer (applied in systems where there are two buses with

different sources);

Isolate equipment (operation applied to isolate equipment from the system to

maintenance or emergency intervention.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 23

Safety grounding (applied when opening is necessary and, shortly after

grounding of the circuit.

Figure 8 - Main components of the disconnect switch

Isolator - Main components

1 Base
2 Fixed porcelain column
3 Rotating porcelain column for driving the main blade
4 Rotary porcelain column for operating the interruption unit
5 Interruption unit
6 Pre-registration resistor
7 Main blade
8 Main contact
9 Auxiliary contact for pre-registration of the resistor during the closing of the switch
10 Connection terminal
Table 2 - Disconnecting Switch - Main Components

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 24

 There are various types of disconnectors with several opening modes and infinite options.

ways and modes of installations. Without a doubt, due to this amount of variations,

switchgear are one of the most complex equipment in terms of management and

application projects.

The specific switches for each application are usually chosen based on
type of opening, resulting most of the time from the available spacing in the location of the

installation.

The main points that influence the choice of the construction type of Disconnectors are:

Specification of the AT disconnect switches

Characteristics Specification
Nominal Frequency 60 Hz
Nominal Voltage 138 kV
Nominal Current 1250 A
Short-circuit current 31.5 kA
Flow Distance 20 mm/kV
Nominal Atmospheric Impulse Endurable Voltage 650 kV
Nominal Tolerable Voltage at Industrial Frequency 275 kV
Constructive Type *
Type of Drive Motorized
Accessories - -
The constructive types can vary.
Table 3 - Specification of the AT disconnecting switches

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARNING ELECTRICAL 25

TYPES OF OPENINGS

The disconnectors consist of several subsets, each with its function,

whether they are structural, mechanical, or electrical. The construction aspects of the switches differ,

basically, in the type of opening.

We have the main types of openings:

SIDE OPENING

Figure 9 - Side Opening Switch

It is one of the simplest types of circuit breaker, usually with a working voltage up to 145 kV.

By its own geometry, this model is not recommended for short-circuit levels.

above 25kV.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 26

This type of Switch is typically configured in assemblies with parallel poles.

can still be assembled in line for applications that require space optimization

physical in main bar transfer scheme.

DOUBLE SIDE OPENING

Figure 10 - Double Side Opening Disconnect Switch

There are two variations of this model, one with simple operation, that is, the contacts
furniture enters the fixed contacts without the rotation of the blade's own axis, which raises the

driving effort during the final moments in the closing operation and

initial moments in the opening operation, the other variation, with dual activation, or
at the beginning of the opening operation and at the end of the closing operation, the blade rotates

around its own axis about 30°, allowing for a relatively smooth operation and

locking the blade at the end of the closing operation, assisting the

key performance in short-circuit situations for example.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 27

VERTICAL OPENING

Figure 11 - Vertical Disconnect Switch

These disconnectors are highly sought after in the market due to their small size.

horizontal required for the operation.

Mainly used in transmission substations due to its excellent

short-circuit support.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 28

REVERSE VERTICAL OPENING

Figure 12 - Reverse Vertical Opening

The position of the blade is opposite to the type of vertical opening. When the blade is at 90° with the
horizontal plane, the switch is closed. The upper contact can be installed.
directly onto the bus or, with the aid of an inverted insulator, directly onto the beam
of support.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 29

CENTRAL OPENING

Figure 13 - Central Open Switch

Both insulators are mounted on rotating bearings, each responsible for

to activate one half of the main blade, with one contact called 'male' and its

complement of "female".

Center-opening disconnectors result in larger phase axis spacing for

maintain the specified phase-phase spacing.

Used in industrial substations due to its simpler construction.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 30

SEMI PANTOGRAPHIC HORIZONTAL OPENING

Figure 14 - Semi-Pantographic Horizontal Breaker

This type of Switchgear is used at voltage levels above 245 kV. The base part of the
A switch may or may not, depending on the manufacturer or the client, be interconnected.

physically, whether with steel tubes or metal profiles, this helps to ensure rigidity

mechanics between the contacts due to the large dimensions of this model.

Due to its more compact size, it can be used in areas with space limitations.

reducing vertical space by up to 60%.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 31

VERTICAL SEMI PANTOGRAPHIC OPENING

Figure 15 - Vertical Semi-Pantographic Breaker

This model is widely used for bar transfer.

Generally, this Disconnecting Switch exists in voltage classes above 145 / 245 kV.

Your poles can be assembled in a straight line or diagonally (for transfer of

bars).

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 32

PANTOGRAPHIC OPENING

Figura 16 - Secionador Abertura Pantográfica

They are switches with high capacities or short-circuit withstand, generally

com altas correntes nominais. Podem ser utilizados em transferência de barras.

They have, compared to vertical semi-pantographic disconnectors, greater ease of

adjustment of the contact area (landline/mobile).

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 33

Constructive scheme of the types of keys presented above.

Figure 17 - Construction diagram of the types of keys

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARNING ELECTRICAL 34

NORMS

Some of the main technical standards on Disconnectors:

ABNT NBR IEC 62271-102:2006 - Disconnectors and earthing switches.

ABNT NBR 7571:2011 - Disconnectors - Technical and dimensional characteristics.

IEC 62271-102: 2001 - High-voltage switchgear and controlgear –Part 102:

Alternating current disconnectors and earthing switches.

IEC 62271-1: 2007 - High-voltage switchgear and controlgear–Part 1: Common

specifications.

IEEE–Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

C37.30.1-2011 - IEEE standard requirements for AC high-voltage air switches rated

above 1.000 V.

C37.34-1994 - IEEE standard test code for high-voltage air switches.

C37.35-1995 - IEEE guide for the application, installation, operation, and

maintenance of high-voltage air disconnecting and interrupter switches.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 35

POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER (PT)

Figure 18 - Potential transformer

INTRODUCTION

Potential Transformer (PT) is a device that has two circuits, one

primary and another secondary electrically isolated from each other, however

magnetically coupled that are used to reduce the voltage to low values with

the following purposes:

Faithfully reproduce the primary circuit voltage in the secondary;

Electrically isolate the power circuit;

Promote safety when measuring voltage.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 36

Potential transformers are used to provide voltage signal for

devices that present high input impedance, such as:

Voltmeters,

Voltage relays;

Voltage coils of energy meters.

Figure 19 - Potential transformer representation

CONSTRUCTIVE DETAILS

In its simplest and conventional form, inductive potential transformers

have a primary winding composed of a high number of turns with wire of

copper with reduced circular cross-section and insulated with one or more layers of

varnish is a secondary winding composed of a small number of turns with wire of

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARNING ELECTRICITY 37

rectangular cross-section copper and insulated with one or more layers of paper

insulating

Through the secondary winding, the desired voltage is obtained through a relation

of transformation. Normally, the secondary voltage is standardized at 115 V or 115/√3 V.

In this way, the protection and measurement devices are sized for levels of
low voltage and insulation.

Example of a 145kV transformer plate, demonstrating its main characteristics and

this information is extremely important for the development of the electrical project.

Figure 20–TP 145kV Characteristics plate

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 38

FUNDAMENTALS

The potential transformer is connected in parallel with the circuit to be monitored and

operates under the same principles as power transformers, with the differences being

significant power and flux density in the core at nominal voltage.

Under conventional conditions, potential transformers are not used for

provide power in the secondary circuit, however under special conditions they can,

For example, supply 5,000 VA in the case of inductive potential transformers for systems.

from 145 kV, being able to provide 115 V with power for maintenance services in

substations.

TYPES

There are basically two types of potential transformers known in systems.

high voltage, being them:

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 39

Inductive potential transformers (IPT): It consists of one or more units.

electromagnetic, whose transformation ratio is primarily defined by the relationship

of the turns of its windings.

Figure 21 - Inductive potential transformer

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 40

Capacitive potential transformers (CPT): It is basically composed of a divider.

capacitive, whose cells that form the capacitor are connected in series and the set becomes

immersed in the interior of a porcelain shell.

Figure 22 - Capacitive potential transformer

Normally in systems up to 145 kV, there are installations with transformers.

of inductive potential, and above 145 kV capacitive potential transformers due to the

high cost for manufacturing inductive transformers above this voltage.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 41

One of the reasons for using TPC is its mandatory use in lines of
transmission with carrier communication.

To do this, a transmitter-receiver device is used for signal processing.

usually frequently in the range of 10 kHz to 300 kHz. The signal is transmitted in

own conductor of the transmission line.

ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS

For the purposes of specification, design, quality criteria, and testing methods, the

Potential transformers must meet requirements set out in the technical standards.

applicable.

To measure the primary voltage, errors are introduced as a function of the load.

connected to the secondary winding. It is desirable that these errors are minimized.

possible, however, there is an acceptable limit for these errors.

The relationship error defines how much the primary voltage does not correspond to the product of the

secondary voltage by the nominal transformation ratio. This error can be corrected with the
application of the relationship correction factor (FCR). The product of the relationship between

nominal transformation and the correction factor of the relationship results in the relationship of

real transformation.

The NBR6855 standard defines classes 0.3 and 0.6 or 3% and 6%. Class 0.3 is generally used.

for billing meter applications, class 0.6 and 1.2 for protection as well as

operational or indicative measurement. Classes 3% and 6% must be specified for

application in protection.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 42

Some data necessary for the specification of the TP:

Specification of high voltage potential transformers for protection

Characteristic Specification
Nominal Frequency 60 Hz
Nominal Tension 138 kV
Primary Nominal Voltage 138000/√3 V
Secondary Nominal Voltage 115-115/√3-115-115/√3 V
Short-circuit current 31.5 kA
Number of Enrollments for Protection 2
Number of Enrollments for Measurement 0
Accuracy Class and Rated Loads 0.6P75-0.6P75
Flow Distance 20 mm/kV
Nominal Atmospheric Impulse Withstand Voltage 650 kV
Nominal Allowable Voltage at Industrial Frequency 275 kV
Table 4 - Specification of high voltage protective potential transformers

Specification of high voltage measuring potential transformers

Feature Specification
Nominal Frequency 60 Hz
Nominal Voltage 138 kV
Nominal Primary Voltage 138000/√3 V
Secondary Nominal Voltage 115-115/√3-115-115/√3 V
Short-circuit current 31.5 kA
Number of Enrollments for Protection 0
Number of Enrollments for Measurement 2
Class of Accuracy and Rated Loads 0.3P75-0.3P75
Flow Distance 20 mm/kV
Nominal Atmospheric Impulse Withstand Voltage 650 kV
Nominal Allowable Voltage at Industrial Frequency 275 kV
Table 5 - Specification of high voltage measurement potential transformers

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 43

It can be said that potential transformers are of great importance in

power electrical system, without which it would not be possible to measure the values of

tension used to protect equipment and human life.

Norms

For inductive potential transformers, the NBR6855 standard is used as a reference and

the IEC60044-5 standard for capacitive potential transformers.

The electrical requirements for the potential transformers connected to the basic network are

quite simple and are included in item 7.7 of Submodule 2.3 revision 2.0 of the Procedures

of the Brazilian electric sector, namely:

7.7.1 The characteristics of potential transformers must meet the

needs of systems: protection (Submodule 2.6), billing measurement

(Módulo 12) e de medição indicativa para controle da operação (Submódulo 2.7).”

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 44

CURRENT TRANSFORMER (CT)

Figure 23 - Current transformers

INTRODUCTION

Current Transformer (CT) is a single-phase equipment that has two circuits.

one being called primary and the other called secondary.

These two circuits are electrically isolated from each other. However, they are coupled.

magnetically. They are used to reduce the current to low values (usually 1A to

5A).

The features are practically the same as a TP, however, obviously the magnitude

electric here is the current.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 45

 Figure 24 - Current transformer representation

Example of a 362kV transformer plate, demonstrating its main characteristics and

This information is extremely important for the development of the electrical project.

Figure 25 - TC 362kV Characteristics Plate

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 46

FUNCTION

The current transformer has the following purposes:

Proportional security to the operators;

Electrically isolate the power circuit from the instruments or relays;

Standardize the current values in relays and meters;

Promote current for meters and protection relays.

RANKING

Current transformers are classified into two types:

Current Transformers for Measuring Service

Current Transformers for Protection Service.

According to ABNT, the current transformers addressed by NBR 6856 are

classified, according to their construction.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 47

Wound Type Current Transformer - Primary winding, made of one or

more coils, mechanically surrounds the core of the transformer.

Figure 26 - Wound type current transformer

Bar-Type Current Transformer - The primary winding consists of a bar,

permanently mounted through its own core.

Figure 27 - Bar type current transformer

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARNING ELECTRICAL 48

Window Type Current Transformer - Current transformer without its own primary,

built with an opening through the core, through which a conductor passes that forms the

primary circuit.

Figure 28 - Window-type current transformer

Bushing Type Current Transformer - window type TC designed to be installed on

a bushing of an electrical equipment.

Figure 29 - Bushing type current transformer

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 49

Type Current Transformer with Split Core – window type TC in which part of
the core is separable or tiltable, to facilitate the coupling of the primary conductor.

Figure 30 - Split core type current transformer

Current Transformer Type with Multiple Primary Windings - TC with multiple

distinct and isolated primary windings separately.

Figure 31 - Current Transformer Type with Multiple Primary Windings

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 50

Type Current Transformer with Multiple Cores - TC with multiple windings

isolated secondaries separately and mounted each in its own core,

forming a set. This set consists of a single primary winding, whose

spirals link all the secondaries.

Figure 32 - Type Current Transformer with Multiple Cores

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 51

According to NBR 6856, in the specification of a current transformer, it must,
At a minimum, the characteristics listed below must be indicated.

Specification of high voltage current transformers for protection

Characteristic Specification
Nominal Frequency 60 Hz
Nominal Voltage 138 kV
Primary Nominal Current 400 x 800 A
Secondary Nominal Current 5-5 A
Short-circuit current 31.5 kA
Number of Enrollments for Protection 2
Number of Enrollments for Measurement 0
Class of Accuracy and Rated Loads 10B200-10B200
Flow Distance 20 mm/kV
Nominal Atmospheric Impulse Withstand Voltage 650 kV
Nominal Tension Supported at Industrial Frequency 275 kV
Table 6 - Specification of protection high voltage current transformers

Specification of high voltage measuring current transformers

Characteristic Specification
Nominal Frequency 60 Hz
Nominal Voltage 138 kV
Primary Nominal Current 400 x 800 A
Secondary Nominal Current 5-5 A
Short-circuit current 31.5 kA
Number of Enrollments for Protection 0
Number of Enrollments for Measurement 2
Class of Accuracy and Nominal Loads 0.3C25-0.3C25
Flow Distance 20 mm/kV
Nominal Atmospheric Impulse Withstand Voltage 650 kV
Nominal Voltage Tolerance at Industrial Frequency 275 kV
Tabela 7 - Especificação dos transformadores de corrente AT de medição

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 52

ENSASIOS

The performance of current transformers is demonstrated through tests (of

routine or type). The tests that must be performed on current transformers,

according to ABNT, it is specified in the standard NBR 6856 (Current Transformer:

Specification).

Routine Essays

Induced Tension;

Withstand Voltage at Industrial Frequency, Dry;

Partial Downloads;

Polarity;

Accuracy;

Dielectric Loss Factor of Insulation;

Cold Tightness.

Type Tests

All the tests specified above;

Resistance of the Windings;

Supportable Atmospheric Impulse Voltage

Supportable Maneuver Impulse Tension, dry and under rain;

Temperature Rise;

Nominal Short-Duration Sustainable Current (Nominal Thermal Current);

Nominal Crest Value of Bearable Current (Nominal Dynamic Current);

Withstandable Voltage at Industrial Frequency, under Rain;

Radio interference tension;

Hot Tightness;

Open Circuit Voltage.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 53

STANDARDS

Since nominal primary currents and nominal relations are standardized by norm, the

values are specified, according to ABNT.

The nominal primary current of the current transformer is the one that the equipment

supports in normal operating mode. This specification must consider the current

maximum and the short-circuit current of the system.

The nominal secondary current is standardized at 1 or 5 A.

The nominal relationships are given by the relationship between the nominal primary current and the current.

secondary nominal. According to the ABNT NBR 6856 standard, we have the relationships given in

table below.

Current Current Relationship

Current
Relation Relation
primary primary primary
Nominal Nominal Nominal
Nominal (A) Nominal (A) Nominal (A)

5 1:1 100 20:1 1000 200:1

10 2:1 150 30:1 1200 240:1
15 3:1 200 40:1 1400 300:1
20 4:1 250 50:1 2000 400:1
25 5:1 300 60:1 2500 500:1
30 6:1 400 80:1 3000 600:1
40 8:1 500 100:1 4000 800:1
50 10:1 600 120:1 5000 1000:1
60 12:1 800 160:1 6000 1200:1
75 15:1 8000 1600:1
Table 8 - Current transformer nominal relations

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 54

Technical standards used in Brazil for this purpose, with regard to

conventional current transformers are:

ABNT-NBR 6546 - Instrument Transformers - Terminology

ABNT -NBR 6821 - Current Transformer - Testing Method

ABNT - NBR 6856 - Current Transformer - Specification

IEEE Std C57.13 –1993 (R2003) - Standard Requirements for Instrument

Transformers

IEEE Std C37.110–2007 - Guide for the Application of Current Transformers Used
for Protective Relaying Principles

IEC 60044–1 - Instruments Transformers–Part 1: Current Transformers

IEC 60044–6 - Instruments Transformers–Part 6: Requirements for Protective

Current Transformers for Transient Performance

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 55

BREAKERS

Figure 33–Circuit Breaker

INTRODUCTION

A circuit breaker is a device designed to interrupt the electric current of a circuit in

normal, abnormal or short circuit conditions, this being one of the most difficult tasks
entrusted to the equipment installed in power systems.

At the same time, they must be able to power on/power off equipment,

interrupt load and overload currents, short-circuit current and perform the

disconnection when triggered by a protection system.

The need to perform all these tasks absolutely reliably, to

prevent damage to other equipment, includes the circuit breakers among the equipment of

greater complexity installed in the substations.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARNING ELECTRICAL 56

FUNCTION

The main function of circuit breakers is to interrupt fault currents as quickly as possible.

as much as possible, in order to limit to a minimum the possible damage caused to the

equipment by short circuits.

The most frequent functions performed by circuit breakers are, first of all, the

conduction of load currents in the closed position, following the insulation between two

parts of an electrical system.

Over time, with the growth of interruption powers and voltage levels
two electrical systems, circuit breakers with other technologies such as the circuit breaker to

oil, sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), among others.

TYPES

The construction aspects depend a lot on the type of circuit breaker, which can be

divided regarding the method of arc extinction in the following types:

OIL CIRCUIT BREAKERS

The first circuit breakers to be developed were oil circuit breakers. Some of these

equipment is still in operation to this day.

Two basic types of oil circuit breakers have been developed, large circuit breakers.

volume of oil and small volume of oil. In the type of large volume of oil (GVO), the

contacts were located in the center of a large tank containing oil, which was used both for

interruption of currents, as well as to provide insulation to the ground.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 57

In the small oil circuit breaker (PVO), the oil served mainly for the
extinction of the arc and not necessarily for the isolation between living parts and the earth.

The main advantage of large-volume circuit breakers over small-volume oil ones

there was the possibility of using bushing current transformers.

COMPRESSED AIR CIRCUIT BREAKERS

In our compressed air circuit breakers, arc extinction was achieved by the admission of

compressed air chambers (stored in a pressurized reservoir) that, when blown

about the area between the contacts, determined the cooling of the arc and its compression.

The operation of the compressed air circuit breakers, many of which are still in use

operation always produces a loud noise caused by the exhaust of air to the atmosphere.

A reduction in the level of noise produced is achieved through silencers.

Despite the good performance of compressed air circuit breakers in interrupting currents

short-circuit, certain opening maneuvers under load conditions were difficult for

they.

Your ability to interrupt appropriately for high currents was unsatisfactory,

sometimes, in front of currents smaller than the nominal.

To correct this deficiency, the technique of temporary resistor insertion was conceived.

in series with the associated circuits, in the circuit breaker opening process.

Opening resistors could also, in special situations, prove necessary for

reduction of switching overvoltages that followed the opening of a fault.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 58

Each resistor was installed inside an auxiliary chamber, in which the interruption of
The arc formed between the contacts was made by a process similar to that used in the chambers.

main. These accessories were used, in special cases, by the manufacturer's choice.

With the interruption of the production of compressed air circuit breakers by the industry, the

Opening resistors have also fallen out of use and are no longer manufactured.

SF6 gas circuit breakers

The gas circuit breaker uses SF6 gas (sulfur hexafluoride) as an arc extinguishing medium.

sulfur). Today it is one of the most commonly used methods for arc extinction, being used

including in fully shielded substations in SF6.

The interruption techniques summarized above have been widely used in systems.

transmission and distribution electrical systems. They were progressively replaced.

through vacuum interruption techniques and SF6, which do not have some of the disadvantages

associated with oil and compressed air technologies.

SF6 is an exceptionally stable and inert gas, being 5 times heavier than air.

not showing signs of chemical change for temperatures at which the oils

employees in circuit breakers begin to oxidize and decompose.

This circuit breaker can be divided into:

Self-blowing system (Puffer)

The puffer-type circuit breakers known as "self-extinguishing" are also referred to as "pressure".

"unique" because SF6 remains in the circuit breaker for most of the time at a

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 59

constant pressure of three to eight bars, serving to isolate between the parts with

different potentials.

Puffer type circuit breakers are simpler in design than double pressure ones.

I dispense the installation of heaters to prevent the liquefaction of SF6, as they work.

with lower pressures, being consequently more economical and more reliable.

Double pressure system

It has a gas compressor that maintains a reservoir with a certain volume of SF6 at
high pressure. In an interruption, the high pressure gas from the reservoir is blown into the

region between contacts, for a low-pressure chamber. After the interruption, the gas from the

the low-pressure chamber is sent back to the high-pressure chamber.

VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKERS

In our vacuum circuit breakers, the arc that forms between the contacts is quite different from the

arcs in other types of circuit breakers, basically maintained by ions of material

metallic vapor coming from the contacts (cathode).

The intensity of the formation of these metal vapors is directly proportional to

the intensity of the current and, consequently, the plasma decreases when it decreases and

approaches zero.

Reaching zero current, the gap between the contacts is rapidly deionized by the

condensation of metallic vapors on the electrodes. The absence of ions after the

interruption gives vacuum circuit breakers almost ideal withstand characteristics

dielectric.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 60

 COMPARISONS
TYPES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS CHARACTERISTICS

Robust and resilient

GVO (Large Volume of
A lot of maintenance
Oil
Used in high voltage

Low cost

Immediate maintenance after short-circuit interruption

PVO (Small Volume of
Not recommended for circuits that require a high number of
Oil)
maneuvers

Used in medium voltage

Robust

More complicated maintenance

Compressed Air Used in high voltage

Falling out of use

Problems with compressed air tightness

Safety in operations

Low maintenance

Vacuum Used up to 36.5kV

Allows multiple reconnections

They do not require maintenance of the ampoules.

High-quality means of extinction

Low maintenance
SF6
Current trend for high voltage circuit breakers

Need for continuous monitoring of gas pressure

Table 9 - Circuit Breaker Comparison

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 61

CONSTRUCTIVE DETAILS

The circuit breakers are composed of the following parts:

Conductive parts of current.

Insulating parts.

Arc extinguishing devices.

Operating mechanisms.

Auxiliary components.

The main accessories used in the composition of the circuit breaker are the pre-resistor.

insertion, the voltage equalization capacitors and the maneuver synchronizer.

The pre-insertion resistors reduce the amplitude of the overvoltages resulting from

energization and reconnection of transmission lines and also the voltages of

temporary reestablishment through the circuit breaker contacts. They may still be
associated with capacitors at the terminals of the circuit breakers that reduce the rate of rise

of the transient reestablishment voltage.

Voltage equalization capacitors are used in high and extra high voltage circuit breakers.

tension made up of two or more interruption chambers in order to ensure a

uniform distribution of total stress between the chambers.

The maneuver synchronizer is used to optimize the timing of operation of the

circuit breakers, calculating the ideal switching moment of the contacts based on each

type of load. For example, the opening of transformer circuit breakers is better

performed at zero voltage while the circuit breaker is best closed at

voltage peak.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARNING ELECTRICAL 62

In the specification of circuit breakers, at a minimum, the characteristics must be indicated

listed below.

Specification of high-voltage circuit breakers

Feature Specification
Nominal Frequency 60 Hz
Nominal Voltage 138 kV
Nominal Current 1250 A
Short-circuit Current 31.5 kA
Flow Distance 20 mm/kV
Nominal Atmospheric Impulse Withstand Voltage 650 kV
Nominal Withstand Voltage at Industrial Frequency 275 kV
Construction Type SF6
Type of Actuation Tripolar spring
Accessories - -
Table 10 - Specification of the AT circuit breakers

Specification of MT distribution cubicles

Characteristic Specification
Nominal Frequency 60 Hz
Nominal Voltage 13.8 kV
Nominal Current 4000 A
Short-circuit current 31.5 kA
Nominal Voltage of Auxiliary Circuits 125 Vcc
Means of isolation The air

Type of installation Cozy

Protection Degree IP-40
Flow Distance 20 mm/kV
Nominal Supportable Atmospheric Impulse Voltage 95 kV
Nominal Allowable Voltage at Industrial Frequency 34 kV
Table 11 - Specification of MV distribution cubicles

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 63

RULES

The most important standards for the specification of circuit breakers are those issued by the IEC.

of series 62271, indicated below:

IEC 62271-1 - High voltage switchgear and controlgear Part 1: Common

specifications

IEC 62271-100 - High voltage switchgear and controlgear Part 100: Alternating

current circuit breakers

IEC 62271-109 - High voltage switchgear and controlgear Part 109: Alternating

current series capacitor bypass switches

IEC 62271-110 - High voltage switchgear and controlgear Part 110: Inductive load

switching

IEC/TR 62271-302 - High voltage switchgear and controlgear Part 302: Alternating

current circuit breakers with intentionally non-simultaneous pole operation

Standards related to the conduct of tests that must be read together with those

mentioned above:

IEC 60060-1 High Voltage Testing Techniques Part 1: General Definitions and Test

requirements;

IEC 60060-2 High voltage testing techniques Part 2: Measuring systems;

IEC 60071-1 Insulation coordination Part 1: Definitions, principles and rules;

IEC 60071-2 Insulation coordination Part 2: Application guide;

IEC 62271-101 High voltage switchgear and controlgear Part 101: Synthetic testing.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 64

POWER TRANSFORMERS

Figure 34 - Power transformer (Transformer)

INTRODUCTION

It is considered the most important equipment of a substation due to its value and

utility.

It is a device intended to transmit electrical energy or power from one circuit to

outro, transforming voltages and currents in an alternating current circuit, or the

modify the values of the impedances of an electrical circuit.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 65

The great advantage of alternating current compared to direct current is due to the

transformer, which allows for obtaining any desired voltage level almost without

losses.

They consist of a core, a primary winding, and a secondary one, which may

to have other windings these two conductive windings are not connected

electrically, but rather through magnetic flux.

The operation of the transformer is based on the second law of Faraday or the first law of

electromagnetism (an electric current is induced in a circuit if it is under the

action of a variable magnetic field.

A magnetic field is a region of space induced by any moving charge,

like electric current.

Each electric charge creates an electric field around it with electric field lines.

entering (negative charge) or exiting (positive charge).

The change in the current present in the primary circuit winding alters the flux.

magnetic in this circuit and also in the winding of the secondary circuit, the latter

mounted in such a way as to be under the direct influence of the established magnetic field

in the primary circuit.

In turn, the change in magnetic flux in the secondary coil induces electric voltage in the

own secondary coil.

As a result of magnetic induction, an alternating current in a winding

provokes the emergence of an alternating current in the other winding. The magnitude

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 66

The comparison of current and voltage on each side differs according to the

geometry, that is, with the number of loops in each winding.

Figure 35 - Power transformer representation

CONSTRUCTIVE DETAILS

The transformer is basically made up of:

Windings: They are made up of several coils, which are generally made of copper.

electrolytic and receive a layer of synthetic varnish as insulation.

Core: Made generally of ferromagnetic material, it is responsible for confining the

magnetic flux, so that almost all the flux that surrounds one of the

winding also involves the other and, thus, enables the transfer of

power from the primary winding to the secondary.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 67

These two components of the transformer are known as the active part, and the others

as complementary accessories.

ENROLLMENTS

The conductors are wound in the form of cylindrical coils, which are arranged

coaxially in the core columns, in increasing order of voltage. Coils with

conductors in parallel, in the radial direction, must have transposition, to minimize the

additional losses and the mechanical efforts resulting from short circuits. Many coils

can be connected in series or in parallel to form a winding. The coils

this winding can be stacked in the core alternately with the coils of

another enrollment.

Basically, there are the following types of windings:

Winding on disk: high voltage and low current; high voltage;

Woven disk winding: increase in series capacitance of

winding, improving the distribution of steep front surge voltage;

high tension

Helical winding: low voltage and high current; primary of transformers

plant elevators; regulation;

Layer winding: concentric layers connected in series; low or high

tension; tertiary.

Nucleus

The core is made of cold-rolled silicon steel sheets, coated with a film.

insulating.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRIC 68

The panels are supported by a structure made up of metal beams, interconnected.

by straps, and by fiberglass strips impregnated with resin.

The core of three-phase transformers generally has three columns. The five-core

columns allow for a height reduction, being used when this reduction is

necessary due to transport restrictions.

In this case, the zero and positive sequence reactances are equal, as also happens

in the banks formed by single-phase units.

These two transformer components are known as the active part, while

the others as complementary accessories.

Some accessories of a power transformer:

Low and high voltage switchboard;

Bush current transformers;

Conservative with a rubber bag;

Oil temperature indicator (ANSI 26);

Winding temperature indicator (ANSI 49);

Pressure relief device (ANSI 63V);

Gas detector relay (ANSI 63);

Air dryer;

External oil level indicator (ANSI 71).

In chapter 4, we detail the ANSI protections 26, 29, 63, and 71 better.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 69

ISOLATION

The transformer insulation is basically made up of oil and cellulose (paper or

The oil also has a cooling function.

The conductors (copper and, in some cases, aluminum) are wrapped in strips of paper, which

they form the insulation between turns. The conductors are wound into cylinders of

presspan, which provides mechanical fixing and insulation between phase windings and
between these and the nucleus.

Presspan strips, fixed to these cylinders in the axial direction, form oil channels that,

In addition to contributing to isolation, they facilitate cooling.

Additional insulating barriers (presspan) are generally used between phase windings.
different and between windings, the core and the tank. In addition to its insulating function, these

barriers reduce the thickness of oil channels, which increases dielectric rigidity
(kV/mm) in these channels.

Transformers are defined by a group of four symbols for each method of

cooling, with a transformer possibly having more than one type of cooling. In
Table 8, based on the ABNT NBR 5356:2004 standard, presents the nature of the medium of

cooling and circulation.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 70

 Nature of the cooling medium Symbol

Oil O

Non-flammable insulating liquid L

Gas G

Water W

Ar A

Nature of Circulation Symbol

Natural N

Forced (unguided flow in the case of oil) F

Forced with undirected flow D

Table 12 - Nature of the cooling medium Potential Transformer

First Letter Second Letter Third Letter Fourth letter

Cooling medium indicator

Cooling medium indicator
in contact with the system of
in contact with the windings
external cooling

Nature of Nature of
Nature of Nature of
means of means of
circulation circulation
cooling cooling

Table 13 - Order of transformer cooling symbols

For example, a transformer with ONAN/ONAF/ONAF2 cooling has three types of

refrigeration, the first by natural oil and natural air, and the second and third by oil

natural and forced air.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 71

 TYPES

Among other criteria, transformers can be classified according to their purpose,

the function in the system, the electrical separation between windings, the core material and the

number of phases, as follows.

Types of transformers
Function in Electrical separation between the Material of Quantity of
Purpose
system windings core phases
Of current Elevator Two or more windings Ferromagnetic Single-phase
Of
Of interconnection Autotransformer Air core Polyphase
potential
Of
Lowering device
distribution
Of power
Table 14 - Types of transformers

Power transformers are intended to lower or raise the voltage in such a way that

do not alter the power of the circuit.

These transformers can be divided into two groups:

Power transformers are used to generate, transmit, and distribute.

Energy, have a power range of 5 to 300 MVA and operate at voltages up to 765 kV.

Distribution transformer - these transformers are used to lower

the voltage to be delivered to the end customers of the distribution companies

Energy. They are usually installed on poles or in underground chambers.

They have a power of 30 to 300 kVA.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 72

CHARACTERISTICS

The characteristic impedance, also known as percent impedance or voltage of

percentage short-circuit is the part of the nominal voltage that, when applied to

primary winding is capable of circulating the nominal current in the secondary when

this is short-circuited. Mathematically we can write:

Being:

Z - Characteristic impedance of the transformer;

Vcc - Primary voltage sufficient to allow the nominal current to flow in the secondary

when it is short-circuited;

Unp - Nominal primary voltage.

It is especially important for the calculation of short-circuit currents on the side of

secondary of the transformer since the maximum short-circuit current occurs when one
apply the full nominal voltage to the primary. Mathematically, we have:

Being:

Icc - Short-circuit current;

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 73

Ins - Nominal current of the secondary;

Z - Characteristic impedance of the transformer.

It is an important factor also when considering transformer parallelism. The

Transformers that are in parallel must have the same impedance.

characteristic.

Otherwise, due to the differences in voltages between the secondaries of the transformers,

a circulation current will arise, which will cause the total power supplied by the

the parallelism of transformers is not equal to the sum of the individual power of each

transformer.

In the specification of power transformers, at a minimum, the following must be indicated

characteristics listed below.

High Voltage Power Transformer Specification

Feature Specification
Number of Phases Three-phase
Nominal Frequency 60 Hz
Nominal Voltage - Primary 138 kV
Nominal Voltage - Secondary 13.8 kV *
Nominal Tension–Bushing 145 kV *
Nominal Power 30/37.5 MVA *
Tipo de Refrigeração ONAN/ONAF *
Tipo de Ligação–Primário Delta *
Type of Connection–Secondary Aterrado Star
Link Group Dyn1 *
Switching Type OLTC
Characteristic Impedance 11%*
Nominal Atmospheric Impulse Tolerance Voltage 650 kV
Nominal Insulation Voltage at Industrial Frequency 275 kV *
Accessories -
These values may vary depending on the transformer.
Table 15 - Specification of the high voltage power transformer

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARNING ELECTRICAL 74

STANDARDS

ABNT -NBR 5034 - Bushings for alternating voltages above 1 kV.

ABNT-NBR 5286 - Large ceramic bodies intended for
Electrical installations - requirements.
ABNT-NBR 5356-1 - Power transformer - Part 1: Generalities.
ABNT-NBR 5356-2 - Power transformers - Part 2: Heating
ABNT-NBR 5356-3 - Power transformers - Part 3: Insulation levels,
dielectric tests and external spacings in air.
ABNT-NBR 5356-4 - Power transformers - Part 4: Guide for testing
atmospheric and maneuvering impulse for transformers and reactors.
ABNT-NBR 5356-5 - Power transformers - Part 5: Ability to withstand
short circuits.
ABNT-NBR 5416 - Application of load in power transformers
Procedure.
ABNT-NBR 5426 - Sampling plans and procedures in inspection by
attributes.
ABNT-NBR 5458 - Power transformers - Terminology.
ABNT-NBR 6234 - Testing method for the determination of interfacial tension
oil-water.
ABNT-NBR 6323 – Galvanization of steel or cast iron products –
Specification.
ABNT-NBR 6821 - Current transformer - Testing method.
ABNT-NBR 6856 - Current transformer - Specification.
ABNT-NBR 6936 - High Voltage Electrical Testing Techniques.
ABNT-NBR 6937 - High voltage electrical testing techniques - Devices of
measurement.
ABNT-NBR 6939 - Isolation Coordination - Procedure.
ABNT-NBR 7036 - Receipt, installation, and maintenance of transformers
power for distribution, immersed in insulating liquids.
ABNT-NBR 7037 - Receiving, installation, and maintenance of transformers
power in mineral insulating oil.
ABNT-NBR 7070 - Sampling of Gases and Mineral Insulating Oil from Equipment
Electric and analysis of free and dissolved gases.
ABNT-NBR 7274 - Interpretation of transformer gas analysis
service
ABNT-NBR 7277 - Transformers and reactors - Determination of noise level

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARNING ELECTRICAL 75

 ABNT-NBR 7289 - Control cables with extruded insulation of PE or PVC for
voltages up to 1kV - Performance requirements.
ABNT-NBR 7290 - Control cables with XLPE or EPR extruded insulation for
voltages up to 1kV - Performance requirements.
ABNT-NBR 7348 - Industrial painting - Surface preparation of steel with jet
abrasive and water jetting.
ABNT-NBR 7400 - Galvanization of steel or cast iron products by immersion at
hot - Coating uniformity verification - Testing method.
ABNT-NBR 7462 - Vulcanized elastomer - Determination of tensile strength.
ABNT-NBR 8667 - Load Bypass Switch - Specification.
ABNT-NBR 9368 - Power transformers with maximum voltages up to 145 kV -
Electrical and mechanical characteristics.
ABNT-NBR 10474 - Qualification in welding - Terminology.
ABNT-NBR 11003 - Paints - Determination of adhesion.
ABNT-NBR 11407 - Vulcanized elastomer - Determination of the changes of
physical properties, by immersion in liquids - Testing method.
ABNT-NBR 12133 - Electrical insulating liquids - Determination of the loss factor
dielectrics and relative permittivity (dielectric constant) - Testing method.
ABNT-NBR 14248 - Petroleum products - Determination of acidity number and
of basicity - Indicator method.
ABNT-NBR 14274 - Electrical equipment - Determination of compatibility
materials used with insulating mineral oil.
ABNT-NBR 14448 - Petroleum Products - Determination of the Acid Number
by the Potentiometric Titration Method.
ABNT-NBR 14842 - Criteria for the qualification and certification of inspectors
welding.
ABNT-NBR 17094 - Rotating electric machines - Induction motors
ABNT-NBR ISO/IEC 17025 - General requirements for the competence of laboratories
of testing and calibration.
ABNT-NBR IEC 60156 - Insulating liquids - Determination of dielectric strength
industrial frequency - Testing method.
ABNT-NBR IEC 60238 - Edison screw lamp holders.
ABNT-NBR IEC 60529 - Degrees of protection for equipment enclosures
electrical (IP code).
ABNT NBR IEC 60641 - Pressed card and pressed paper for dielectric purposes.
ABNT- NBR NM ISO 534 - Paper and cardboard - Determination of thickness, density and
specific volume.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 76

 ABNT- NBR NM ISO 1924 - Paper and Cardboard - Determination of Properties
Traction
ISO 2859-1 - Sampling procedures for inspection by attributes - Part 1: Sampling
schemes indexed by acceptance quality limit (AQL) for lot-by-lot inspections.
IEC 60071-2 - Insulation co-ordination - Part 2: Application guide.
IEC 60255-1 - Measuring relays and protection equipment–Part 1: Common
requirements.
IEC 60255-5 - Electrical Relays - Part 5: Insulation coordination for measuring relays
and protection equipment - Requirements and tests
IEC 60255-21-1 - Electrical relays - Part 21: Vibration, shock, bump and seismic
tests on measuring relays and protection equipment - Section One: Vibration tests
(sinusoidal).
IEC 60255-22-1 - Measuring relays and protection equipment - Part 22-1: Electrical
disturbance tests - 1 MHz burst immunity tests.
IEC 60255-22-2 - Measuring relays and protection equipment - Part 22-2: Electrical
disturbance tests - Electrostatic discharge tests.
IEC 60255-22-3 - Measuring relays and protection equipment - Part 22-3: Electrical
disturbance tests - Radiated electromagnetic field immunity.
IEC 60255-22-4 - Measuring relays and protection equipment - Part 22-4: Electrical
disturbance tests - Electrical fast transient/burst immunity test.
IEC 60870-5-101 - Telecontrol equipment and systems Part 5-101: Transmission
protocols - Companion standard for basic telecontrol tasks.
IEC 60870-5-103 - Telecontrol Equipment and Systems - Part 5-103: Transmission
Protocols - Companion Standard for the Informative Interface of Protection
Equipment.
IEC 60870-5-104 - Telecontrol Equipment and Systems - Part 5-104: Transmission
Protocols - Network Access for IEC 60870-5-101 Using Standard Transport Profiles.
IEC 61000-4-5 - Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-5: Testing and
measurement techniques - Surge immunity test.
IEC 61850 - Communication networks and systems in substations - all parts.
ANSI C57.13 - Standard Requirements for instrument transformers.
ANSI C57.15 - Standard requirements, terminology and test code for step-voltage
regulators.
ANSI/IEEE C57.116 - Guide For Transformers Directly Connected to Generators.

These standards are established by the following international institutions:

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 77

 ABNT - Brazilian Association of Technical Standards.
ISO - International Organization for Standardization.
IEC - International Electrotechnical Commission.
ANSI - American National Standards Institute.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 78

CAPACITOR BANK

Figure 36 - Capacitor bank

INTRODUCTION

Capacitor banks are equipment intended for reactive power compensation.

capacitive system, which consists of increasing the power factor, with the following

basic purposes:

Increase the voltage at the load terminals;

Improve voltage regulation/oscillation;

Release the loading of cables/lines/transformers;

Use in conjunction with reactors for harmonic filtering purposes;

Stay within the limits of the factor imposed by the utilities to avoid payment

fines.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 79

TYPES OF CONNECTIONS

Three-phase capacitor banks can be connected in delta, simple star, or double star.

star. The definition of the binding scheme depends mainly on the following factors:

System characteristics: operating voltages and type of grounding;

Voltage and power of the bank;

Limitations of capacitive units: constructive and technological aspects;

Protection philosophy to be implemented.

DELTA

Delta connection schemes are employed, for economic reasons, for banks.
with voltage up to 13,800 V.

Figure 37 - Capacitor Bank delta connection

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 80

TERRIFIED STAR OR TERRIFIED DOUBLE STAR

Three-phase capacitor banks are commonly connected in simple or double star.

star.

In general, three-phase capacitor banks connected in simple star or

double stars are solidly grounded for systems with a nominal voltage equal to or

above 138 kV, to minimize overvoltages during single-phase faults in the network.

Figure 38 - Grounded star connection capacitor bank

Figure 39 - Capacitor bank double star grounded connection

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 81

ISOLATED STAR OR DOUBLE ISOLATED STAR

They do not cause interference in communication circuits and the neutral of the bank must be

isolated for phase voltage, which can be very costly for higher voltages.

Figure 40 - Capacitor Bank double star isolated connection

LINK IN PONDE H
The capacitive units of the phases of a bank whether connected in star or in

delta can be configured to form an "H" bridge, which divides the phase into four

sections, which allows monitoring the unbalance current in any of the

quadrants by installing a TC between the two branches of the "H".

This configuration is widely used in large capacitor banks, in all of

voltage levels, such as, for example, series capacitor banks and switched banks by

thyristors (TSC) of a static compensator.

Figure 41 - Capacitor Bank H-bridge connection

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 82

CAPACITOR BANK IN SERIES

Series capacitor banks are used to compensate for reactance.

series in transmission lines, thus reducing the electrical distance between the bars

terminals. Its use presents several advantages for the system, such as:

Increase in power transmission capacity of the transmission line;

Increase in system stability;

Reduction of voltage drop along the transmission line;

Better power balance between the lines, reducing overall losses of the

system

Reduction in costs compared to other alternatives.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARNING ELECTRICAL 83

REACTORS

Figure 42–Single-phase reactor 550kV

INTRODUCTION

Reactors are equipment designed to perform voltage control. They serve the purpose of

absorb the excess of capacitive reactive power from the transmission system, reducing and
keeping the voltage value at an adequate level for the controlled operation of the system

electric

Reactors are used to provide inductive reactance to the power system for a

wide variety of applications. This includes: fault current limiters, limiters of

"inrush" for capacitors and motors, harmonic filters, VAR compensators,

reduction of ripple (smoothing reactors), signal blockers in the power system

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 84

(lockout coils), neutral grounding, dampening of switched transients,
reduction of 'flicker' for arc furnace applications, desynchronization, load balancing and

power conditioning. Reactors can be installed at various levels of

industrial type voltage, for distribution or transmission, ranging from a few Amperes up to

hundreds of Amperes with fault current levels reaching into the tens of thousands.

CONSTRUCTIVE DETAILS

Reactors can be either dry or oil-immersed. Dry reactors can be constructed

with an air core or iron core. In the past, reactors could only be of the type

open enrollment, its mechanical resistance is provided by a mechanical system of

fixation that provides isolation between the coils.

Modern dry-type reactors with air cores have their windings completely

encapsulated with the insulation of the coils provided by films, fiber or enamels

dielectrics.

Oil-immersed reactors can be built with air gaps or shielding.

magnetic. Oil-immersed reactors are mainly used for 'shunt' reactors in

extra high voltage.

Dry reactors with a core of iron are usually used in low voltage and installation.

internal, for applications such as harmonic filtering and power conditioning.

DERIVATIVE REACTORS

Derivation reactors are used to compensate for the capacitive reactive power generated.

for transmission lines under light load or underground cables. Normally, these

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRIC 85

reactors are connected to the tertiary of power transformers in systems up to

245kV, but can also be connected directly to the line.

High voltage transmission lines, when particularly long, generate a

substantial amount of reactive energy when slightly loaded. On the other hand,

they absorb a large amount of lagging reactive power when heavily loaded.

As a consequence, unless the transmission line is operating in equilibrium of

reactive power, the voltage in the system cannot be maintained at nominal values.

To achieve an acceptable reactive power balance, the line must be compensated for

to obtain an operational condition.

THYRISTOR CONTROLLED REACTORS

As the operational characteristics of the system come increasingly closer to its

limits, such as dynamic or stress stability, or in the case of large loads

dynamic industries, then the need for dynamic compensation arises.

Typically, static VAR compensators (SVC) are used to provide

dynamic compensation in a beam, through the use of microprocessors, for the

maintenance of a reactive dynamic support reserve when there is a need.

Current limiting reactors

Current limiting reactors (RLC) are used to reduce current values.

short-circuit at levels compatible with the capacity of the connected equipment

side of the reactor load.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARNING ELECTRICAL 86

Short-circuit limiting reactors are used to control short-circuit levels.

in the electric power system, covering the range that goes from large complexes

industrial, distribution systems to extra high voltage transmission systems.

NORMS

Among the standards currently used for specification, design, and testing of reactors
it is cited:

IEEE C57.21-2008 (IEEE Standard Requirements, Terminology, and Tests Code for)
Shunt Reactors Rated Over 500kVA
IEEE C57.16-1996 (IEEE Standard Requirements, Terminology, and Tests Code for
DryType Air Core Series-Connected Reactors
ANSI/IEEE Std 32-1972 (Reaffirmed 1984) (IEEE Standard Requirements,
Terminology, and Test Procedure for Neutral Grounding Devices
ANSI C93.3-1995 (Requirements for Power-Line Carrier Line Traps)
IEC 60076-6 Edition 1.0 2007-12 (Power Transformers–Part 6: Reactors)
IEC 60353 Second Edition 1989-10 (Line Traps for a.c. power systems);
ABNT NBR 5119 Second Edition 28.01.2011 (Reactor for Power Systems -
Specification);
ABNT NBR 7569 NOV/1982 (Reactors for Power Systems – Method of
Essay)
ABNT NBR 8119 JUL/1983 (Locking Coil - Specification).

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 87

Chapter 3 BAR SETTINGS

INTRODUCTION

In addition to the type, another factor that determines a substation is the arrangement configuration.

Regarding the bus. Understand the bus as the electrical operational scheme of the

SE.

There are several reasons for the choice of the type of bus, of which we can
highlight technical, economic, local reasons, expansion of the SE itself as well as social reasons and

political. In this e-book we will only address the most common types of bus.

TYPES OF ARRANGEMENTS

Although there are many possible arrangements, we will highlight the most common arrangements,

the substation bar configurations can be divided into two major groups:

The first group, of the configurations with concentrated connectivity. In this group are,

for example, single bar settings and double bar type settings
single circuit breaker.

One of the main characteristics of the settings of this group is that the contingencies

simple external events, in general, are less severe than simple contingencies

internally at the substation, where significant circuit loss usually occurs.

The second group is that of configurations with distributed connectivity. This group includes,

for example, the configurations in simple ring and double bar with circuit breaker and half.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 88

 In this group, simple external or internal contingencies usually do not cause

great loss of circuits, however double contingencies can cause major losses
of circuits, as well as the formation of electrical islands in the system.

ARRANGEMENT RELIABILITY COST USED AREA

Minor
Lower cost,
Reliability.
due to minor
Simple Bar Simple failures Smaller area.
number of
can cause the
disconnection from the SE.
components.

Greater
Reliability in
relation to the Barra
simple.
Simple failures Cost higher than the Bar Area greater than the
Simple Bar with
can cause the simple due to the Simple bar due to
By-Pass key disconnection from the SE. inclusion of the keys. inclusion of the keys.
However, there is greater

flexibility of
operation and
maintenance.
Low reliability
similar to the bar
Moderate cost.
Main Bar and simple. Small area for
Few
Transfer Better flexibility your installation.
in the operation and
components.

maintenance.
Moderate cost.
Double Bar one Reliability Number of
Circuit breaker
Moderate area.
moderate components one
slightly larger.
Large Area.
Double Bar Reliability Welcome to the number
High cost.
Double Circuit Breaker. Moderate.
of components.
High reliability. Moderate cost. Large area.
Double Bar, Simple failures Number of Largest number of
Breaker and Medium isolate only the components a components by
circuit. slightly larger. circuit.
Bus in
High reliability. Moderate cost. Moderate area.
panel
Table 16 - Types of Busbars

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 89

SIMPLE BARS

Figure 43 - Simple Bar Arrangement

It is one of the simplest bar configurations and can be used in

small substations at medium and high voltage, used in substations of

distribution or industrial substations to service specific loads.

Due to the loss of circuits in the presence of a fault or during the maintenance of the circuit breaker,

this arrangement is used in small substations.

This arrangement for a substation is the one that presents the lowest implementation cost, and

a smaller area needed for its installation.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 90

SIMPLE BAR WITH THE USE OF BY-PASS KEY

Figure 44 - Simple Bar Arrangement with the use of a by-pass key

The Simple Bar scheme can provide better availability with the use of

a By-Pass key for powering the circuits.

The characteristics presented by a simple bar system using a

The By-Pass key is the same as the one presented by the simple bar configuration.

This configuration is different from the simple bar configuration because it has a cost.

slightly higher due to the use of By-Pass keys.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 91

MAIN BAR AND TRANSFER

Figure 45 - Main Bar Arrangement and Transfer

It is used in medium and high voltage substations. In some extra high voltage substations

tension in Brazil, it is also possible to find this type of bar configuration.

Here, the release of a circuit breaker is performed with the aid of the bypass keys, the bar and

of the transfer bay, maintaining the individual protection of each circuit.

The maneuvers are carried out without any shutdowns and only one can be released.
circuit breaker each time.

The Main Bar and Transfer scheme is a more complex system compared to

the previous schemes and presents a greater reliability.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARNING ELECTRICAL 92

DOUBLE BAR WITH A BREAKER

Figure 46 - Double Bar Arrangement with a Circuit Breaker

The Double Bar scheme is an evolution of the Main Bar and Transfer scheme.

The advantage of the Double Bar scheme compared to the Main Bar scheme is
Transfer is that in the failure of one of the circuit breakers and/or one of the busbars does not result.

on the shutdown of the substation.

This advantage gives the Double Bar greater reliability.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARNING ELECTRICAL 93

DOUBLE BAR WITH TWO CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Figure 47 - Double Bar Arrangement with two Breakers

The electrical operation diagram of a substation in the double bus scheme with two

breakers are an adaptation of the double bus scheme, in order to present a

reliability of circuits.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 94

DOUBLE BAR WITH BREAKER AND MIDDLE

Figure 48 - Double Bar Arrangement with Breaker and Middle

The operational electrical scheme Double Bar with Circuit Breaker and Middle is another adaptation of the

traditional Double Bar scheme.

This scheme is an evolution of the Double Bar scheme with Two Breakers, aiming to

reduction of implementation cost.

The Double Bar scheme with Circuit Breaker and Half retains almost all the advantages
of the previous arrangement.

Item 7.1.1.1 of Submodule 2.3 (Minimum requirements for substations and their

(equipment) of the ONS Network procedure informs that:

The bus arrangements for substations with air insulation are distinguished by

voltage class, whereby voltage buses equal to or above 345kV must have
double bar arrangement with a breaker and a half.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 95

RING DAM

Figure 49 - Ring Bus Arrangement

Bus that forms a closed circuit through switching devices. This

the scheme also sections the busbar, with one less circuit breaker, compared to the

simple segmented bus configuration.

The cost is approximately the same as that of the simple bus and is more reliable.

although its operation is more complicated. Each equipment (line, feeder,

transformer) is fed by two separate circuit breakers. In case of failure, only the
The segment in which the failure occurs will be isolated.

A desvantagem é que se um disjuntor estiver desligado para fins de manutenção, o anel

will be open, and the rest of the busbar and the alternative circuit breakers must be

designed to carry all the cargo.

Each output circuit has two power paths, making it the most flexible tornado.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARNING ELECTRICITY 96

Chapter 4 PROTECTION

PROTECTION SYSTEMS

We can define the Protection system as a set of integrated equipment.

that with the objective of supervising and acting on the Electric Power System (EPS) of
way to minimize the damage caused by possible surges and overvoltages that
may occur in this system.

CONCEPTUALIZATION OF THE PROTECTION SYSTEM

A protection system has the basic function of removing as quickly as possible a

equipment of the electrical system when it has an operational behavior
abnormal that can endanger lives, harm other equipment or, still,
interfere with the effective operation of the rest of the SEP. Another function of the protection system is

provide the location and identification of the types of failure that occurred in the system
electric helping to reduce the SEP repair time.

Aspects that guide the design to achieve an efficient and well-functioning protection system.
designed

Reliability - Protective equipment used;

Speed - Quickness to eliminate the lack;
Selectivity - Isolates the smallest section of the system with the fault;

Economics - Cost-benefit. How much is spent to protect the equipment.

Aspects that guide the design to achieve an efficient and well-functioning protection system
designed

Quantity - Protection functions (50, 51, 67, 87, etc);

Location - Protection zone;

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARNING ELECTRICITY 97

 Backup - In the event of a system protection failure, there must be
another equipment as backup;
Sensitivity - Type of protection used and the vulnerability to be protected;
Portability - Equipment to be protected;
Selectivity - Organize the operation of protection devices.

ANSI TABLE

Before we talk individually about the main protection functions, we must understand
that in the technical language of the electric sector, for every function that a relay can perform is
given this function a number. The ANSI defines this number.

The ANSI (American National Standards Institute) is

a private, non-profit organization that manages and coordinates the northern system
American standards for various segments such as computing, telecommunications,
electric, etc.

Other international institutes, such as the IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission),

they also give the protective functions other nomenclatures. But we will highlight the standard
ANSI which is more common in the electrical sector.

Although there are several functions in the ANSI table for the protection of a Substation,
we can highlight the main functions:

21 - Distance relay;
26 - Thermal device of the equipment (oil temperature in
transformers, reactors, generators, etc.
27 - Under-voltage relay;
49 - Thermal relay (winding temperature in transformers, reactors,
generators, etc.;
50 - Instantaneous overcurrent relay;
51 - Time delay overcurrent relay;
59 - Surge Relay;
63 - Gas pressure relay (Buchholz) (applicable to transformers, reactors,
generators, etc.;
67 - Directional overcurrent relay;
71 - Level detection device;

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 98

 86 - Auxiliary blocking relay;
87 - Differential protection relay;
94 - Disconnection relay.

Number Designation
1 Main Element
2 Start relay or timed closure
3 Verification or interlocking relay
4 Main contactor
5 Interrupt device
6 Starting circuit breaker
7 Rate of change relay
8 Control power shutdown device
9 Reversal device
10 Sequence switching key of the units
11 Multifunction device
12 Over-speed device
13 Synchronous rotation device
14 Subspeed device
15 Device for adjusting or comparing speed and/or frequency
16 Data communication device
17 Derivation or discharge key
18 Acceleration or deceleration device
19 Start-run transition contactor
20 Electrically operated valve
21 Distance relay
22 Equalizer circuit breaker
23 Temperature control device
24 Relé de sobreexcitação ou Volts por Hertz
25 Synchronization or Synchronization Check Relay
26 Thermal device of the equipment
27 Under-voltage relay
28 Flame detector
29 Isolation contactor
30 Announcing relay
31 Excitation device
32 Directional power relay
33 Positioning key
34 Master sequence device
35 Device for operating the brushes or short-circuiting the collector rings
36 Polarity or polarization device

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 99

 37 Undercurrent or undervoltage relay
38 Bearing protection device
39 Mechanical condition monitor
40 Excitation loss relay or field loss relay
41 Circuit breaker or field switch
42 Circuit breaker / normal operating switch
43 Transfer or manual selection device
44 Starting sequence relay
45 Weather condition monitor
46 Reversal or current imbalance relay
47 Reversal or voltage imbalance relay
48 Incomplete sequence relay / long start
49 Thermal relay
50 Relé de sobrecorrente instantâneo
51 Timed overcurrent relay
52 Alternating current circuit breaker
53 Relay for exciter or DC generator
54 Coupling device
55 Power factor relay
56 Field application relay
57 Grounding or short-circuit device
58 Rectification failure relay
59 Overvoltage relay
60 Current or voltage balance relay
61 Density sensor
62 Timer relay
63 Gas pressure relay (Buchholz)
64 Ground fault relay
65 Regulator
66 Supervision relay of the number of starts
67 Directional overcurrent relay
68 Power oscillation blocking relay
69 Permissive control device
70 Rheostat
71 Level detection device
72 Direct current circuit breaker
73 Load resistance contactor
74 Alarm relay
75 Position change mechanism
76 DC overcurrent relay
77 Telemeasurement device

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 APRENDER ELÉTRICA 100

 78 Phase angle measurement relay / synchronization failure protection
79 Reclosing relay
80 Flow key
81 Frequency relay (under or over)
82 DC load reconnect relay
83 Selection / automatic transfer relay
84 Operating mechanism
85 Telecommunication signal receiver relay (teleprotection)
86 Locking auxiliary relay
87 Differential protection relay
88 Auxiliary motor or generator motor
89 Disconnect Switch
90 Regulation device (voltage regulator)
91 Voltage directional relay
92 Directional voltage and power relay
93 Field variation counter
94 Disconnection relay
95 Used for specific applications
96 Auxiliary bar locking relay
97 to 99 Used for specific applications
150 Indicator of land absence
AFD Arc voltage detector
CLK Clock
DDR Dynamic disturbance storage system
DFR Digital attendance recording system
ENV Environment data
HIZ High impedance fault detector
HMI Human-Machine Interface
HST Historical
LGC Logical scheme
MET Substation Measurement
PDC Phasor data concentrator
PMU Unit of measurement for phasors
PQM Power monitoring scheme
RIO Remote Input/Output Device
RTU Remote terminal unit / Data concentrator
SER Event storage system
TCM Trip monitoring scheme
SOTF Closure due to absence
Table 17 - ANSI Table

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 101

 Completion of the ANSI Table:

50N - instantaneous neutral overcurrent

51N - timed neutral overcurrent (defined time or inverse curves)

50G - instantaneous ground overcurrent (commonly referred to as 50GS)
51G - timed earth fault overcurrent (commonly called 51GS and with defined time
or inverse curves

50BF - circuit breaker failure protection relay (also known as 50/62 BF)

51Q - timed overcurrent relay of negative sequence with defined time or curves
inverses
51V - overcurrent relay with voltage restraint
51C - overcurrent relay with torque control

50PAF - high-speed instant phase overcurrent for arc flash detection

50NAF - high-speed neutral instantaneous overcurrent for arc detection

59Q - negative sequence overvoltage relay

59N - residual overvoltage relay or neutral overvoltage (also called 64G)

calculated or TP in open delta

64 - ground protection relay can be either current or voltage. The single-line diagrams
they must indicate whether this element is powered by TC or by TP, so that it can be defined
correctly. If powered by TC, it can also be used as a unit 51 or
61. If powered by TP, a unit 59N or 64G can be used. The function 64 also
can be found as housing protection, basin mass or tank, being applied in
power transformers up to 5 MVA.

67N - neutral directional overcurrent relay (instantaneous or time-delayed)

67G - directional ground overcurrent relay (instantaneous or time delayed)

67Q - directional overcurrent relay of negative sequence

78 - Vector Shift
Table 18 - Supplement to the ANSI Table

Substation - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 102

 Differential Protection - ANSI 87:

The differential relay 87 can be in various ways:

87T - transformer differential (may have 2 or 3 windings)

87N - neutral differential
REF - restriction limited to land

87Q - negative sequence differential (applied for fault detection between turns in
transformers)

87G - generator differential

87GT - differential protection of the generator-transformer group

87SP - split phase differential protection for generators

87V - Phase voltage differential

87VN - Neutral voltage differential

87B - differential of bars. It can be high, medium or low impedance.

One can find overcurrent elements connected in a scheme in industrial circuits.

differential, where the phase CTs are summed and connected to the overcurrent relay.

There is also a logical selectivity scheme to carry out the differential function of
bars.

In some documentation, relay 68 can be referred to as the selectivity function.

logic.
87M - motor differential - In this case, it can be of the percentage type or of the type
self-balancing.

The percentage uses a differential circuit through 3 phase CTs and 3 CTs in the neutral of
motor. The self-balancing type uses a set of 3 TC's at the terminals of the motor, connected to
way to obtain the sum of the currents of each phase and neutral. In reality, it is about a
overcurrent element, where the scheme is differential and not the relay.

Table 19 - Differential Protection - ANSI 87

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 103

 Data communication device - ANSI 16:
The suffix letters to the device define its application. The
the first suffixes are:
S - serial data communication
E - Ethernet data communication

The following suffixes define:

C - network security device (e.g. VPN, encryption)

F - firewall or message filter

M - network management function (SNMP)

R - router

S - switch

T - telephone

A manageable Ethernet switch will have the following code: 16ESM

Table 20 - Data communication device - ANSI 16

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 104

OVERCURRENT RELAYS (50)

They are relays that operate when the current value of the circuit exceeds a preset value.
determined or adjusted.

In general, in substations (and in electrical systems in general), short-circuit currents

the circuit is much higher than the load currents, so, based on this
In principle, the overcurrent relay is capable of detecting most of the faults.

NaFigure 50,if the current is much greater than the preset, the relay 50 activates on the
circuit breaker, opening it.

This protection is widely used in feeders, that is, in those circuits that
we supply the distribution network (13.8kV).

Figure 50 - Overcurrent relays (50) - Single-line connection diagram

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 105

 Figure 51 - Overcurrent relays (50) - Three-wire connection diagram

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 106

TIME DELAY OVERCURRENT RELAYS (51)

Speaking in a more simplified way, we can say that function 51 is the function of
overcurrent (50) delayed.

NFigure 52below there is a circuit breaker D1 at one end of the line; at the other end the circuit breaker
D2.

Figure 52 - Time-Delayed Overcurrent Relays (51) - Operation Diagram

If there is a short circuit after circuit breaker D2. To prevent the short from reaching circuit breaker D1, it is
it is necessary for the circuit breaker D2 to open.

Using relays with function 50 at each end of the line, it would be complicated to distinguish in
which side did the short occur and both circuit breakers would open.

With the use of the time-overcurrent function (51), it is possible to delay the operation of the
relay installed next to the circuit breaker D1. This allows for coordination between the relays.

The name of this technique is selectivity and it is developed to interrupt faults/shorts with the
minimum time possible, but with enough delay for the relays to
those close to the defect may act first.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 107

 Figure 53 - Timed overcurrent relays (51) - Single line connection diagram

Figure 54 - Timed overcurrent relays (51) - Three-wire connection diagram

The wiring diagram of relay 51 is the same as relay 50. In fact, the digital relays already have
various protection functions are embarked. Therefore, the same relay can perform both.
the functions depending on the adjustment.

See youaFigure 86 - SEL-751 Digital Relay - Overview of Connections and Protection Functionsyou
we can better visualize this example.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 108

DIRECTIONAL OVERCURRENT RELAY (67)

In the electrical system, there may be arrangements where there is more than one voltage source.Figure
55we have an example of a system with two sources, one source is at Substation 'A' and
the other from Substation 'D'. The red arrows indicate the flow.

Figure 55 - Directional overcurrent relay (67) - Operation schematic

The directional relay (67) monitors currents and voltages at the terminal where it is installed.
(that is, in the SE) and operates only in relation to a single direction regarding the flow of
energy that flows through the system.

What differentiates the overcurrent protections of type 50 and 51 is that protection 67

it seeks to send an opening signal to the circuit breaker only for faults that are 'upstream'
of the relay. If a fault is located 'behind' the relay, unit 67 will be blocked and
it will not act. Assuming that there was a source between Substations 'B' and 'C', it is desirable
that only circuit breakers 3 and 4 are opened.

Figure 56 - Directional overcurrent relay (67) - Operating diagram

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 109

In cases where non-directional protection relays (such as protection 50/51) are used, the circuit breakers
2, 5 and 6 can also open for faults on the line between Substations 'B' and 'C', as these
Protections only monitor the magnitude of short-circuit currents, not their direction.

Figura 57 - Relé de sobrecorrente direcional (67) - Esquema de ligação unifilar

Figure 58 - Directional overcurrent relay (67) - Three-wire connection diagram

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 110

OVERVOLTAGE RELAYS (59)

These are relays that operate when the circuit voltage exceeds a preset value.
determined or adjusted.

Once this protection is activated, the relay can send alarm signals, switching signals to
capacitor bank or, depending on the parameterization, send open command
for circuit breakers. Just like overcurrent relays, surge relays can
to be of instantaneous or timed action.

Figure 59 - Overvoltage relays (59) - Single line connection diagram

Figure 60 - Overvoltage relays (59) - Three-wire connection diagram

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 111

UNDER-VOLTAGE RELAYS (27)

Unlike function 59, they are relays that operate when the circuit voltage value
I fell a predetermined or adjusted value.

The relay connection scheme is the same as function 59 and is usually adjusted.
both functions.

Figure 61 - Under-voltage relays - Single line connection diagram

Figure 62 - Undervoltage relays - Three-wire connection diagram

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARNING ELECTRICAL 112

DISTANCE RELAYS (21)

Relay 21 is used for the protection of transmission lines. Therefore, the relay acts from the
distance at which a foul occurs in relation to the position where he is. That is, the relay
(which is at the Substation) detects a fault
through the impedance per Km of the line.

The relay is polarized by voltage and current (through the TPs and TCs respectively) to
perform the basic operation of impedance Z=V/I (impedance is the voltage over the current).

In the images below, we see the single-line and three-line diagram of the connection of relay 21 to the TPs and TCs:

Figure 63 - Distance Relays - Single Line Connection Diagram

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 113

 Figure 64 - Distance Relays - Three-wire connection diagram

In this way, a distance relay is set with impedance as the basic quantity.
Therefore, for any impedance less than the adjusted value, the relay operates.

A relay 21 can also be adjusted by other parameters, but we will address this in
material only the adjustment by impedance.

Another characteristic of the distance relay is the 'Zones'. Generally, the relays have three
zones. Each zone corresponds to a value of impedance. And for each value of impedance,
there is a time of action:

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 114

 Figure 65 - Distance Relays - Zones of Operation Diagram

1st zone = instant action

2nd zone = acts in 0.15 to 0.5 seconds

3rd zone = operates in 0.40 to 1.0 seconds

In addition, for each zone there is a certain range (that is, how many kilometers from the line the
relay will see), being:

1st zone = 80% to 90% of AB

2nd zone = AB + (20% to 75% of BC)

3rd zone = AB + BC + CD

Assim como há um relé de distância na SE 2, também há outro relé de distância na SE 3.

In this way, the relay zones of both lines overlap, causing the entire
the extension of the line remains protected.

DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION RELAYS (87)

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 115

Basically, the differential protection (87) compares the currents that enter and exit the area.
delimited by protection and operates when the difference between these two currents exceeds
a predetermined value.

This protection is widely used for the protection of lines, bars, and transformers.

If a failure occurs at any point located between the two TCs, the relay will operate because
the currents circulating in the secondary of the TCs are no longer the same.

Figure 66 - Differential protection relays - Single line connection diagram

Figure 67 - Differential protection relays - Current flow diagram

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 116

 Figure 68 - Differential protection relays - Three-wire connection diagram

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 117

DISCONNECT RELAY (94)

Shutdown relays (or trip relays) are relays used for shutting down a
circuit breaker

Let's imagine that an ANSI 51 protective relay has operated. Instead of using a
the contact of the protection relay itself, the disconnection relay is usually used. Following that
so the following order, seeFigure 69.

Figure 69 - Disconnection relay - Protection actuation circuit

1 - The relay 51 operates. Its contact operates in relay 94;

2 - Relay 94 was energized by the action of relay 51's contact;

3 - A relay contact 94 acts on the circuit breaker, opening it (that is, 94 tripped the circuit breaker).

Depending on the utility company, the above scheme may vary. But the concept is
almost always the same.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 118

But why should we use a shutdown relay instead of any other?
We can highlight two responses:

1 - The shutdown relay is much faster than the others. That's why it is also
called 'fast relay'. And why should it be fast? Because in electricity, 1
segundo é uma pode causar muitos danos na rede. Um relé de disparo pode atuar com um
time less than 8 milliseconds depending on the manufacturer.

2 - The disconnect relays can handle a considerable current at their contacts. Not
we cannot state exactly which one, as this depends on each manufacturer.

Why not use the contact of the relay 51 itself?

Normally, the contact of the protection relay itself is not used in order to avoid that
This contact may potentially burn in case of an abnormality in the circuit.

What has a higher cost: a protection relay or a shutdown relay? Certainly a

protection relay. Thus, by using a disconnect relay, one avoids placing the
protection relay at risk.

The auxiliary trip relays are designed by manufacturers according to the

following standards:

IEC 61810: Electromechanical relays on or off;

IEC 60255: Electrical relays. Measurement relays and protection equipment;
IEC 61812: Time relays for industrial use;
IEC 60947: Low Voltage Equipment;
IEC 61000: Electromagnetic compatibility.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 119

LOCKING AUXILIARY RELAY (86)

Normally, the lockout relay (ANSI 86) is operated in parallel with the ANSI 94 relay by
protection relay.

In practice, the following occurs: relay 94 (being faster) turns off/trips the circuit breaker; in
sequence the relay 86 blocks the closure of the circuit breaker.

This occurs because it is up to this ANSI 86 relay to literally block the

reconnection of the circuit breaker since this circuit breaker can only be reconnected after the
total elimination of the lack.

Let's assume there was a short circuit and a protection device turned off the circuit breaker, if the operation of

lock relay, the reconnection will reconnect the circuit breaker while it is still
occurring the short circuit, thus, the protection would act again entering into a loop. The
The locking relay prevents this loop from allowing reconnection.

Segue-se então a seguinte ordem:

Figure 70 - Disconnect relay - Actuation circuit

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 120

1 - The relay 51 operates. Its contact activates relays 94 and 86;

2 - The relays 94 and 86 were energized by the action of the contact of relay 51;

3 - A contact from relay 94 acts on the circuit breaker, opening it (that is, 94 tripped the circuit breaker);

The blocking relay acts and blocks the closing command.

The auxiliary locking relays are designed by manufacturers according to the

following rules:

IEC 61810: Electromechanical relays on or off.

IEC 60255: Electric relays. Measuring relays and protection equipment.
IEC 61812: Specific time relays for industrial use.
IEC 60947: Low Voltage Equipment.
IEC 61000: Electromagnetic compatibility.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 121

GAS RELAY - BUCHHOLZ (63)

The gas relay (ANSI 63), which is also known as the BUCHHOLZ relay, is a
equipment installed in power transformers that have an auxiliary tank and have
purpose of protecting the transformer against internal faults that produce gases or
sudden movement of the oil.

Some of these defects are:

Internal downloads;
Faults in the insulation causing arcs;
High resistance in the connections.

The gas relay acts when there is a low oil level and in case of high overloads.
Basically, this occurs because at high overload, the high temperature causes
volatilization of oil, that is, it transforms the oil into gas.

NaFigure 71it is possible to see that it is installed between the transformer tank and the
conservative. In some transformers, the relay is installed at the top of the tank.

Figure 71 - Gas protection (Buchholz)

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 122

An important point to emphasize is that from a protection standpoint, usually when the
protection 63 operates, the protection system disconnects the high and low circuit breakers
isolating transformer.

Let's go to an example:

NFigure 72we can observe a simple bar arrangement in which there is a source/line,
a transformer and three feeders.

In case of operation of protection 63, the transformer is isolated. However, if the electrical substation is lost.

completely until the problem is resolved.

Figure 72 - Gas protection (Buchholz) - Diagram of the protection operation

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 123

In the previous two chapters, we talked about the slip relay (94) and the blocking relay (86). It is
a common operational practice in several dealerships that function 63 is
associated with functions 94 and 86.

In practice, relay 63 operates on relay 94, which in turn disconnects the high circuit breakers.
lowering the transformer, isolating it.

At the same time, the locking relay 86 also operates and blocks the closing/reconnection.
two circuit breakers.

This occurs similarly to the scheme daFigure 70 - Disconnect Relay - Circuit of

performance.

We just need to consider that instead of function 51, it is 63 that causes the shutdown of
circuit breaker

Since the transformer is usually the most expensive equipment in a substation,

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 124

OIL TEMPERATURE INDICATOR (26)

The oil temperature indicator (ANSI 26) activates when the temperature of
transformer exceeds an established value.

The indicators are basically composed of:

Bulb;
Cap tube;
Display box.

The bulb and the capillary tube contain mercury, when the temperature of the oil increases the
mercury expands, moving the pointer of the dial indicating the temperature. If the
temperature continues to rise, the pointer closes its contacts, that is, it acts.

In our transformers with automatic forced ventilation, upon reaching the first
At the pointer (70°C), the contacts close and activate the fans.

When the temperature reaches 85°C, the contacts will close, thus triggering an alarm.
of local or remote supervision of the substation.

Some dealerships allow the 26's operation to take the transformer out of service,
just like function 63.

Figure 73 - Diagram of the oil temperature protection operation

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 125

WINDING TEMPERATURE INDICATOR (49)

The winding temperature indicator (ANSI 49), as well as the indicator of

the oil temperature is basically composed of:

Bulb;
Capillary tube;
Showcase box.

However, in this case, the bulb is installed in a closed and insulated compartment with oil.
between heating resistances, which receives current from a TC located in the bushing of
transformer.

The transformer current is reflected through the CT to the resistances where it is located.
bulb. The indicator shows the heating state of the hottest point of the
Enrollment. For being faithful, this type of indicator is called a thermal image.

The heat source is the resistance encountered by the current coming from the bushing TC. In the box
In the dial, there is a fixed hand and a movable one. When the winding temperature
at 95°C, the contacts will close, thus triggering a local supervision alarm or
remote from the substation.

If the temperature in the winding exceeds 105°C in transformers whose system of

Cooling is carried out through forced circulation of oil, it may operate the protection 49
removing the service transformer in a manner similar to protections 26 and 63.

Figure 74 - Operating scheme of the winding temperature protection

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 126

PROTECTION AGAINST OIL LOSS IN TRANSFORMERS (71)

The oil in transformers has two purposes:

1. It allows for reducing the distances between the energized parts if interior due to its
insulating properties. This makes it possible to build transformers more
compacts.
2. It facilitates the transfer of heat existing in the core of the transformer to the walls.
of the tank and the radiators. This ensures that the transformer is cooled.

Transformers use indicators that visually monitor the oil level. Among
The most commonly used indicator is the 'magnetic level indicator'.

This magnetic indicator is placed on the conservator (balloon) and basically consists of a
buoy trapped on a thin rod inside the cooler and a display (indicating
minimum and maximum) on the outside.

It is called magnetic because there is no mechanical connection between the axis that
Turn on the buoy rod and the pointer that indicates the level.

What makes the pointer follow the movement of the pump are permanent magnets (one in
interior of the conservator and another price at the pointer.

The oil level drops due to leakage from the transformer joints or in its
valves. These leaks cause a slow decrease in the oil level. In situations
extreme is a more serious leak.

In this case, the level indicator (ANSI 71) triggers a local or remote supervisory alarm.
from the substation.

Normally, 71 does not remove the service transformer unlike functions 26, 49, and 63.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 127

 Figure 75 - Schematic of the oil level protection operation

RELÉS DE PROTEÇÃO

We talked in the previous chapters about various protective functions, which can have as
origin:

1. Devices specific to the equipment (such as 26, 49, 63, 71 of the transformers);
2. Single-function relays (such as 86 and 94);
3. Two multifunction relays (21, 27, 50, 51, 59, 87, etc.)

The protection relays are devices that monitor and manage electrical quantities in
in certain circuits, these quantities come from the Transformers of
potential (voltage) and current transformers.

By possessing these electrical magnitudes, the relays detect disturbances in the electrical system and
they perform actions such as opening a circuit breaker or sending an alarm to the
operator with the purpose of protecting people and equipment.

In the next chapters, we will provide a brief history of the evolution of the three main types.
existing protection relays until then:

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 128

 Electromechanical Relay;
Static Relay;
Digital Relay.

NFigure 76we can observe 'production x year' as the use of digital relays has
grown since the 90s to the detriment of static and electromechanical types.

Image reference: PAULINO, M.E.C. Aspects of Implementation and Validation of

Systems Based on IEC 61850, Proceedings of SBSE 2008 - Brazilian Symposium on Systems
Electrics 2008–Belo Horizonte MG, April 2008.

Figure 76 - Graph of protection relay production between 1975 and 2000

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 129

ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAYS

Figure 77 - Electromechanical Relays

Electromechanical relays were the first to be used in protection systems for

starting from the beginning of the 20th century. As the name itself suggests, its basic principle of

operation uses mechanical movements, derived from electromagnetic attraction or

electromagnetic induction.

The electromagnetic attraction relay uses the same principle as an electromagnet. A current
electric current passes through its coil producing a magnetic field that attracts a plunger (relay)
of the plunger) or a lever (lever relay).

Both the plunger and lever relays operate instantly, that is, when the
the current of the TC reaches a value greater than the relay adjustment, the magnetic field generated
overcomes the force of the spring that keeps the piston or lever in its initial position. In this
moment, a contact NA connected directly to the plunger or the active lever
instantly the circuit of the circuit breaker.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 130

Although they are very old technology, electromechanical relays are very precise and
many substations are still in operation, especially for functions such as 21, 50
51.

One curiosity about these relays is that in a three-phase circuit, three relays were needed:
one for each phase.

Figure 78 - Electromechanical relay - Protection circuit

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 131

STATIC RELAYS

Figure 79 - Static relay

The static relays are built with electronic devices that perform functions.
specific logics and timing for protection.

These relays have no moving parts and all controls are done electronically,
therefore presenting some advantages over electromechanical relays such as:

High operating speed,

Baixa carga para os transformadores de corrente,
Low maintenance due to the absence of moving parts.

Although solid-state relays have great advantages, they still have a disadvantage.

Many of these relays produced many improper actions, as they were electronic,
they became very sensitive, so that a small harmonic or
transient, common in the operation of the system, was sufficient to trigger its operation.

For this reason, static relays were replaced by electromechanical ones, that is, in a
At first, the static ones came to replace the electromechanical ones, but in the end the
eletromecânicos substituíram os estáticos.

Still, the development of solid-state relays was the technological basis for the creation of
digital relays (IEDs).

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARNING ELECTRICAL 132

DIGITAL RELAYS

Figure 80 - Digital protection relay

From the 1970s onwards, the development of digital technology and advancements in the area of
computing has caused the size and energy consumption of computers and
microprocessors decreased. In addition, the processing speed increased.
exponentially.

These factors were decisive for the creation of digital protection relays.

Compared to static ones, digital protection relays present some

advantages:

Various adjustment groups;

Greater parameter adjustment range;
Internal remote communication;
Internal failure diagnosis;
Measurements of electrical quantities;
Missing distance locator;
Disorder registrar;
Auxiliary protection functions (wiring continuity, etc.);
Circuit breaker monitoring (status, condition);
User-defined logic.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 133

HOW DIGITAL RELAYS ARE COMPOSED

Digital relays are composed of various systems, according toFigure 81:

Figure 81 - Composition of digital protection relays

Input transformers: attenuate the input voltages while also allowing the
galvanic isolation between the protection relays and the signals from the CTs and VTs.
Passive low-pass analog filters: are used in the interface module with the
goal of filtering noise in digital signal processing.
Sample and Hold Devices: sample and retain the signals from the analog inputs
at the same instant and provide the signals to the multiplexer.
The multiplexer: allows the use of only one A/D converter for multiple
analog inputs.
The A/D converter: converts analog signals into digital ones at defined intervals
by the sampling rate.
Logical input module (input signals): informs the processor about the
current state of the system, that is, position of keys, circuit breaker states,
action of other protections, alarms.
The processor: controls the operation of the relay, digitally filtering the signals
for the extraction of the fundamental component. It also executes all the logic and

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 134

 protection calculations through software stored in ROM memory. The
Intermediate operations of the relay algorithm are stored in RAM.
The parameter adjustments are stored in the E2PROM (read memory)
programmable electrically erasable.
The logic output module (output signals): is responsible for actions of
breakers and alarms.
Display: shows information such as alarms or active outputs.

DIGITAL ENTRIES

The digital inputs of the relays are responsible for receiving external signals from the substation.
These signs can be:

States of switching equipment. For example, the states "open" and

"closed" of circuit breakers, isolators, reclosers, etc.
Equipment alarms. For example, if a circuit breaker showed 'low
SF6 gas pressure; if a transformer showed high oil temperature
(26); if an IED has failed internally, etc. Basically, the alarms always
indicate some abnormality of the equipment.

NaFigure 82we observe that when the "field contact" is closed, the voltage of
source is transferred to both terminals of input A-A’.

The electronic circuit of the digital input, which measures the voltage at the terminals A-A', compares if
whether there is tension at its terminals. If the field contact closes it will signal
tension at the terminals; on the contrary, if the contact is open it will obviously not detect
nothing, as there will be no tension.

The digital input will correspond to these stimuli with the information '1' or '0'.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 135

 Figure 82 - Digital inputs of digital protection relays

For example: If the input does not detect voltage = 0 If the input detects voltage = 1

In practice, this information serves as parameter data to develop logic.

internals in the relays.

DIGITAL OUTPUTS

The concept of digital outputs is quite simple to understand. Basically, a digital output
It is the means by which some command or protection of the relay is "externed."

Figure 83 - Digital outputs of the digital protection relays

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 136

When asked about protection 94, an example of function 51 acting was cited.
about the shutdown relay 94.

The way in which function 51 operated was through the output of digital (which in theFigure 69
we call it BO, or Binary Output).

Digital outputs are also used for command situations, such as opening/closing,
unlock/unlock protections, etc.

ANALOG INPUTS

The analog inputs are the channels through which the protection relays receive the magnitudes.
Electrical Voltage and Current. It is through these quantities that the protection relays will have
parameters to fulfill your functions.

When we addressed the protection functions (especially 21, 27, 59, 67, and 87) we were
highlighted the wiring schemes of Voltage and Current to the relays. The reader a bit
but the more experienced must have noticed this.

NFigure 84we see a typical scheme of analog inputs of a relay and an example
from an analog input in a Siemens relay.

Figure 84 - Analog inputs of digital protection relays

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 137

PROTECTION RELAYS - A PRACTICAL ANALYSIS

The relay of theFigure 85it is the SEL-751 relay from the manufacturer SEL (Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories).
As SEL itself defines, this is a Feeder Protection relay.

Figure 85 - SEL-751 digital relay for feeder application

The images you see were taken from the relay's own catalog, which is
easily available on the SEL website.

We would like you to notice that in theFigure 86it shows the functions that the relay
performs: 27, 49, 50, 59, 67. All of these functions have already been addressed in chapters.
previous.

In addition, theFigure 86it also shows how to connect the relay to the TPs and TCs in
electrical diagram.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARNING ELECTRICITY 138

 Figure 86 - SEL-751 digital relay - Overview of connections and protection functions

What we want to demonstrate in these figures is that a good part of the information described
In the previous chapters, almost all the manuals for protection relays are present.
importing the manufacturer.

The content we explained in the chapters about protections and protective relays is a good
knowledge base so that you can read a relay manual, understand it, and apply it
this understanding in the electrical projects they are developing.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 139

Chapter 5 AUXILIARY SERVICES

The aim of the following chapters is to explain the Auxiliary Services (AS) system that are of
great importance for the operation of the substations.

Due to its importance, the SA must be reliable in all contexts. Depending on the
the need for greater reliability in the power supply to the system loads is used
redundancy of the SA.

The SEs have two Auxiliary Services systems, namely:

1. Auxiliary Services in Alternating Current (AC) - Responsible for supplying power to the
motors, lighting, outlets, AC/DC converters. Generally, they are used
systems with voltage of 127/220 V AC, 220/380 V AC and/or 380/440 V AC.
2. Auxiliary Services in Direct Current (DC) - Responsible for providing energy
to the protection, control, and command circuits, as well as to the systems of
substation security, that is, systems that must be powered
permanently and with a high degree of reliability. The continuous tensions are
provided by battery banks with their respective rectifiers and chargers.
The most commonly used voltages are 48Vdc or 125Vdc.

NaFigure 87vemos no fluxograma de forma simplificada como é um sistema de serviços

complete auxiliaries:

Figure 87 - Flowchart of the Auxiliary Services system

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRIC 140

NaFigure 88Below we have the main loads of the auxiliary services CA and CC of a
substation.

Figure 88 - Main loads of Auxiliary Services

The development of the auxiliary service project is defined according to each enterprise.
therefore it is necessary to take measurements of the loads in order to then size the
quantities of circuits, Auxiliary Services transformer, battery bank and
rectifier.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 141

BATTERY BANK

The batteries are the main sources of DC in a substation and are intended to maintain
the reliability of the operation of protection devices, equipment control,
signaling, alarms, and emergency lighting during the period when the rectifier
charger is out of service.

This reliability is due to being an equipment independent of the electrical system.

to which it is associated, that is, at a time when the rectifier is absent, the bank
it maintains the feeding of the DC loads independently. The most common use is of
battery cells with a nominal voltage of 2V.

The most commonly used battery types are sealed or vented lead-acid batteries.
nickel-cadmium and lithium-ion.

The verification of battery sizing is typically carried out according to the

recommended by IEEE Std. 485-1997 'IEEE Recommended Practice for Sizing Large Lead'
Storage Batteries for Generating Stations and Substations
15254:2005–Stationary lead-acid battery–Guidelines for Sizing
for lead-acid batteries.

NFigure 89we have a battery bank installed andin Figure 90the connection scheme of
a battery bank.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRIC 142

 Figure 89 - Installed battery bank

Figure 90 - Battery Bank - Wiring Diagram

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 143

RECTIFIERS

Rectifiers are responsible for charging the batteries and are sized accordingly.
to keep the batteries in float mode and to provide the necessary current for
the power supply of the auxiliary services in direct current.

Figure 91–Rectifier

The float voltage (or regime) refers to the voltage that rectifiers must maintain.
about the batteries in such a way that they always remain charged.

NaFigure 92we have available in parallel (rectifier-battery), representing the operation

in float mode. At the same time that the rectifier charges the batteries, it also
feeds the auxiliary services panel, that is, the loads.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 144

In the chapter 'Auxiliary Services - Practical Application' we detail further how this occurs.
process.

Figure 92 - Connection diagram between Rectifier, load, and battery bank

The rectifier/battery system is not grounded, therefore any contact with one of its
the poles to the ground must be immediately detected and isolated.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 145

GROUND LEAKAGE DETECTION SYSTEM IN DC CIRCUITS

Figure 93 - Ground fault detection circuit - Normal operation

In the figure we see how the ground fault detection circuit works.

The lamps A and B remain permanently lit for the purpose of supervision.
grounding occurrence in the direct current circuits of the substation.

Under normal conditions, the lamps have the same luminous intensity.

If there is a ground fault at one of the poles of the DC circuit, one of the lamps goes out or
it decreases its light intensity.

If there is grounding on the positive pole, the lamp 'A' will turn off or dim.
light intensity, and the lamp 'B' will have an intensity greater than normal.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 146

 Figure 94 - Ground leakage detection circuit - Abnormal operation

Therefore, the escape to land will occur at the pole where the lamp presents itself with luminosity.
weaker.

AUXILIARY SERVICE TRANSFORMERS (TSA)

The auxiliary service transformers (AST) are the transformers responsible for
power supply of the Auxiliary Services system in Alternating Current.

Distribution and power transformers must necessarily meet the

especificações da norma ABNT NBR 5356 em suas partes 1, 2, 3, 4 e 5.

There are several construction methods, types of cores, and general applications that differ.
for different levels of voltage and power.

However, based solely on the electrical characteristics described in the NBR standards
5440 and NBR 5456 will define as distribution transformer all equipment immersed
in insulating oil built for overhead or underground networks (the latter whose standard

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 147

specific was canceled on 10/30/2014) ranging from 5 kVA (single-phase) to 300 kVA
(three-phase).

According to the NBR 5440 standard, which deals with medium voltage transformers (1.2 to 36.2

kV) for overhead distribution networks, the nominal powers are standardized and follow
as below:

Single-phase: 5 kVA; 10 kVA; 15 kVA; 25 kVA; 37.5 kVA; 50 kVA; 75 kVA and 100 kVA.
Three-phase: 15 kVA; 30 kVA; 45 kVA; 75 kVA; 112.5 kVA; 150 kVA; 225 kVA and 300 kVA.

The tensions of transformers with tap changers (more common) and without tap changers as well.

are defined in two tables, namely:

TRANSFORMER WITHOUT TAP

TENSION
Maximum tension of
Primary Secondary
equipment
Three-phase and Single-phase
kVeficaz Three-phase Single-phase
Single-phase (FF) (FN)
13.800 7.967
Two terminals:
15 you or
220 or 127
13.200 7.621
23.100 13.337 380/220
Three terminals:
24.2 or you or
440/220
22,000 12.702 220/127
254/127
34.500 19.919
240/120 or
36.2 you or
230/115
33.000 19.053
Note:
FF = Voltage between phases;
FN = Voltage between phase and neutral;
Table 21 - Transformer voltages without tap changers. Source: NBR 5440, table 2

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 148

 Transformer with Tap
TENSION
Tension
Primary Secondary
maximum of
Derivation No. Three-phase and
equipment Single-phase
Single-phase Three-phase Single-phase
kVeficaz (FN)
(FF)
1 13.800 7.967 Two
15 2 13,200 7.621 endings:
3 12.600 7.275 220 or 127
1 23.100 13.337 380/220
24.2 2 22,000 12.702 Three
or
3 20.900 12.067 terminating:
220/127
440/220,
1 34.500 19.919
254/127
36.2 2 33,000 19.053
240/120 or
3 31.500 18.187
230/115.
Note:
FF = Voltage between phases;
FN = Voltage between phase and neutral;
Table 22 - Transformer voltages with taps. Source: NBR 5440, table 3.

They can be installed in time or sheltered, and their primary winding can be
tied to both the tertiary winding of the power transformer and the busbar
from the medium voltage of the substation, usually 13.8kV.

The most common transformers are oil-filled or dry-type, the difference between these
Transformers are mainly in the cost and volume of these, with the first being the most
compact and cheap.

Figure 95 - Oil-Insulated and Dry Auxiliary Service Transformers

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 149

AUXILIARY SERVICES – PRACTICAL APPLICATION

In the previous chapters on auxiliary services of substations, you learned about

AC loads, DC loads, batteries, rectifiers, and TSA's. This chapter aims to
show how all this integrates into the SE auxiliary services system. Let's see how
it's this system:

Figure 96 - Electrical schematic of the AC Auxiliary Services system

1st = Everything starts with the AC. The alternating current comes from the busbar with a voltage of

13.8kV.

Then the TSA transforms 13.8kV into 220/127V.

3º = The auxiliary services panel CA receives 220V through the main circuit breaker. Thus,
O PSA supplies various AC loads from the SE.

The rectifier receives AC from the PSA and obviously rectifies AC to DC.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARNING ELECTRICAL 150

 Figure 97 - Electrical diagram of the DC Auxiliary Services system

5º = The rectifier then fulfills two other functions: the first is to charge the batteries,
keeping them afloat. The second function is to power the DC auxiliary services panel.
through the output composed of drop diodes.

6º = The CC PSA supplies various DC loads from the SE.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICITY 151

BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES

[1] CAMINHA, Amadeu C. Introdução à Proteção dos Sistemas Elétricos. Edgard Blücher
Ltda., 1977.

LIGHT. Protection of electrical systems.

Substations: Concepts, equipment, operation and maintenance.

BARBOSA Janaína A. Protection of power electric systems.

[5] SCHNEIDER. Proteção de redes elétricas. Guia de proteção. 2008.

[6] THE ELECTRIC SECTOR. Protection devices–Part 1. March 2010

RIBEIRO Alan Gomes G. Modernization of power system protection.

ANTÔNIO José J. Power electrical systems: automation.

Sérgio Louredo Maia LACERDA; Greyce Hayana Ribeiro CARNEIRO. Devices

smart electronics (IEDs) and the IEC 61850 standard: a successful union.

HIGH VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT PROSPECTING AND HIERARCHIZATION

technological innovations.

Principal equipment of a substation.

[12] CARLOS João de Oliveira C. Equipamentos elétricos em subestações.

SUBSTATION - Rev.00 LEARN ELECTRICAL 152