INFANCY

 Infancy is characterized by rapid growth, continued brain development, emergence of

locomotor skills, and impressive sensory and reflexive capabilities. Understanding the new
born’s capacities and limitations brings a fuller appreciation of the dramatic changes that
take place between birth and adulthood.
 Newborns are typically about 20 inches long and weigh 7 to7 1⁄2 pounds.
 Birth weight and length do not always predict eventual height and weight.
 environmental factors can stunt fetal growth (Lejarraga, 2002).
 Early size after birth is more influenced by prenatal experiences than genetics.
 This is evident in twins and multiple births, where competition for space restricts
growth
 In the first few months after birth, infants grow rapidly, gaining nearly an ounce of
weight a day and an inch in length each month.
 By age 2, children have attained about half of their eventual adult height and weigh
between 27 to 30 pounds on average.
 Growth is not a slow and steady process; instead, infants grow in fits and starts
(Lampl, 2002).
 Babies may go weeks without any growth and then suddenly grow half an inch within
24 hours.
 These rapid growth spurts are often accompanied by irritability, which can confuse
parents who are unaware of the ongoing physical changes.
 90 to 95% of an infant’s days are growth-free, but occasional bursts of physical
growth contribute to substantial increases in size.
 During infancy, bones develop rapidly. At birth, most bones are soft, pliable, and
difficult to break.
 Newborns’ bones are initially made of cartilage-like tissue, which is too soft to allow
them to sit up or balance when pulled to a standing position.
 Over time, the soft cartilage gradually hardens (ossifies) into bony material as calcium
and other minerals are deposited.
 Additional bones develop, and existing bones become more closely interconnected as
the infant grows.
 Young infants are relatively weak, even though they already possess all the muscle
cells they will ever have.
 Their muscle strength increases only as their muscles grow and mature over time.
 By 1 year,75% brain development happens- neural connections are strengthened
during this time(stimulation is necessary at this time like talking to new born etc)

CHILDHOOD

 At this phase body and motor development slow down compared to infancy but
continue steadily throughout childhood.
 Growth Rate from Age 2 to Puberty: Children grow about 2 to 3 inches in height
and gain 5 to 6 pounds in weight each year
 Middle Childhood Growth (Ages 6–11): Growth appears less noticeable because
gains are small in proportion to overall body size. On average, children reach 4–4½
feet in height and weigh 60–80 pounds.
 Growth Principles: The cephalocaudal (head-to-toe) and proximodistal (center-
outward) principles continue to guide development.
  Body Proportions: As lower body parts and extremities develop, children acquire
more adult-like body proportions.
 Bone and Muscle Development: Bones continue to grow and harden, while muscles
strengthen, supporting increased physical activity.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

 Infants and toddlers can control their movements in a stationary world, while children
learn to move in a changing environment
 Children must modify movements to adapt to changes, such as catching a ball or
avoiding people in a crowd.
 Motor skills improve with age; young children throw with only their arm, whereas
older children integrate multiple body movements.
 By age 7, throwing accuracy and speed increase, allowing older children to throw
farther due to better coordination
 Toddlers appear awkward in motion, while older children move fluidly and
rhythmically, better avoiding obstacles.
 By age 3, children can walk or run in a straight line but struggle with turning or
stopping while running.
 By age 4, children can trace a figure with one hand while tapping a pen with the other
 Kindergarten children can integrate skills like hopping and running into mature
skipping
 Motor skills improve with practice; children show 25-30% improvement, compared to
10% in adults
 Boys tend to excel in throwing and kicking, while girls perform better in hopping and
tasks requiring manual dexterity
 From age 3 to 5, eye-hand coordination and fine motor control improve significantly.
 At age 3, children struggle with buttoning shirts, tying shoes, and copying designs,
producing scribble-like drawings.
 By age 5, they can button shirts, tie shoes, cut straight lines with scissors, and copy
letters and numbers.
 By age 8 or 9, children can use tools like screwdrivers and excel in games requiring
eye-hand coordination.
 Handwriting quality and speed steadily improve from age 6 to 15
 Older children have quicker reaction times, allowing them to respond to sudden
events, like avoiding a dog while biking.
 Studies show that reaction time improves steadily throughout childhood
 Faster neural responses with age contribute to improvements in memory and cognitive
skills from infancy to adolescence.

EARLY CHILDHOOD

 As the preschool child grew older the percentage of height increases and weight
decreases with each additional year.
 Boys and girls show differences in body proportions during early childhood.
 Boys tend to have a slightly slimmer trunk compared to girls.
 Girls generally have a proportionally larger head than boys.
 Towards the end of the preschool years, children begin to lose their top-heavy
appearance.
  As growth continues, their body proportions become more balanced and adult-
like.
 Girls will have growth of more fat tissues
 Boys will have more muscle tissues
 Variation in growth pattern can have and is mainly due to heredity and
environment
 2 other factors can also influence and they are ethnic origin and nutrition,chronic
infection
 Children from urban and middle socioeconomic status families tend to be taller
than those from rural and lower socioeconomic backgrounds.
 Firstborn children are generally taller than their later-born siblings.
 Middle socioeconomic status and psychosocial factors play a significant role in
influencing growth and development.
 Factors such as nutrition, healthcare access, and parental education contribute to
these differences.
 Congenital factors can significantly influence a child's growth and development.
 Growth hormone plays a crucial role in regulating height and overall physical
development.
 Physical and emotional difficulties can impact growth, sometimes leading to
stunted development.
 Hormonal abnormalities can affect various aspects of growth, including
metabolism and puberty.
 Genital abnormalities may be linked to hormonal imbalances or congenital
conditions.
 Birth complications can interfere with normal growth and development,
sometimes causing long-term health issues.

MIDDLE ND LATE CHILDHOOD

 6-11 years(1-5th std)

 This phase will be having slow and consistent growth
 During middle and late childhood, children grow an average of 2-3 inches per year.
 By age 8, the average height is about 5 feet 2 inches (127 cm).
 The average weight at age 8 is around 25 kg.
 Children gain approximately 5-7 pounds (2.5-3 kg) per year.
 The size of the skeletal and muscular system increases.
 The size of body organs also increases.
 Muscle mass and strength improve as baby fat decreases.
 Bones continue to harden.
 Head circumference and leg length decrease in proportion to overall body height.
 By age 10 (before adolescence), the skull hardens, making it more resistant to injuries.
 Critical brain development continues, so brain injuries should be avoided during this
period.

ADOLESCENCE

 Adolescence marks the transition from childhood to adulthood.

 Puberty is the biological process of maturation, leading to physical and hormonal
changes.
  Menarche refers to the first menstrual cycle in girls, while spermarche is the first
ejaculation in boys.
 In psychosocial aspects, those who look more mature tend to view peers who haven't
reached puberty as inferior.
 Individuals who experience early puberty are often perceived as superior in society.
 Precocious puberty is the very early onset and rapid progression of puberty.
 It occurs before age 8 in girls and before age 9 in boys.
 Precocious puberty is about 10 times more common in girls than in boys.
 Factors influencing puberty include:
1. Weight and body fat: Heavier children tend to enter puberty earlier.
2. Heredity: Genetics play a major role in determining puberty timing.
3. Hormones: The endocrine system regulates puberty through hormonal
changes.
 Growth spurts occur during puberty, leading to rapid increases in height and weight.
 Sexual maturation involves the development of primary and secondary sexual
characteristics.

ADULTHOOD

 Adulthood marks the transition from adolescence to full independence.

 This phase involves more emotional and psychological development than physical
growth.
 Key features of emerging adulthood include:
1. Identity exploration in love and work.
2. Instability in relationships, jobs, and living situations.
3. Self-focus, as individuals develop independence and personal goals.
4. Feeling in between, where individuals don’t fully see themselves as
adults yet.
5. Age of possibilities, with optimism about the future and potential for
change.
 Physical performance peaks in early adulthood (20s to early 30s).
 After the peak, gradual declines begin in strength, reaction time, and endurance.
 Lifestyle choices and health habits significantly impact aging and well-being.

MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

 Middle adulthood brings gradual physical changes rather than sudden shifts.
 Visible signs of aging appear, including wrinkles, gray hair, and skin elasticity loss.
 Height loss occurs due to spinal compression.
 Weight gain is common due to a slower metabolism.
 Bone loss in the vertebrae can lead to a stooped posture.
 Sarcopenia: Age-related muscle mass loss, affecting strength and mobility.
 Osteoporosis: Weakening of bones, increasing fracture risk.
 Loss of muscle mass and strength, especially in the legs and arms.
 Vision problems: Difficulty seeing close objects (presbyopia) begins.
 Hearing loss starts, especially for high-pitched sounds.
 Cardiovascular issues: Increased risk of high blood pressure and heart disease.
 Lung capacity declines, making physical exertion harder.

LATE ADULTHOOD
  Late adulthood brings visible aging signs like wrinkles and age spots.
 Movements slow down, affecting mobility and coordination.
 Dark adaptation declines, making it harder to adjust to low light.
 Sensory decline impacts vision, hearing, touch, and memory, linking to cognitive
function deterioration.
 Vision diseases become common:
o Cataracts: Clouding of the eye lens, leading to blurry vision.
o Glaucoma: Increased eye pressure, damaging the optic nerve.
o Macular degeneration: Loss of central vision, affecting reading and face
recognition.
 Young adulthood is the physical prime, with strong and efficient body functions.
However, aging occurs gradually over time. Physical and health changes begin to
have noticeable effects in middle age and become more significant in old age.
 Middle adulthood brings visible signs of aging, including wrinkles, dry and loose
skin, and thinning gray hair due to loss of pigment-producing cells. Many adults gain
weight because metabolism slows, but eating and exercise habits remain the same.
This "middle-aged spread" is common, with most middle-aged adults being
overweight or obese, while only 20% maintain a healthy weight. Regular exercise can
prevent weight gain, but many struggle to find time due to family and work
responsibilities.
 In old age, people start losing weight around their 60s, not from fat loss but from a
decline in muscle and bone mass. Muscle loss is primarily due to a sedentary lifestyle
rather than aging itself. Studies show that very few middle-aged and older adults
engage in regular physical activity, and participation decreases with age. Factors like
education level, neighborhood conditions, caregiving responsibilities, and lack of
energy influence physical activity levels.
 Aging leads to a gradual decline in the efficiency of bodily systems from the 20s
onward. Most bodily functions peak between childhood and early adulthood before
declining slowly. The heart and lung capacity decrease, temperature regulation
weakens, immune system efficiency declines, and overall strength reduces.
 Handgrip strength studies show that women experience minimal muscle decline
before age 55 but significant loss after. Men exhibit a steady decline in muscle
strength across all ages.
 Individual differences in physiological functioning increase with age. While the
average older adult is less fit than the average young adult, not all older individuals
have poor health. Older adults who maintain an active lifestyle preserve greater
strength and better overall functioning.

THE BRAIN DEVELOPMENT DURING INFANCY

 During infancy, brain development is extensive, with around 100 billion neurons or
nerve cells present at birth. The brain continues to develop rapidly after birth, making
infancy a crucial period for brain growth.
 The infant’s head should be protected from falls and injuries, and shaking the baby
must be strictly avoided.
 Shaken Baby Syndrome, which causes brain swelling and hemorrhaging, is more
commonly reported in the U.S. than in Asian countries, affecting hundreds of babies
in the U.S. each year.
 Studies show that newborns can detect and distinguish their mother's voice from that
of a stranger. This ability indicates early brain processing and recognition of familiar
sounds.
 Ethical concerns arise when studying newborn brain activity. Electrodes used in
research may pose risks because the infant’s brain is extremely tender, and some
techniques could be potentially harmful or carcinogenic.
 Various neuroimaging techniques like MRI, PET scans, and EEGs are used to study
infant brain activity. Research using 128 electrodes has shown that infants experience
REM sleep and may have an understanding of their environment while sleeping, as
seen when they smile during sleep.
 At birth, an infant's brain weighs about 25% of an adult brain’s weight. By the second
birthday, it reaches approximately 75% of its adult weight.

 Brain mapping involves understanding the structure and function of different brain
regions. The brain is divided into two hemispheres and several lobes, each responsible
for specific functions.
 The frontal lobe is the seat of thinking, voluntary movement, and personality.
 The occipital lobe is responsible for vision.
 The temporal lobe plays a role in hearing, language processing, and memory.
 The parietal lobe is involved in registering spatial location, attention, and motor
control.
 The left hemisphere is primarily associated with speech and grammar.
 The right hemisphere is linked to humor and the use of metaphors.
 The concept of lateralization has been debated by scientists, with some claiming
there is no strict division of functions between the hemispheres.
 Studies show that newborns have greater electrical brain activity in the left
hemisphere than the right, as they are actively listening to sounds, including their
mother’s voice.
 Myelination is the process where axons are coated with a fatty substance called
myelin, acting as insulation to speed up impulse transmission.
 Blooming(forming more neural connection) and pruning refer to the process of
neural growth and the elimination of unnecessary connections in the brain.
 Myelination in the visual pathway occurs from birth to around 6 months.
 Myelination in the auditory pathway continues until around 4-5 years.
 Early experiences are directly linked to brain development, shaping neural pathways
and influencing cognitive and sensory functions.

NEWBORN CAPABILITIES

 Newborns were once thought to be helpless and poorly equipped to handle life
outside the womb.
 Research now shows that newborns are well-prepared for life from birth.
The most important capabilities are reflexes, functioning senses, a capacity to learn, and
organized, individualized patterns of waking and sleeping

REFLEXES

Reflexes are unlearned, involuntary responses to stimuli. Reflexes are complex patterns of
behavior that help infants interact with their world.

Example: The eye automatically blinks in response to a puff of air.

Types of Reflexes

Survival Reflexes (Have clear adaptive value)

 Breathing Reflex – Helps infants breathe immediately after birth.

 Eye-Blink Reflex – Protects against bright lights and foreign particles.
 Sucking Reflex – Essential for feeding and survival.

Primitive Reflexes (Do not have a clear function but may be evolutionary remnants)

 Babinski Reflex – When the bottom of the foot is stroked, the baby fans out its toes.
Purpose unknown.
 Grasping Reflex – Infants grip tightly when their palm is touched. It may have helped
babies cling to their mothers in earlier human evolution.
 Stepping Reflex – Infants make stepping movements when their feet touch a surface,
possibly a precursor to walking.
 Other Primitive Reflexes – Some are believed to have adaptive value in certain
cultures (e.g., grasping in infants carried in slings).

Development and Disappearance of Reflexes

 Primitive reflexes disappear as the brain matures.

 Grasping Reflex weakens by 4 months and is replaced by voluntary grasping.
 Reflexes are initially controlled by the lower subcortical areas of the brain.
 As the cerebral cortex develops, voluntary motor behaviors replace primitive reflexes.

Importance of Reflexes in Diagnosing Neurological Health

 Reflexes are crucial indicators of an infant’s nervous system health.

 If reflexes are absent at birth or persist too long, it may indicate neurological
problems.
 Their presence at birth shows infants are ready to respond to stimulation.
 Their disappearance at the right time shows normal brain development.

SLEEP

 Newborns sleep around 18 hours a day, but sleep duration varies between 10 to 21
hours. Sleeping whole day, waking to eat and other needs. It is considered normal.
Sleep is the indication of health.
 Duration of sleep will be 90% of a day
  Night waking is very normal

Changes in Sleep Patterns:

 Infants initially sleep in multiple short periods throughout the day.

 By 1 month, many begin to sleep longer at night.
 By 6 months, their sleep patterns become more adult-like (longer night sleep, more
awake time during the day).

Night Waking:

 20–30% of infants experience difficulty sleeping through the night.

 Linked to excessive parental involvement in sleep routines.
 Influenced by intrinsic factors (crying, fussiness) and extrinsic factors (separation
distress, breastfeeding, co-sleeping).

Cultural Differences in Infant Sleep:

 In Kenya (Kipsigis culture), infants sleep with mothers at night and are carried during
the day.
 Kipsigis infants do not sleep through the night until much later than American infants,
who often sleep 8 hours by 8 months.

REM Sleep in Infants:

 REM sleep -having our consciousness, aware roughly 1 hour gap between both.
 REM sleep involves eye fluttering, while non-REM sleep is quiet.
 Adults spend only 20% of sleep in REM, which begins an hour after non-REM sleep.
 Infants spend about 50% of their sleep in REM and often start sleep cycles with REM.
 By 3 months, REM sleep drops to 40%, and it no longer starts their sleep cycle.
 Researchers believe REM sleep in infants may provide self-stimulation and promote
brain development.

Dreaming in Infants:

 Adults often report dreams when awakened from REM sleep.

 Since infants cannot describe dreams, it is unknown if they dream or not.

Shared Sleeping (Co-Sleeping):

 Sleeping arrangements vary across cultures.

 Guatemala & China: Co-sleeping is common.
 U.S. & Great Britain: Infants sleep in cribs, either in the same or separate rooms.
 In some cultures, infants co-sleep until weaned and later sleep with siblings.

Debate on Shared Sleeping:

 Pros:
o Encourages breastfeeding.
o Helps parents respond quickly to baby’s needs.
 o Allows mothers to detect breathing issues.
 Cons:
o Increases risk of SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome).
o Higher risk when parents smoke, drink alcohol, or are overly tired.
o The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) discourages bed-sharing.
o Studies show African American mothers co-sleep more than non-Latino White
mothers.

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)

 SIDS is when an infant stops breathing and dies suddenly during sleep, with no
apparent cause.
 It is the leading cause of infant death in the U.S., with nearly 3,000 deaths annually.
 Highest risk: Between 2 to 4 months of age.

Preventive Measures:

 Back Sleeping: Since 1992, the AAP recommends placing infants on their backs to
sleep.
 Studies confirm SIDS decreases when babies sleep on their backs instead of stomachs
or sides.
 Why prone sleeping is risky?
o It impairs arousal from sleep.
o It restricts swallowing ability.
 At 3 months, 26% of U.S. mothers do not follow this recommendation.

Risk Factors for SIDS:

 Not using a pacifier during sleep.

 Low birth weight (5–10 times higher risk).
 Siblings with SIDS history (2–4 times higher risk).
 Sleep apnea (6% of infants with sleep apnea die from SIDS).
 Ethnic background:
o African American & Eskimo infants are 4–6 times more likely to die from
SIDS.
 Lower socioeconomic status.
 Passive exposure to cigarette smoke.
 Soft bedding increases risk.
 Sleeping with a fan lowers risk by 70%.
 Abnormal brain stem function (related to serotonin).

NUTRITION

 Infants triple their weight and grow 50% longer in the first year.
 Nutrient needs vary based on growth rates, body composition, and activity levels.
 Nutritionists recommend 50 calories per pound per day, which is more than twice an
adult’s requirement.
Developmental Changes in Eating
  Infants transition from suck-and-swallow to chew-and-swallow as they grow.
 By one year, they:
o Can sit independently.
o Can chew and swallow various textures.
o Start self-feeding and adapting to family diets.
 Caregivers play a crucial role in shaping eating habits.
Poor Dietary Habits & Obesity Risks
 Many U.S. infants lack fruits and vegetables but eat too much junk food.
o 1/3 of babies (4–24 months) eat no fruits or vegetables.
o French fries are the most common vegetable for 15-month-olds.
o Almost half (7–8 months old) consume desserts and sweetened drinks.
 Overweight infants are increasing:
o In 1980: 3.4% of infants (<6 months) were overweight.
o In 2001: 5.9% were overweight, and 11% were at risk.
 Risk Factors for Infant Obesity:
o Maternal weight before/during pregnancy.
o Formula feeding (breastfed infants gain weight slower).
o Breastfeeding reduces obesity risk by 20%.

Breastfeeding VS Bottle feeding

Mothers can avoid breast feeding if mother having severe conditions like HIV,Jaundice and if
the child doesn’t have the ability to have.
Minimum 2 years -breast feeding is important
1. Optimal Nutrition
o Provides the perfect balance of nutrients and antibodies tailored to the baby’s
needs.
2. Stronger Immune System
o Contains antibodies that help protect infants from infections, reducing the risk
of ear infections, diarrhea, and respiratory illnesses.
3. Lower Risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
o Studies show that breastfed infants have a lower risk of SIDS compared to
formula-fed babies.
4. Better Digestive Health
o Breast milk is easier to digest than formula, reducing the likelihood of
constipation and stomach issues.
5. Reduced Risk of Obesity
o Breastfeeding is associated with a 20% lower risk of obesity in childhood (Li
et al., 2007).
 6. Cognitive Development
o Some research suggests higher IQ scores in breastfed babies due to essential
fatty acids in breast milk.
7. Emotional Bonding
o Skin-to-skin contact during breastfeeding enhances mother-infant bonding and
emotional security.
8. Health Benefits for Mothers
o Reduces the risk of breast and ovarian cancer.
o Helps mothers return to pre-pregnancy weight faster.
o May lower the risk of postpartum depression.

MALNUTRITION IN INFANCY
Causes of Malnutrition
 Early weaning from breast milk to inadequate alternatives (e.g., unsanitary cow’s milk
or tapioca/rice substitutes).
 Shift from breastfeeding to bottle-feeding in developing countries led to a 5x higher
mortality rate in bottle-fed infants (Afghanistan, Haiti, Ghana, Chile).
 HIV-positive mothers face challenges in breastfeeding due to potential virus
transmission.
Severe Malnutrition Conditions
1. Marasmus (Severe protein-calorie deficiency):
o Occurs in first year of life.
o Symptoms: Extreme thinness, muscle atrophy, weakness.
2. Kwashiorkor (Severe protein deficiency):
o Occurs between 1–3 years.
o Symptoms: Swollen abdomen/feet (fluid retention), brittle/discolored hair,
lethargy.
Long-Term Effects of Malnutrition
 Physical, cognitive, and social delays
 Cognitive impact:
o Indian study: Malnourished children scored lower on attention and memory
tests
 o Bangladesh study: Combining nutrition with psychosocial interventions (play
sessions, home visits) improved cognitive development
 Social impact:
o Guatemala study: Infants who received nutritional supplements were more
active, social, and happy in elementary school.
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
The Dynamic Systems Theory, proposed by Esther Thelen, explains how infants develop
motor skills through active exploration and adaptation rather than following a fixed genetic
program.
Motor Skills Develop Through Interaction: Infants actively assemble motor skills by
interacting with their environment.
Multiple Factors Influence Development- Motor skill development is influenced by:
Maturation of the nervous system (brain-body coordination), Physical properties of the body
(muscle strength, balance), Motivation (wanting to reach a toy or caregiver),Environmental
support (having space or encouragement to move)
Unlike Gesell’s view, which suggested a fixed sequence, Thelen’s theory argues that motor
development is flexible and adaptive based on an infant’s experiences and challenges.
Trial and Error Learning :Infants experiment with movements, refining them through
practice.
Example: A baby trying to walk may first stumble, then adjust balance through repeated
attempts.
GROSS MOTOR SKILLS
Gross Motor Skills: These involve large muscle activities like crawling, walking, and
moving arms. Parents often celebrate these milestones.
Development of Posture:
 Posture is essential for motor development and involves sensory input from the skin,
joints, muscles, and inner ear.
 Newborns have little control but gradually develop head and body control within the
first year.
 By 6-7 months, babies sit independently, and by 10-12 months, they can stand alone.
Learning to Walk:
 Walking requires balance and shifting weight between legs.
 Infants show stepping reflexes early, but walking fully develops around their first
birthday.
 Practice and experience help infants understand safe locomotion, like avoiding steep
slopes.
Importance of Experience:
 Infants learn through practice and environmental interaction.
 Walking improves with thousands of daily steps, strengthening balance and
coordination.
 Motor development varies; not all babies follow the same sequence (e.g., some skip
crawling).
Development in the Second Year:
 Toddlers gain more independence, mobility, and social interaction.
 Even though infants can make stepping movements early on, walking requires
balancing on one leg, shifting weight, and maintaining stability. These are complex
biomechanical tasks that take about a year to master.
 Steps and Balance – Infants initially take small steps due to limited strength and
balance. Occasionally, they take larger steps, which indicate growing strength and
control.
 Understanding Safe Surfaces – As they learn to move, infants develop an
understanding of safe and risky surfaces. Experienced walkers are better at judging
steep slopes and avoiding falls, unlike new crawlers and walkers who tend to
misjudge and fall.
 Practice is Crucial – Babies take thousands of daily steps, each slightly different due
to changing surfaces and physical constraints. This continuous practice helps them
refine their balance and walking skills.
 Variations in Motor Development – The timing of walking and other motor
milestones varies among infants. Some skip crawling altogether or develop unique
movement styles before walking. Cultural and environmental factors can influence
these variations.
 Caregivers Play a Role – Motor development is not just about biological maturation;
infants acquire skills through interactions with their caregivers and surroundings.

FINE MOTOR SKILLS

 Fine motor skills involve small, precise movements, like grasping a toy, using a
spoon, or buttoning a shirt. These require finger dexterity.
Reaching and Grasping
 At first, infants move their shoulders and elbows crudely when reaching.
 Later, they refine movements using their wrists, rotating hands, and coordinating their
thumb and forefinger.
 By four months, infants rely on cues from muscles and joints rather than sight to
guide reaching.
Types of Grasps
 Palmer grasp (using the whole hand) develops first.
 Pincer grip (using the thumb and forefinger) emerges near the end of the first year.
 Infants adjust their grip based on object size, shape, and texture.
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
Sensation – The process of detecting and receiving information through sensory receptors
(eyes, ears, skin, tongue, nose). Examples include: Hearing, Vision ,Touch
Perception – The brain’s interpretation of sensory information. For example:
 Sound waves can be perceived as noise or music.
 Light waves can be interpreted as colors, patterns, or shapes.
Importance of Sensation & Perception –
 Infants and children use their senses to understand the world.
 Without sensory input, we would live in a world without color, sound, taste, or touch.