FINALS

LESSON 23

WOLFGANG KOHLER

Köhler is best known for his experiments with problem-solving in apes at Tenerife and
the influence of his writings in the founding of the school of Gestalt psychology
His writings include Gestalt Psychology and The Mentality of Apes
Kohler‘s main contribution in the Gestalt School is his discovery of learning by insight.
He conducted experiments on monkey and saw that monkeys were able to solve their
problems through insight , Kohler concluded trial and error as a method of learning.
Kohler also postulated the concept of isomorphism , the map is the individual‘s
perception about the world around him

KURT KOFFKA

His book Growth of the Mind (1924) was considered responsible for awakening much
interest in Gestalt concepts.
He distinguished between the geographical field and the field of experience In his
views, an individual tends to ignore the geographical field in face of the field of
experience which dominates his understanding or perceptions

Productive or Problem Solving Thinking:

MIHÁLY CSÍKSZENTMIHÁLYI

He is noted for his work in the study of happiness, creativity, subjective well-being, and
fun, but is best known as the architect of the notion of flow and for his years of research
and writing on the topic
American Psychological Association, described Csikszentmihalyi as the world's leading
researcher on positive psychology

EDWARD DE BONO

He developed his theory of Lateral Thinking which is akin to creative or problem solving
thinking
He developed some exercises to inculcate lateral thinking. Some of his exercises are,
―question‖ ―rotate,‖ discover ―dominant idea‖ etc

LESSON 24

Kurt Lewin
 Kurt Lewin gave a theory which he called the Field Theory. The individual has many
attractions which may be positive or negative , because of these positive and negative
opportunities, conflicts arise in the mind of individuals who have the chance to avail
either of the two opportunities. He proposed three kinds of conflicts that a person may be
faced with:
o The approach-approach conflict (challenge of choosing between two liking
things)
o Approach-avoidance conflict (choose a thing with its good and bad qualities)
o Avoidance-avoidance conflict (choose between two unlikely things)
The other important contribution is his theory of leadership
 Authoritarian (to control everything)
 Democratic (considering the thoughts of others in making decision)
 Laissez-faire (giving power to others and lead from back seat)

DYNAMIC PSYCHOLOGY

Dynamic Psychology is also called Hormic Psychology.

WILLIAM MCDOUGALL
According to McDougall, behavior is the result of
 internal striving
 an urge to live
 horme.
This ―horme or the urge to live expresses itself in various forms and kinds of behavior.
In other words, all organisms try to survive against the environment his point of view is
called the ―hormic‖ view point

LESSON 25 & 26

Historic-Evolutionary Psychology tried to see how consciousness in humans developed, what

exact role it played in different historical stages of man’s development and how it impacts
behavior. In other words, these psychologists looked at the historical evolution of consciousness.
They focused on how, in the past, man has been able to develop his power to think and
understand and what role has his consciousness played in this regard
The Soviet revolution had taken place in 1917

LEON VYGOTSKY

He showed that environment effects man, but then in turn man also effects the
environment
Leon proposed that the higher mental function of consciousness also developed through
the process of evolution
He emphasized on the fact that the structure and the functions of the consciousness
cannot be separated.
Consciousness functions separates man from animals
 SERGEI RUBENSTEIN
Rubenstein rightly pointed out the importance of internal conditions apart from the
external stimulus and response relationships
Rubenstein also showed that external factors affect psyche and then in turn psyche also
affects external factors in the environment
He argued that consciousness originates as a result of sensitivity to certain stimuli

ALEXEI LEONTIEV
When the body receives stimuli from the environment, it reacts to them
Leontiev classified these stimuli into two categories.
a) Ordinary stimuli
b) Symbolic stimuli
Leontiev also showed by pointing toward various stages of man’s development that man
learnt by conditioning according to a set pattern. The order of learning is as follows:
o Man first learnt lower order things and functions(eating drinking)
o later the higher functions ( thinking )
K.M BYKOV
Bykov points out the development of verbal communication and man’s ability to respond
to verbal stimulus

. This means that when we hear a bad news, we respond to it accordingly

LESSON 27 & 28

In 1790 laws were made that separation of patients suffering from nervous diseases is required,
from those suffering from other diseases

PHILIPPE PINEL

He is regarded as father of modern psychiatry by many psychologist

Pinel is regarded as the pioneer in helping society recognize the fact that mental
symptoms are a kind of disease, and people suffering from such disorders should be
treated as sick and not considered to be possessed by evil spirits, demons or the devil.

SAMEUL TUKE

British physician
He also freed mental patients from their chains and started to treat them as sick rather
than possessed by spirits, demons or the devil.

FRANZ MESMER
 During the same time mental diseases or insanity was being treated by a method called
Mesmerism. His interest in “animal magnetism” developed into a system of treatment
through hypnotism that was called mesmerism
According to Mesmer, people have a force that he called “animal magnetism,” and when
the balance of animal magnetism gets upset in the body, people get mad or insane.

JAMES BRAID

In this book he coined the words hypnotism, hypnotize, and hypnotist, which remain in
use. Braid thought of hypnotism as producing a "nervous sleep" which differed from
ordinary sleep. The most efficient way to produce it was through visual fixation on a
small bright object held eighteen inches above and in front of the eyes

JEAN CHARCOT

Jean Charcot was a French neurologist

He wrote an article in one of the prestigious medical journal showing that hypnotism can
be used to treat hysteria

BERNHEIM

He showed that hypnotism cannot treat hysteria only but also other mental diseases

LESSON 29 & 30

SIGMUND FREUD

.. He is the inventor of psycho-analysis as a method of treatment

He gave the parts of mind as follows:
1. ID
2. EGO
3. Super EGO [ego ideal , conscience]
He developed the theory of psycho-pathology of everyday life. Slips of tongue, slips of
memory etc. are representative of psychopathology of everyday life. He developed the
theory of interpretation of dreams
He gave defense mechanism
1. Repression: forgetting painful events.
2. Regression: acting like a baby
3. Displacement: showing someone’s anger to others
4. Rationalization: socially acceptable explanation
5. Denial: refusing
6. Projection: attributing to others
7. Sublimation: hating someone behaving nicely
 Freud also developed a theory of neurosis. According to his theory:

Neurosis=Predisposition + trauma

he formulated his method of treatment of mental disorders which is called

psychoanalysis. The procedure of psychoanalysis includes:
 Free association
 Interpretation of dreams
 Interpretation of psychopathology of everyday life
 Analysis of resistance
 Analysis of transference

ANNA FREUD

. She was the sixth and last child of Sigmund

Her field of specialization was Child Psychology. Her main contribution in this field was
the Identification with aggressor among the children who dominates the rest of the
children.

HEINZ HARTMANN

His work marked the development of the theoretical movement known as Ego-
psychology

ERNST KRIS

. According to him Ego controls regression.

LESSON 31 & 32

CARL GUSTAV JUNG

Introduced analytical psychology
According to him unconscious has different layers.
1. The upper layer is the personal unconscious. It has repressed materials
2. And the deeper layer is the collective unconscious. It has experiences of forefathers and
generations in the form of archetypes.
Some archetypes given by Jung are:
1. Persona (different role plays different masks)
2. Anima (qualities of woman in man)
3. Animus ( qualities of man in woman)
4. Shadow
 o Constructive shadow (showing hidden postiveness)
o Destructive shadow (showing to be polite but rude
He stated that personality has two types:
1. Introvert finds it within.
2. Extrovert " in the surrounding world

He also theorized that personality has four functions:

1. Sensory function (rational part of the personality, where logic plays the dominant
part.)
2. Thinking function
3. Emoting function (refers to the emotional part of the consciousness)
4. Intuiting function (refers to the ability to foresee things.)
There are eight personality types, depending upon introversion or extroversion and the
four functions of each type namely:
a. Introverted Sensory
a. Introverted Thinking
b. Introverted Emoting
c. Introverted Intuiting
d. Extroverted Sensory
e. Extroverted Thinking
f. Extroverted Emoting
g. Extroverted Intuiting
He elaborates theory of dreams. Dreams interpretation should be based upon a series of
dreams rather than a single dream
In Jung’s view, dreams show wishes, desires, and conflicts and even give warning about
future.
Anticipatory dreams (future events) or Prophetic dreams
In order to interpret a dream, Jung used the process of amplification and symbolism
He rejected free association and adopted dialogue, discussion and full confession.
The steps involved in Jungian therapy are:
a. Reading (for some)
b. Collaboration with the therapist
c. Focusing on the situation at present
d. Making any insight concrete and finding a way to put it into practice

LESSON 33

ALFRED ADLER

Individual psychology refers to the idea that we should see people as wholes rather than
parts. The word individual means literally "un-divided." Second, instead of talking about
a person's personality, with the traditional sense of internal traits, structures, dynamics,
conflicts, and so on, Adler preferred to talk about lifestyle
Alfred Adler postulates a single "drive" or motivating force behind all our behavior and
experience. He called that motivating force ―striving for perfection
 Further, according to Adler the concept of ―organic inferiority. He thought that because
of organic inferiority a person develops ―striving for superiority.‖
This striving for superiority leads to:
 Compensation
 Over compensation
One way to compensate inferiority feelings or complex is to become aggressive. The
person develops a drive to aggression but also has social interest
The Adlerian therapy consists of:
 A good human relationship between patient and doctor
 Direct conversation
 Dream interpretation
 Analysis of childhood memories
 Likes and dislikes of heroes
 Body of languages sitting, walking, talking etc.

LESSON 29 & 30
HARRY STACK SULLIVAN

He put forward the view that a baby feels euphoria because his mother feeds and
protects him, The mother may convey insecurity in him if she is tense herself. So a
person’s psyche is the result of interpersonal relationships
Sullivan says that because of interpersonal relationships, the concept of self develops. He
defined three types of self: ‰
a) “Good me” ‰ The good me is everything we like about ourselves. It represents the part
of us we share with others
b) “Bad me” ‰ The bad me represents those aspects of the self that are considered negative
and are therefore hidden
c) “Not me” represents all those things that are so anxiety provoking that we can not even
consider them a part of us. Pushing it deep into the unconscious.
He put forward the view that because of our interpersonal relationships we come to have
three types of experiences: ‰
a) Prototaxic experience ‰( experience the infant has and the order or arrangement in
which it occurs. Unorganized not clear)
b) Parataxic experience ‰(things learned through signs symbols like language)
c) Syntaxic experience (developed experience in which free communication takes place)
Sullivan stated that there are about seven stages of human development:
1. Infancy From 0-1,
2. The childhood period 2-6 years
3. The juvenile era 7-8
4. Pre-adolescence; 8 to 12 years
5. Early adolescence This is from 13 to 18.
6. Adolescence
7. Maturity
 Sullivan’s therapy mainly related to schizophrenia and he discovered that interview was
an important tool of psychotherapy. He used empathy as another tool of psychotherapy.

KAREN HORNEY

He put forward the view that parental roles can produce basic anxiety in a child and that
is one of the main driving forces in a person. The child sees the world as hostile, and he
feels helpless.
His reactions to anxiety and aggression may take the form of:
1. Disguised hostility (unfriendly)
2. Temper tantrums (rolling down screaming)
3. Withdrawal (isolated)
Karen Horney offered a list of ten neurotic needs which are:
I. Need for approval
II. Need for domination
III. Confine life
IV. Independence
V. Perfection
VI. Power
VII. Exploiting others
VIII. Prestige
IX. Ambition
X. Admiration
These needs lead to neurotic trends
a) Movement towards
These people have an intense need to be liked, involved, to be important, and appreciated.
Their Attempts to make other person love them create a clinginess and neediness and it often
results in the other person leaving the relationship.
b) Movement away
This protects them from emotional pain of relationships, it also keeps away all positive
aspects of relationships. It leaves them feeling alone and empty.
c) Movement against
Those with this personality style come across as bossy, demanding, selfish, and even cruel.

Horney distinguishes between situational neurosis(temporary mental disease) and

character neurosis(permanent diorder). Her method of treatment was to discover the
neurotic needs, the movement away, movement towards, and movement against plus
bring it to the attention of the person.

ERICH FROMM

In his famous book “Escape from Freedom” written in 1941 he proclaimed his break
from Freud and classical psychoanalysis.
 . Fromm said that this need for freedom and dependence creates orientations
1. Receptive orientation man tends to accept what is being enforced upon him.
2. Exploitative orientation means to be aggressive and using others for own purposes
3. Hoarding orientation distrust for others
4. Marketing orientation the person behaves in a manner which is liked by others.
5. Productive Orientation Productive orientation is the healthy way of life. This is the way
of life where the individual realizes his full potential.

LESSON 36
J.L. MORENO

He is the founder of Psychodrama, Sociometry and one of the pioneers of Group

Psychotherapy.
He was of the view that mental disease was due to lack of spontaneity. And that the
mental disease was a reflection of man’s social and familial relationships. He thought it
could be relieved/cured by increasing spontaneity in a person and by providing a person
an opportunity where he could relive his familial and social situation. Moreno developed
the technique of “Psychodrama” to achieve those two purposes. Psychodrama consists of:
a) Stage It is the setup in which the analysis is performed.
b) A director The psychiatrist acts as the director who conducts the drama.
c) Protagonist is the central character around which the drama revolves.
d) Audience is the people who witness the drama.
e) Role playing refers to the performance of various acts in the drama.
f) Role reversal refers to the exchange of roles between characters of the play. Each
character plays the role of another so that he may get familiar with the intricacies of the
other role.
Creativity increases spontaneity leading to mental health. Moreno also developed a
number of techniques to measure group phenomena. This he called “Sociometry.” Group
phenomenon or sociometry refers to the behavior of individual in group situations and
overall behavior of the group.

ERIK ERIKSON

He was influenced by Freud’s description of psycho-sexual development but he thought

that the development of a person should be viewed as psychosocial development
rather than psycho-sexual development
A. Basic Trust vs. Mistrust (Oral-Sensory Stage): Birth –18months: Infancy
B. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: 18 months to 3 years: Early Childhood
C. Initiative vs. Guilt: 3 to 6 years: late Childhood
D. Industry vs. Inferiority: 6 to 11 years: School Age
E. Identity vs. Role confusion: Adolescence
 F. Intimacy vs. Isolation: 18 to 25 years: Young adulthood (beginning in the early 20s and
may extend to the 40s)
G. Generativity vs. Stagnation: Middle adulthood (40-60 years)
H. Ego Integrity vs. despair: Old age

LESSON 37

Humanistic psychology is a branch of psychology that developed from behaviorism. Humanistic

psychologists thought that the behaviorists ignored the humanistic view of people, their needs,
aspirations, hopes, fears, and focused only on behavior

ABRAHAM MASLOW

Maslow's primary contribution to psychology is his Hierarchy of Human Needs

a) Physiological needs
b) Safety needs
c) Need for belongingness
d) Esteem Needs
e) Need for Self Actualization

CARL ROGERS

In 1961 in his book entitled “On Becoming a Person” he regarded self-actualization as

the greatest drive in human personality
According to Carl Rogers, a psychologically healthy person:
a) Has openness to experience
b) Fully lives the moment
c) Has a sense of freedom
d) And is highly creative
Based upon his humanistic theory and point of view he developed his system of
psychotherapy called Theory of Client Centered Therapy based on reflection.

Positive psychology

Positive psychology is the scientific study of human happiness. William James. In his 1902
book, The Varieties of Religious Experience, James argues that happiness is a chief concern of
human life and those who pursue it should be regarded as "healthy-minded."
LESSON 40
D.L. ROSENHAN

He conducted an experiment three women and five men who were perfectly normal and
most of them were well educated, entered in 12 mental institutions of different places in
U.S.A. They posed as mental patients saying that they hear voices, but apart from this,
offered completely correct information about themselves. These “patients” remained in
hospitals for 19 days on the average
• It is impossible to distinguish between normal people and patients according to the rules
and procedures of mental hospitals.
• Mental hospitals leave extremely negative effects on inmates.
• Mental hospitals treat patients without pity and with cruelty.
• That the overall environment of mental hospitals needs great improvement. Further,
research showed in this context that up to 80% patients released from mental hospitals
went back and are re-admitted.

R.D. LAING

His book “The Divided Self” appeared in 1959 and is considered to represent the basic
view of antipsychiatry movement.
Laing used the existential philosophy to understand and explain the concept of mental
illness, thereby trying to look at schizophrenia from the patient’s point of view.
He was against labeling mental diseases, because he thought that from the patient’s view,
he is not suffering from a disease. In his opinion labeling was used to control people. In
other words, in his own view no patient was sick
In his view the cause of mental disease was division in the self and the therapy suggested
by Laing is known as “Metanoia.” Metanoia means a change in the mind.
This could be achieved in various ways such as arts, discussions, seminars, etc. He
established a place called Kingsley Hall where activities such as seminars, discussions,
dance, yoga, painting, stitching were carried out to create and achieve metanoia.

AARON ESTERSON

Esterson focused on family therapy and showed that the family picks up a person and
then labels that person “mad.” This is called scapegoating
His method of treatment was to expose the mechanisms of scapegoating to the patient and
make the patient realize that he or she was not sick but was just being called sick. In that
way the patient would be able to deal with any future labeling upon him
LESSON # 41

FRANTZ FANON (1925-1961)

Frantz Fanon's relatively short life yielded two potent and influential statements of
anticolonial revolutionary thought, Black Skin White Masks (1952) and The Wretched of
the Earth (1961)
“Black Skin, White Masks” (BSWM), originally titled "An Essay for the Disalienation of
Blacks".
He put forward the view that as a result of occupation, a region or country comes to have
two types of people:
 The colonizer (aggrieve , superior)
 The colonized (inferior )
When the colonized adopts the ways of thinking of the colonizer, this adoption in
Fanon’s view is called the “Colonial Mentality
Fanon put forward the view that mental disease is the result of rage in wrong direction of
the colonized on one hand and the adoption of colonial mentality on the other hand.
His suggested method of treatment was to make his patients conscious of their rage and
their acceptance of colonial mentality and prepare them to wage a battle against the
colonial powers.