UNIT 3 : COMPUTER NETWORK CONCEPTS

Network: Collection of interconnected computers is called a computer network.

Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are capable of sharing and exchanging information.

Need for a Network:

Resource Sharing: It means to make all programs, data and peripherals available to anyone on the
network irrespective of the physical location of the resources and the user.
Reliability: It means to keep the copy of a file on two or more different machines, so if one of them is
unavailable (due to some hardware crash or any other) them its other copy can be used.
Cost Factor: It means it greatly reduces the cost since the resources can be shared
Communication Medium: It means one can send messages and whatever the changes at one end are
done can be immediately noticed at another.

Evolution of Networking
1. ARPANET: In 1969, The US govt. formed an agency named ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects
Agency NETwork) to connect computers at various universities and defense agencies. The main
objective of ARPANET was to develop a network that could continue to function efficiently even in the
event of a nuclear attack.
2. Internet (INTERconnection NETwork): The Internet is a worldwide network of computer networks. It
is not owned by anybody.
3. Interspace: InterSpace is a client/server software program that allows multiple users to communicate
online with real – time audio, video and text chat in dynamic 3D environments.

SWITCHING TECHNIQUES
Switching techniques are used for transmitting data across networks.
Different types are :
1. Circuit Switching: In the Circuit Switching technique, first, the complete end-to-end transmission path
between the source and the destination computers is established and then the message is transmitted
through the path. The main advantage of this technique is guaranteed delivery of the message. Mostly
used for voice communication.
2. Message Switching: In the Message switching technique, no physical path is established between
sender and receiver in advance. This technique follows the store and forward mechanism.
3. Packet Switching: In this switching technique fixed size of packet can be transmitted across the
network.

Comparison between the Various Switching Techniques:

Criteria Circuit Switching Message Switching Packet Switching
Path established in advance Yes No No
Store and forward technique No Yes Yes
Message follows multiple routes No Yes Yes

DATA COMMUNICATION TERMINOLOGIES

Data channel :- The information / data carry from one end to another in the network by channel.
Baud & bits per second (bps) :- It’s used to measurement for the information carry of a
communication channel: Measurement Units :- bit
1 Byte= 8 bits
1 KBPS ( Kilo Byte Per Second)= 1024 Bytes
1 Kbps (kilobits Per Second) = 1024 bits
1 Mbps ( Mega bits Per Second )=1024 Kbps

Bandwidth :- It is amount of information transmitted or receives per unit time.

Transmission media:
Wired Medium:
1. Twisted pair cable: - It consists of two identical 1 mm thick copper wires insulated and twisted
together. The twisted pair cables are twisted in order to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction.
Advantages:
(i) It is easy to install and maintain.
(ii) It is very inexpensive
Disadvantages:
(i) It is incapable to carry a signal over long distances without the use of repeaters.
(ii) Due to low bandwidth, these are unsuitable for broadband applications.

2. Co-axial Cables: It consists of a solid wire core surrounded by one or more foil or braided wire shields,
each separated from the other by some kind of plastic insulator. It is mostly used in the cable wires.
Advantages:
(i) Data transmission rate is better than twisted pair cables.
(ii) It provides a cheap means of transporting multi-channel television signals around metropolitan
areas.
Disadvantages:
(i) Expensive than twisted pair cables.
(ii) Difficult to manage and reconfigure.

3. Optical fiber: - An optical fiber consists of thin glass fibers that can carry information in the form of
visible light.
Advantages:
(i) Transmit data over long distance with high security.
(ii) Data transmission speed is high
(iii) Provide better noise immunity
(iv) Bandwidth is up to 10 Gbps.
Disadvantages:
(i) Expensive as compared to other guided media.
(ii) Need special care while installation?

Wireless Medium:

4. Infrared: - The infrared light transmits data through the air and can propagate throughout a room,
but will not penetrate walls. It is a secure medium of signal transmission.
The infrared transmission has become common in TV remotes, automotive garage doors, wireless
speakers etc.

5. Radio Wave: - Radio Wave an electromagnetic wave with a wavelength between 0.5 cm and
30,000m. The transmission making use of radio frequencies is termed as radio-wave transmission
Advantages:
(i) Radio wave transmission offers mobility.
(ii) It is cheaper than laying cables and fibers.
(iii) It offers ease of communication over difficult terrain.
Disadvantages:
(i) Radio wave communication is insecure communication.
(ii) Radio wave propagation is susceptible to weather effects like rains, thunder storms etc.

6. Microwave Wave: - The Microwave transmission is a line of sight transmission. Microwave signals
travel at a higher frequency than radio waves and are popularly used for transmitting data over long
distances.
Advantages:
(i) It is cheaper than laying cable or fiber.
(ii) It has the ability to communicate over oceans.
Disadvantages:
(i) Microwave communication is an insecure communication.
(ii) Signals from antenna may split up and transmitted in different way to different antenna which leads
to reduce to signal strength.
(iii) Microwave propagation is susceptible to weather effects like rains, thunder storms etc.
(iv) Bandwidth allocation is extremely limited in case of microwaves.

7. Satellite link: - The satellite transmission is also a kind of line of sight transmission that is used to
transmit signals throughout the world.
Advantages:
(i) Area covered is quite large.
(ii) No line of sight restrictions such as natural mountains, tall building, towers etc.
(iii) Earth station which receives the signals can be fixed position or relatively mobile.
Disadvantages:-
(i) Very expensive as compared to other transmission mediums.
(ii) Installation is extremely complex.
(iii) Signals sent to the stations can be tampered by external interference.

Network devices:
Modem: A MODEM (MOdulator DEModulator) is an electronic device that enables a computer to
transmit data over telephone lines. There are two types of modems, namely, internal modem and
external modem.
RJ45 connector: - The RJ-45(Registered Jack) connectors are the plug-in devices used in the networking
and telecommunications applications. They are used primarily for connecting LANs, particularly
Ethernet.
Ethernet Card: - It is a hardware device that helps in connection of nodes within a network.
Hub: A hub is a hardware device used to connect several computers together. Hubs can be either active
or passive. Hubs usually can support 8, 12 or 24 RJ45 ports.
Switch: A switch (switching hub) is a network device which is used to interconnect computers or devices
on a network. It filters and forwards data packets across a network. The main difference between hub
and switch is that hub replicates what it receives on one port onto all the other ports while switch keeps
a record of the MAC addresses of the devices attached to it.
Bridge: A bridge is a device that connects similar networks. Star network with another Star network.
Gateway: A gateway is a device that connects dissimilar networks. Star network with bus network.
Repeater: A repeater is a network device that amplifies and restores signals for long distance
transmission.

Network topologies and types

Topology : Topology refers to the way in which the workstations attached to the network are
interconnected.

The BUS Topology: - The bus topology uses a common single cable to connect all the workstations. Each
computer performs its task of sending messages without the help of the central server. However, only
one workstation can transmit a message at a particular time in the bus topology.
Advantages:
(i) Easy to connect and install.
(ii) Involves a low cost of installation time.
(iii) Can be easily extended.
Disadvantages:-
(i) The entire network shuts down if there is a failure in the central cable.
(ii) Only a single message can travel at a particular time.
(iii) Difficult to troubleshoot an error.

The STAR Topology: - A STAR topology is based on a central node which acts as a hub. A STAR
topology is common in homes networks where all the computers connect to the single central computer
using it as a hub.
Advantages:
(i) Easy to troubleshoot
(ii) A single node failure does not affect the entire network.
(iii) Fault detection and removal of faulty parts is easier.
(iv) In case a workstation fails, the network is not affected.
Disadvantages:-
(i) Difficult to expand.
(ii) Longer cable is required.
(iii) The cost of the hub and the longer cables makes it expensive over others.
(iv) In case hub fails, the entire network fails.

The TREE Topology: - The tree topology combines the characteristics of the linear bus and the star
topologies. It consists of groups of star – configured workstations connected to a bus backbone cable.
Advantages:
(i) Eliminates network congestion.
(ii) The network can be easily extended.
(iii) Faulty nodes can easily be isolated from the rest of the network.
Disadvantages:
(i) Uses large cable length.
(ii) Requires a large amount of hardware components and hence is expensive.
(iii) Installation and reconfiguration is very difficult.

Types of Networks:
LAN (Local Area Network): A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that is confined to a relatively
small area. It is generally limited to a geographic area such as writing lab, school or building. It is
generally privately owned networks over a distance not more than 5 Km.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): MAN is the networks cover a group of nearby corporate offices or
a city and might be either private or public.

WAN (Wide Area Network): These are the networks spread over large distances, say across countries or
even continents through cabling or satellite uplinks are called WAN.

PAN (Personal Area Network): A Personal Area Network is computer network organized around an
individual person. It generally covers a range of less than 10 meters. Personal Area Networks can be
constructed with cables or wirelessly.

Network protocol
standardized format for data packets, techniques for detecting and correcting errors and so on.
A protocol is a formal description of message formats and the rules that two or more machines must
follow to exchange those messages. E.g. using library books.
Types of protocols are:
 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): A suite of protocols that forms the
foundation of the internet.
o IP (Internet Protocol): Assigns a unique address (IP address) to each device and handles
routing packets to the correct destination.
o TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Ensures reliable data delivery by breaking data
into packets, ordering them, and reassembling them at the destination.
  HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): The protocol used by web browsers and servers to transfer
web pages and other data over the web.
 HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure): An encrypted version of HTTP that uses SSL/TLS to
secure the communication between a website and a user's browser.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring files between a client and a server on a
network, such as uploading or downloading files.
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): The standard protocol for sending emails from a mail
client to a mail server.
 POP3/IMAP: Used to retrieve emails from a mail server to a mail client.
 DNS (Domain Name System): Translates human-readable domain names (e.g., google.com) into
machine-readable IP addresses.
 PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol): A data link layer protocol used to establish a direct connection
between two nodes, often used in dial-up and VPNs.

Wireless/Mobile Computing
Wireless mobile computing combines wireless communication and mobile computing to allow users to
access data and services from portable devices while on the move.

 Wireless Communication: Data transmission without physical cables, using unguided media like
radio waves, microwaves, and infrared signals. This offers flexibility and mobility but can have
security concerns and be affected by weather or obstacles.
 Mobile Computing: A technology environment that enables a user to access information,
hardware, or software in the network while moving between physical locations or different
networks.
 Portability: Mobile devices (laptops, smartphones, tablets) are small, lightweight, and battery-
powered, allowing them to be carried easily.
 Connectivity: The ability to maintain a continuous network connection while moving, often
switching seamlessly between different networks (e.g., Wi-Fi to cellular).
 Bandwidth: The amount of data that can be transmitted over a communication channel in a
given amount of time. Wireless media generally have lower bandwidth and higher error rates
compared to wired media.
 Signal Propagation: How radio waves travel, including reflection, scattering, and diffraction,
which can affect signal quality and strength.
Mobile Technologies (Generations)
 1G: First generation, used analog signals for voice calls only.
 2G: Second generation, introduced digital signals, improved security, and added SMS (Short
Message Service) capabilities.
 3G: Third generation, offered higher data rates, enabling internet surfing and video telephony.
 4G: Fourth generation, provides high-speed, IP-based connectivity, leading to the prevalence of
smartphones and data-intensive applications.
 5G: The latest generation, promising even higher speeds and essential for future technologies
like the Internet of Things (IoT).
Wireless Network Technologies
 GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications): A widely used 2G standard utilizing TDMA
(Time Division Multiple Access) for mobile communication.
 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access): Another digital cellular technology that allows multiple
users to share the same frequency spectrum simultaneously using unique codes.
 Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity): A wireless LAN (Local Area Network) technology based on the IEEE
802.11 standard, using radio waves to provide network access over short-to-medium distances.
 Bluetooth: A short-range wireless technology for creating Personal Area Networks (PANs) to
connect devices like headphones, phones, and computers over very small distances.
  EDGE is an acronym for Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution. It is a digital mobile phone
technology that serves as an enhancement to the existing GSM (Global System for Mobile
Communications) networks, allowing for faster data transmission rates.

Web Services:

WWW: The WWW stands for World Wide Web. WWW is also known as W3 or “the Web.” The World
Wide Web is an interconnected web of pages and documents accessible through the internet.

Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML): HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language. HTML is a text-
based method for describing how the text, images, and other content will display or be structured on
the HTML file. HTML is a foundation of every webpage on the internet.
Extensible Markup Language (XML): Extensible Markup Language is a markup language that defines
rules for how the data will be structured, which will be helpful for readability by both humans and
machines. It is a universal file format for storing and transmitting data in a structured way.

Domain names: A domain name is a human-readable web address, a unique and easy-to-remember
address that helps to access websites such as google.com and youtube.com, etc. A domain name is

URL (Uniform Resource Locator): A URL is the unique address used to access a webpage, file, image, etc.
The URL of the web tells the information about where the resources are located on the web. A URL is
sometimes called a web address. A URL contains a protocol, domain, subdomain, and name of the
webpage along with the directory. For example, https://www.ncert.nic.in/textbook/textbook.html.
Here, https is the protocol, www is a subdomain, ncert.nic.in is a domain name, textbook is a directory,
and textbook.html is a webpage.

Website: A website is a group of interconnected web pages that may contain text, images, audio, and
video. A website’s home page is its first page. To access a website, you must type its unique internet
address (URL) into your browser.

Web browser: A web page can be viewed on a web browser. A web browser is a simple software
application used to access internet information. When the user requests some information, the web
browser fetches the data from the web server and displays it on the webpage. The popular web
browsers are Chrome, Firefox, Safari, Edge, etc.

Web servers: A web server is used to store the web-related files, and these files are accessible on the
internet. All the websites on the internet are hosted on the web server.

Web hosting: Web hosting is an online service that allows the users to publish the website on the
internet; web servers work as hosting servers.

Web Scripting: - The process of creating and embedding scripts in a web page is known as Web
Scripting. Types of Scripts:-

(i) Client Side Scripts: - Client side scripts supports interaction within a webpage. E.g. VB Script, Java
Script, PHP (PHP‟S Hypertext Preprocessor).
(ii) Server Side Scripts: - Server side scripting supports execution at server – end. E.g. ASP, JSP, PHP

OPEN SOURCE TERMINOLOGIES

Free Software: The S/W’s is freely accessible and can be freely used changed improved copied
and distributed by all and payments are needed to make for free S/W.

Open Source Software: S/w whose source code is available to the customer and it can be
modified and redistributed without any limitation .OSS may come free of cost but nominal charges
has to pay nominal charges (Support of S/W and development of S/W).
FLOSS (Free Libre and Open Source Software) : S/w which is free as well as open source S/W.
Free S/W + Open Source S/W).
GNU (GNU’s Not Unix) : GNU project emphasize on the freedom and its objective is to create a
system compatible to UNIX but not identical with it.
FSF (Free Software Foundation) : FSF is a non –profit organization created for the purpose of
the free s/w movement. Organization funded many s/w developers to write free software.
OSI (Open Source Initiative) : Open source software organization dedicated to cause of
promoting open source software it specified the criteria of OSS and its source code is not freely
available.
W3C(World Wide Web Consortium) : W3C is responsible for producing the software standards
for World Wide Web.
Proprietary Software: Proprietary Software is the s/w that is neither open nor freely available,
normally the source code of the Proprietary Software is not available but further distribution and
modification is possible by special permission by the supplier.
Freeware: Freeware are the software freely available , which permit redistribution but not
modification (and their source code is not available). Freeware is distributed in Binary Form
(ready to run) without any licensing fees.
Shareware: Software for which license fee is payable after some time limit, its source code is not
available and modification to the software are not allowed.
Localization: localization refers to the adaptation of language, content and design to reflect local
cultural sensitivities .e.g. Software Localization: where messages that a program presents to the
user need to be translated into various languages.
Internationalization: Opposite of localization.

OPEN SOURCE / FREE SOFTWARE

Operating Systems
 Linux: A free and open-source operating system, including distributions like Ubuntu.

Office and Productivity

 LibreOffice/OpenOffice: Free alternatives to Microsoft Office for word processing,
spreadsheets, and presentations.
 LibreOffice: A project of The Document Foundation that is a free and open-source office suite.
 OpenOffice: Includes a word processor (Writer), a spreadsheet program (Calc), and a
presentation program (Impress).

Web Browsers and Tools

 Mozilla Firefox: A popular open-source web browser.
 Thunderbird: A free and open-source cross-platform email client.
 Apache: An open-source web server software, often used with PHP and MySQL in the LAMP
stack.
 WordPress: A free and open-source content management system.

Programming and Development

 Python: A widely used, high-level programming language with a vast collection of open-source
libraries.
 PHP: A server-side scripting language that is open-source.
 MySQL: A popular open-source relational database management system.
 MySQL Workbench: A visual database design tool for MySQL.
 GNU Compiler Collection (GCC): A compiler system that is free and open-source.
Multimedia and Graphics
 GIMP: A free and open-source raster graphics editor used for image manipulation and editing.
 Blender: A free and open-source 3D creation suite that supports the entire 3D pipeline.
 VLC Media Player: A free and open-source cross-platform multimedia player that plays most
multimedia files as well as DVDs, Audio CDs, VCDs, and various streaming protocols.
 Audacity: Free and open-source software for recording and editing audio.

Other useful tools

 KeePass: A free and open-source password manager.
 7-Zip: A free software with a high compression ratio file archiver.
 PDFCreator: A free tool to create PDFs from any printable document.

Network Security Concepts:

Viruses: Viruses are programs which replicate and attach to other programs in order to corrupt the
executable codes. Virus enters the computer system through an external source and become
destructive.
Worms: Worms are also self- replicating programs that do not create multiple copies of itself on one
computer but propagate through the computer network. Worms log on to computer systems using the
username and passwords and exploit the system.
Trojan horse: - Though it is a useful program, however, a cracker can use it to intrude the computer
system in order to exploit the resources. Such a program can also enter into the computer through an e-
mail or free programs downloaded through the Internet.
Spams: Unwanted e-mail (usually of a commercial nature sent out in bulk)
Cookies: Cookies are the text messages sent by a web server to the web browser primarily for
identifying the user.
Firewall: A firewall is used to control the traffic between computer networks. It intercepts the packets
between the computer networks and allows only authorized packets to pass.
Cyber Law: Cyber law refers to all the legal and regulatory aspects of Internet and the World Wide Web.
Cyber Crimes: Cyber crime involves the usage of the computer system and the computer network for
criminal activity.
Hacking: Hacking is an unauthorized access to computer in order to exploit the resources.

80:20 Rule:

The "80/20 rule" in network setup suggests that approximately 80% of network traffic should remain
local within a subnet, while only 20% should need to be routed to other subnets or outside the Local
Area Network (LAN)

Placement of following Devices in a Network:

Server: Larger number of computers in the building. (80:20 Rule)

Hub/switch: Each Building.

Modem: In the server room.

Bridge: Between two separate network segments, often within the same Local Area Network (LAN).

Router: At the boundary where one network connects to another, such as where a home network
connects to the internet.

Repeater: Roughly halfway between a source and a destination that is too far away, or between two
network segments to overcome distance limitations (e.g., over 100 meters for some wired networks).