UNIT 2 CPF (Computer Programming Fundamental)
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omputer Hardware & Software
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I/O Devices
ninput/outputdevice,oftenknownasanIOdevice,isanyhardwarethatallowsahuman
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operatororothersystemstointerfacewithacomputer.Input/outputdevices,asthename
implies, are capable of delivering data (output) to and receiving data from a computer
(input).Aninput/output(I/O)deviceisapieceofhardwarethatcantake,output,orprocess
data.Itreceivesdataasinputandprovidesittoacomputer,aswellassendscomputerdatato
storage media as a storage output.
I nput Devices
Inputdevicesarethedevicesthatareusedtosendsignalstothecomputerforperforming
tasks.ThereceiverattheendistheCPU(CentralProcessingUnit),whichhasworktosend
signals to the output devices. Some of the classifications of Input devices are:
Keyboard Devices
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●Pointing Devices
●Game Controller
●Visual Devices
●Audio Input Devices
Output Devices
utputDevicesarethedevicesthatshowustheresultaftergivingtheinputtoacomputer
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system.Outputcanbeofmanydifferentformslikeimage,graphicaudio,video,etc.Some
of the output devices are below.
Monitor
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●Television
●Printer
●Speakers
●Projector
●Plotter
●Braille Reader
●Video Card
●Headphones
oth the Input and Output Devices of the Computer
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Therearesomanydevicesthatcontainthecharacteristicsofbothinputandoutput.Theycan
erform both operations as they receive data and provide results. Some of them are
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mentioned below.
●USB Drive
●Modem
●CD and DVD
●Headset
Definition of Software
oftware is a collection of instructions, data, or computer programs that are used to run
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machines and carry out particular activities. A device’s running programs, scripts, and
applications are collectively referred to as “software” in this context.In a computer system,
the software is basically a set of instructions or commands that tella computer what to do.
In other words, the software is a computer program that providesa set of instructions to
execute a user’s commands and tell the computer what to do. Forexample like MS-Word,
MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc.
It is the opposite of hardware, which describes the physical aspects of a computer.
Relationship between Hardware and Software
Hardware and software both are interdependent oneach other. Each of themshould
●
work together to form a computer to produce a helpful output.●The software can not be
used if there is no support for any hardware device.●When there are no proper
instructions given, the hardware cannot be used and isuseless.
●To get a selected job done on the pc, the relevantsoftware package has to beloaded
into the hardware.
●Hardware could be a former expense.
●Software development is incredibly pricey and couldbe a continued expense.●The
different software packages can be loaded on hardware to run totally differentjobs.
●The software acts as an associate interface betweenthe user and therefore the
hardware.
●We can say the hardware and software are the heartand soul of a digital computer.
Types of Software
The chart below describes the types of software:
bove is the diagram of types of software. Now we will briefly describe each type and its
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subtypes:
1.System Software
●Operating System
●Language Processor
●Device Driver
2.Application Software
●General Purpose Software
●Customize Software
●Utility Software
ystem Software
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Systemsoftwareissoftwarethatdirectlyoperatesthecomputerhardwareandprovidesthe
basicfunctionalitytotheusersaswellastotheothersoftwaretooperatesmoothly.Orin
otherwords,systemsoftwarebasicallycontrolsacomputer’sinternalfunctioningandalso
controlshardwaredevicessuchasmonitors,printers,andstoragedevices,etc.Itislikean
i nterface between hardware and user applications, it helps them to communicate
witheachotherbecausehardwareunderstandsmachinelanguage(i.e.1or0)whereasuser
applications are work in human-readable languages like English, Hindi, German, etc. so
system software converts the human-readable language into machine language and vice
versa.
Types of System Software
It has two subtypes which are:
1. Operating System: It is the main program of a computer system. When the
computer system is ON it is the first software that loadsintothecomputer’s
memory.Basically,itmanagesalltheresourcessuchascomputermemory,CPU,
printer,harddisk,etc.,andprovidesaninterfacetotheuser,whichhelpstheuser
tointeractwiththecomputersystem.Italsoprovidesvariousservicestoother
computer software. Examples of operating systems are Linux, Apple macOS,
Microsoft Windows, etc.
2. Language Processor: As we know that system software converts the
human-readable language into a machine language and vice versa. So, the
conversion is done by the language processor. It convertsprogramswrittenin
high-level programming languages like Java, C, C++, Python, etc(known as
source code), into sets of instructions that are easily readable by
machines(known as object code or machine code).
3.DeviceDriver:Adevicedriverisaprogramorsoftwarethatcontrolsadevice
andhelpsthatdevicetoperformitsfunctions.Everydevicelikeaprinter,mouse,
modem, etc. needsadrivertoconnectwiththecomputersystemeternally.So,
when you connect a new device with your computer system,firstyouneedto
install the driver of that device so that your operating system knows how to
control or manage that device.
Features of System Software
Let us discuss some of the features of System Software:
System Software is closer to the computer system.
●
●System Software is written in a low-level languagein general.
●System software is difficult to design and understand.
●System software is fast in speed(working speed).
●System software is less interactive for the usersin comparison to application
software.
pplication Software
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Softwarethatperformsspecialfunctionsorprovidesfunctionsthataremuchmorethanthe
basic operation of the computer is known as application software. Or in other words,
applicationsoftwareisdesignedtoperformaspecifictaskforend-users.Itisaproductora
program that is designed only to fulfill end-users’ requirements. It includes word
processors, spreadsheets, database management, inventory, payroll programs, etc.
Types of Application Software
There are different types of application software and those are:
1. G eneral Purpose Software: This type of application software is used for a
variety of tasks and it is not limited to performing a specific task only. For
example, MS-Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc.
2.CustomizedSoftware:Thistypeofapplicationsoftwareisusedordesignedto
performspecifictasksorfunctionsordesignedforspecificorganizations.For
example, railway reservation system, airline reservation system, invoice
management system, etc.
3. Utility Software: This type of application software is used to support the
computer infrastructure. It is designed to analyze, configure, optimize and
maintain the system, and take care of its requirements as well. For example,
antivirus, disk defragmenter, memory tester, diskrepair,diskcleaners,registry
cleaners, disk space analyzer, etc.
Features of Application Software
Let us discuss some of the features of Application Software:
●An important feature of application software isit performs more specializedtasks
like word processing, spreadsheets, email, etc.
●Mostly, the size of the software is big, so it requiresmore storage space.●
Application software is more interactive for the users, so it is easy to use anddesign.
●The application software is easy to design and understand.
●Application software is written in a high-levellanguage in general.
ifference Between System Software and Application Software
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Some difference between system software and application software:
System Software Application Software
I t is designed to manage theresources I t is designed to fulfill t he
of the computer system, like memory requirements of the user for
and process management, etc. performing specific tasks.
Written in a low-level language. Written in a high-level
Less interactive for the users. language. More interactive for
the users.
ystem software plays a vital role for
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the effective functioning of a system.
pplication software is not so
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importantforthefunctioningofthe
system, as it is task specific.
I t is independent of the application It needs system software to run.
software to run.
Operating System
Operating Systems basically manages all the resources of the computer. An operating
s ystemactsasaninterfacebetweenthesoftwareanddifferentpartsofthecomputerorthe
computerhardware.Theoperatingsystemisdesignedinsuchawaythatitcanmanagethe
overall resources and operations of the computer.
Operating System is a fully integrated set of specialized programs that handle all the
operations of thecomputer.Itcontrolsandmonitorstheexecutionofallotherprograms
that reside in the computer, which also includes application programs and other system
software of thecomputer.ExamplesofOperatingSystemsareWindows,Linux,MacOS,
etc.
n Operating System (OS) is a collection of software that manages computer hardware
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resourcesandprovidescommonservicesforcomputerprograms.Theoperatingsystemis
the most important type of system software in a computer system.
F unctions of Operating System
esourceManagement:Theoperatingsystemmanagesandallocatesmemory,CPUtime,
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and other hardware resources among the various programs and processesrunningonthe
computer.
rocess Management: The operating system is responsible for starting, stopping, and
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managing processes and programs. It also controls the scheduling of processes and
allocates resources to them.
emory Management:The operating system manages thecomputer’s primary memory
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and provides mechanisms for optimizing memory usage.
ecurity:Theoperatingsystemprovidesasecureenvironmentfortheuser,applications,
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and data by implementing security policies andmechanismssuchasaccesscontrolsand
encryption.
Job Accounting:It keeps track of time and resourcesused by various jobs or users.
ile Management:The operating system is responsiblefor organizing and managing the
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file system, including the creation, deletion, and manipulation of files and directories.
eviceManagement:Theoperatingsystemmanagesinput/outputdevicessuchasprinters,
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keyboards, mice, and displays. It provides the necessary drivers andinterfacestoenable
communication between the devices and the computer.
Networking: Theoperatingsystemprovidesnetworkingcapabilitiessuchasestablishing
a ndmanagingnetworkconnections,handlingnetworkprotocols,andsharingresourcessuch
as printers and files over a network.
User Interface: The operating system provides a user interface that enables users to
interact with the computer system. This can be a Graphical User Interface (GUI), a
Command-Line Interface (CLI), or a combination of both.
ackup and Recovery:The operating system providesmechanisms for backing up dataand
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recovering it in case of system failures, errors, or disasters.
irtualization:Theoperatingsystemprovidesvirtualizationcapabilitiesthatallowmultiple
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operating systems or applications to run on a single physical machine. This can enable
efficient use of resources and flexibility in managing workloads.
erformance Monitoring:The operating system providestools for monitoring and
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optimizing system performance, optimizing resource usage, and analyzing system logs.
ime-Sharing: The operatingsystemenablesmultipleuserstoshareacomputersystem
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and its resources simultaneously by providing time-sharing mechanisms that allocate
resources fairly and efficiently.
ystemCalls:Theoperatingsystemprovidesasetofsystemcallsthatenableapplications
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to interact with the operating system and access its resources. System calls provide a
standardized interfacebetweenapplicationsandtheoperatingsystem,enablingportability
and compatibility across different hardware and software platforms.
rror-detecting:These contain methods that includethe production of dumps, traces,
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error messages, and other debugging and error-detecting methods.
Multiprogramming Operating System
ultiprogramming OS is an ability of an operating system that executes more than one
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program using a single processor machine.
ore than one task or program or jobs are present inside the main memory at one pointof
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time.
heOScouldpickandstarttheexecutionofoneofthejobsinmemory,wheneverthejobs
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doesnotneedCPUthatmeansthejobisworkingwithI/OatthattimetheCPUisidleatthat
timetheOSswitchestoanotherjobinmemoryandCPUexecutesaportionofittillthejob
issues a request for I/O and so on.
Advantages
The advantages of multiprogramming operating system are as follows −
●CPU utilization is high because the CPU never goesto idle state.●
Memory utilization is efficient.
●CPU throughput is high and also supports multipleinteractive user terminals.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of multiprogramming operating system are as follows −
●CPU scheduling is compulsory because lots of jobsare ready to run on CPU
simultaneously.
●User is not able to interact with jobs when it isexecuting.
●Programmers also cannot modify a program that isbeing executed.
Multitasking Operating System
ultitaskingoperatingsystemsallowmultipleuserstoperformmultipletasksatthesame
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time. The allocationofsystemresourcessuchasinput/outputdevices,CPUandmemory
among processes can be easily managed by a multitasking operating system. There are
various states through which a processor passes to complete particular or multiple
executions. Multitasking is the ability of an OS to execute more than one task
simultaneously onaCPU machine as shown in the belowdiagram.
Advantages
●A Multitasking Operating System is capable of executingmultiple applications
simultaneously without slowing down the system.
●Each process is assigned a specific length of time(i.etime sharing), hence a
process does not have to wait for a longer duration to utilize CPU.
●A multitasking OS can effectively manage I/O devices,RAM, hard disks,CPUs,
and other computer resources.
●In Multi-Tasking Operating a user is capable ofexecuting multiple programs atthe
same time, such as games, browser, MS Word, and other services.●Memory
management is well-defined in multitasking operating systems.Because of this, the
operating system does not grant any permission forunwanted apps to waste RAM.
Disadvantages
●As a single processor is executing multiple processesat the same time thenthere
will be load on the CPU and the CPU may heat up.
●Computer system will be lagging if the processoris slow in the Multi-Tasking
Operating System while executing multiple programs simultaneously.●Main
memory(RAM) has to store multiple processes during multitasking sothere can be
memory boundation if the main memory is overloaded.
Multiprocessing Operating System
I n operating systems, to improve the performance of more than one CPU can be usedwithin
one computer system called Multiprocessor operating system.
Multiple CPUs are interconnected so that a job can be divided among them for faster
e xecution.Whenajobfinishes,resultsfromallCPUsarecollectedandcompiledtogive
thefinaloutput.Jobsneededtosharemainmemoryandtheymayalsoshareothersystem
resources among themselves. Multiple CPUs can also be used to run multiple jobs
simultaneously.
or Example:UNIX Operating system is one of the mostwidely used multiprocessing
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systems.
The basic organization of a typical multiprocessing system is shown in the given figure.
o employ a multiprocessing operating system effectively, the computer system musthave
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the following things:
○A motherboard is capable of handling multiple processorsin a multiprocessing
operating system.
○Processors are also capable of being used in a multiprocessingsystem.
Advantages of multiprocessing operating system are:
○ Increasedreliability:Duetothemultiprocessingsystem,processingtaskscanbe
distributedamongseveralprocessors.Thisincreasesreliabilityasifoneprocessor
fails; the task can be given to another processor for completion.
○Increased throughout:As several processors increase,more work can be done in
less
○The economy of Scale:As multiprocessors systemsshare peripherals, secondary
storage devices, and power supplies, they are relatively cheaper than
single-processor systems.
Disadvantages of Multiprocessing operating System
○Operating system of multiprocessing is more complexand sophisticated as it takes
care of multiple CPUs at the same time.
Time-Sharing Operating System
Time-Sharing Operating Systems is one of the important types of operating systems.
ime-sharing enables many people, located at various terminals, to use a particular
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computer system at the same time. Multitasking or Time-Sharing Systems is a logical
extension of multiprogramming. Processor’s time is shared among multiple users
simultaneously and is termed as time-sharing.
hemaindifferencebetweenTime-SharingSystemsandMultiprogrammedBatchSystems
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is that in case of Multiprogrammed batch systems, the objective is to maximize
processor use, whereas in Time-Sharing Systems, the objective is to minimizeresponse
time.
ultiple jobs are implemented by theCPUby switchingbetween them, but the switches
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occur so frequently. So, the user can receive an immediate response.
noperatingsystemusesCPUschedulingandmultiprogrammingtoprovideeachuserwith
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a small portion of a time. Computer systems which were designed primarily as batch
systems have been modified to time-sharing systems.
Advantages
It provides the advantage of quick response.
●
●This type of operating system avoids duplicationof software.
●It reduces CPU idle time.
Disadvantages
Time sharing has a problem of reliability.
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●Questions of security and integrity of user programsand data can be raised.●
Problem of data communication occurs.
Real-Time Operating System
real-time operating system (RTOS) is a special-purpose operating system used in
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computers that has strict time constraints for any job to be performed. It is employed
ostlyinthosesystemsinwhichtheresultsofthecomputationsareusedtoinfluencea
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process while it is executing. Whenever an event external to the computer occurs, itis
communicatedtothecomputerwiththehelpofsomesensorusedtomonitortheevent.The
sensor producesthesignalthatisinterpretedbytheoperatingsystemasaninterrupt.On
receivinganinterrupt,theoperatingsysteminvokesaspecificprocessorasetofprocesses
to serve the interrupt.
Thisprocessiscompletelyuninterruptedunlessahigherpriorityinterruptoccursduringits
execution.Therefore,theremustbeastricthierarchyofpriorityamongtheinterrupts.The
interrupt with the highest priority must be allowed to initiate the process , while lower
priorityinterruptsshouldbekeptinabufferthatwillbehandledlater.Interruptmanagement
is important in such an operating system.
eal-time operating systems employ special-purpose operating systems because
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conventional operating systems do not provide such performance.
Advantages
The benefits of real-time operating system are as follows-:
●Easy to layout, develop and execute real-time applicationsunder the real-time
operating system.
●The real-time working structures are extra compact,so those structures requiremuch
less memory space.
●In a Real-time operating system, the maximum utilizationof devices and systems.
●Focus on running applications and less importanceto applications that are in the
queue.
●Since the size of programs is small, RTOS can alsobe embedded systems like in
transport and others.
●These types of systems are error-free.
●Memory allocation is best managed in these typesof systems.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of real-time operating systems are as follows-
●Real-time operating systems have complicated layoutprinciples and are verycostly to
develop.
●Real-time operating systems are very complex andcan consume critical CPUcycles.
S ingle-User Operating System
noperatingsystemthatallowsasingleusertoperformonlyonetaskatatimeiscalleda
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Single-User Single-Tasking Operating System. Functions like printing a document,
downloadingimages,etc.,canbeperformedonlyoneatatime.ExamplesincludeMS-DOS,
Palm OS, etc.
Advantages
●This operating system occupies less space in memory.
Disadvantages
●It can perform only a single task at a time.
Multiuser Operating System
multi-useroperatingsystemisanoperatingsystemthatpermitsseveraluserstoaccessa
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single system running to a single operating system. These systems are frequently quite
complex,andtheymustmanagethetasksthatthevarioususersconnectedtothemrequire.
Userswillusuallysitatterminalsorcomputersconnectedtothesystemviaanetworkand
othersystemmachineslikeprinters.Amulti-useroperatingsystemvariesfromaconnected
single-user operating system in that each user accesses thesameoperatingsystemfrom
different machines.
hemaingoalofdevelopingamulti-useroperatingsystemistouseitfortime-sharingand
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batchprocessingonmainframesystems.Thismulti-useroperatingsystemisnowoftenused
inlargeorganizations,thegovernmentsector,educationalinstitutionslikelargeuniversities,
andonservers'sidesuchasUbuntuServerorWindowsServer.Theseserversallowseveral
users to access the operating system, kernel, and hardware at thesame time.
Advantages
It is highly productive as it performs multiple tasks at a time.
I t is time saving as we don’t have to make changes in many desktops, instead can make
changes only to the server.
Disadvantages
If the connection to the server is broken, the user cannot perform any task on the client as
it is connected to that server.
Multithreading Operating System
ultitasking is of two types: Processor based and thread based. Processor based
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multitaskingistotallymanagedbytheOS,howevermultitaskingthroughmultithreadingcan
be controlled by the programmer to some extent. The concept of multithreading
needs proper understanding of these two terms – a processandathread.Aprocessisa
programbeingexecuted.Aprocesscanbefurtherdividedintoindependentunitsknownas
threads. A thread is like a small light-weight process within a process. Orwecansaya
collection of threads is what is known as a process.
Advantages
Threads minimize the context switching time.
●
●Use of threads provides concurrency within a process.
●Efficient communication.
●It is more economical to create and context switchthreads.
●Threads allow utilization of multiprocessor architecturesto a greater scale and
efficiency.
Disadvantages
ultithreading is complex and many times difficult to handle. It has a few drawbacks.These
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are:
● Ifyoudon’tmakeuseofthelockingmechanismsproperly,whileinvestigating
dataaccessissuesthereisachanceofproblemsarisinglikedatainconsistency
and dead-lock.
●If many threads try to access the same data, thenthere is a chance that the
situation of thread starvation may arise.
●Display issues may occur if threads lack coordinationwhen displaying data.
Virus
computer virus is a type of malicious software, or malware, that spreads between
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computers and causes damage to data and software.
omputervirusesaimtodisruptsystems,causemajoroperationalissues,andresultindata
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lossandleakage.Akeythingtoknowaboutcomputervirusesisthattheyaredesignedto
s pread across programs and systems. Computer viruses typically attachtoanexecutable
hostfile,whichresultsintheirviralcodesexecutingwhenafileisopened.Thecodethen
spreadsfromthedocumentorsoftwareitisattachedtovianetworks,drives,file-sharing
programs, or infected email attachments.
Types of Computer Virus
Discussed below are the different types of computer viruses:
●BootSectorVirus–Itisatypeofvirusthatinfectsthebootsectoroffloppydisks
ortheMasterBootRecord(MBR)ofharddisks.TheBootsectorcomprisesallthe
files which are required to start the Operatingsystemofthecomputer.Thevirus
either overwrites the existing program or copies itself to another part of the disk.
●DirectActionVirus–Whenavirusattachesitselfdirectlytoa.exeor.comfileand
enters the device while its execution is called a Direct Action Virus. If it gets
installed in the memory, it keeps itself hidden. It is also knownasNon-Resident
Virus.
●ResidentVirus–Aviruswhichsavesitselfinthememoryofthecomputerandthen
infectsotherfilesandprogramswhenitsoriginatingprogramisnolongerworking.
Thisviruscaneasilyinfectotherfilesbecauseitishiddeninthememoryandishard
to be removed from the system.
● Multipartite Virus – A virus which can attack both the boot sector and the
executable filesofanalreadyinfectedcomputeriscalledamultipartitevirus.Ifa
multipartite virus attacks your system, you are at risk of cyber threat.
● Overwrite Virus – One of the most harmful viruses, the overwrite virus can
completelyremovetheexistingprogramandreplaceitwiththemaliciouscodeby
overwritingit.Graduallyitcancompletelyreplacethehost’sprogrammingcodewith
the harmful code.
● PolymorphicVirus–Spreadthroughspamandinfectedwebsites,thepolymorphic
virus are file infectors which are complex and are tough todetect.Theycreatea
modified or morphed version of the existing program and infect the system and
retain the original code.
●FileInfectorVirus–Asthenamesuggests,itfirstinfectsasinglefileandthenlater
spreadsitselftootherexecutablefilesandprograms.Themainsourceofthisvirus
are games and word processors.
●SpacefillerVirus–Itisararetypeofviruswhichfillsintheemptyspacesofafile
withviruses.Itisknownascavityvirus.Itwillneitheraffectthesizeofthefilenor
can be detected easily.
● MacroVirus–Aviruswritteninthesamemacrolanguageasusedinthesoftware
program and infects the computer if a word processor fileisopened.Mainlythe
source of such viruses is via emails.
Characteristics of Virus
1.Spread:Computer viruses spread from one systemto another through storage
devices, networks, or email.
2.Infection:Once a virus infects a system, it canbegin to perform harmful actions,
such as stealing information or disrupting the operation of the computer.3.
Concealment:Many viruses are able to hide in theoperating system and avoid
detection by antivirus programs.
4.Modification:Some viruses can modify the codeof other files or programs,which
can cause errors or system crashes.
5.Data Loss:Some viruses are designed to deleteor corrupt information stored onthe
system.
6.Theft of Personal Information:Some viruses cancapture personal informationsuch
as passwords, credit card numbers, or other sensitive information.7.Decreased
Computer Performance:Some viruses consume systemresourcesand slow down the
performance of the computer.
8.Spam:Some viruses use infected systems to sendjunk mail or spam to otherusers.
9.Extortion:Some viruses encrypt the user's filesand demand a ransom to unlock
them, known as ransomware.
Antivirus Software
ntivirussoftwareisaprogramthatsearchesfor,detects,prevents,andremovessoftware
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infections that can harm your computer. Antivirus can also detect and remove other
dangeroussoftwaresuchasworms,adware,andotherdangers.Thissoftwareisintendedto
beusedasapreventativemeasureagainstcyberdangers,keepingthemfromenteringyour
computerandcausingproblems.Antivirusisavailableforfreeaswell.Anti-virussoftware
thatisavailableforfreeonlyprovideslimitedvirusprotection,whereaspremiumanti-virus
software offers more effective security. For example Avast,Kaspersky, etc.
