2.

YIELD LINE ANALYSIS OF SLABS

Introduction
The limit state of collapse method of design of beams and slabs considers the actual inelastic
behavior of slabs when subjected to the factored loads. Accordingly, it is desirable that the
structural analysis of beams and slabs should be done taking the inelastic behavior into account.
There are sufficient justifications for adopting the inelastic analysis for slabs as evident from
the following limitations of the elastic analysis of slabs;

i. Slab panels should be square or rectangular

ii. One-way slab panels must be supported along two opposite sides only; the other two
edges remain unsupported
iii. Two-way slab panels must be supported along two pairs of opposite sides, supports
remaining unyielding
iv. Applied loads must be uniformly distributed
v. Slab panels must not have large opening

Therefore, for slabs of triangular, circular and other plan forms, for loads other than uniformly
distributed, for support conditions other than those specified above and for slabs with large
openings, the collapse limit state analysis has been found to be a powerful and versatile method.

Inelastic or limit analysis is similar to the plastic analysis of continuous steel beams which is
based on formation of plastic hinges to form a mechanism of collapse. One important advantage
of the reinforced concrete slabs over the reinforced concrete beams and frames is that the slabs
are mostly under-reinforced. This gives a large rotation capacity of slabs, which may be taken
as the presence of sufficient ductility.

Basics of yield line theory

The yield line theory is an ultimate or factored load method of analysis based on bending
moment on the verge of collapse. At collapse loads, the slab begins to crack as they are mostly
under-reinforced, with the yielding of reinforcement at points of high bending moment. With
the propagation of cracks the yield lines are developed gradually. Finally, a mechanism is
formed when the slab collapses due to uncontrolled rotation of members. Yield lines therefore,
are lines of maximum yielding moments of the reinforcement of slab. The essence is to find
out the location of the appropriate yield lines.

Yield line analysis is an analysis approach for determining the ultimate load capacity of
reinforced concrete slabs. It is closely related to the plastic collapse or limit analysis of steel
frames, and is an upper bound or mechanism approach. It is only applicable to ductile (under-
reinforced) slabs since we assume that the following simplified approach in stress-strain
diagram:

 A yield line occurs when the moment capacity of the section has been reached
 No additional moment can be taken at the section

1
  The section can undergo any amount of rotation

Yield line design leads to slabs that are quick and easy to design, and are quick and easy to
construct. There is no need to resort to computer for analysis or design. The resulting slabs are
thin and have very low amounts of reinforcement in very regular arrangements. The
reinforcement is therefore easy to detail and easy to fix and the slabs are very quick to construct.
Above all yield line design generates very economic concrete slabs, because it considers
features ate the ultimate limit state.

Figure: Deflected shape at collapse

Assumptions
The following are the assumptions of the yield line analysis of reinforced concrete slabs

i. The steel reinforcement is fully yielded along the yield lines at collapse. Rotation
following yield is at constant moment
ii. The slab deforms plastically at collapse and is separated into segments by the yield
lines. The individual segments of the slab behave elastically.
iii. The elastic deformations are neglected and plastic deformations are only considered.
The entire deformations, therefore, take place only along the yield lines. The individual
segments of the slab remain plane even in the collapse condition
iv. The bending and twisting moments are uniformly distributed along the yield lines.
v. The yield lines are straight lines as they are the lines of intersection between two planes.

Rules for yield lines

The first requirement of the yield line analysis is to assume possible yield patterns and locate
the axes of rotation. It has been observed that assuming the possible patterns and locating the
axes of rotation are simple to establish for statically determinate or indeterminate (simply
supported or clamped) one-way slabs. For other cases, however, suitable guidelines are needed
for drawing the yield lines and locating the axes of rotation. The following are the guidelines
for predicting the yield lines and axes of rotation;

i. Yield lines between two intersecting planes are straight lines

ii. Positive yield line will be at the mid-span of one way simply supported slabs
iii. Negative yield lines will occur at the supports in addition to the positive yield lines at
the mid-span of one-way continuous slabs

2
 iv. Yield lines will occur under point loads and they will be radiating outward from the
point of application of the point loads
v. Yield lines between the slab segments should pass through the point of intersection of
the axes of rotation of the adjacent slab segments
vi. Yield lines should end at the boundary of the slab or at another yield line
vii. Yield lines represent the axes of rotation
viii. Supported edges of the slab will also act as axes of rotation. However, the fixed supports
provide constant resistance to rotation having negative yield lines at the supported
edges
ix. Axis of rotation will pass over any column support, if provided, whose orientation will
depend on other considerations

A yield line pattern is derived mainly from the position of the axes of rotation (i.e. the lines of
support) and by ensuring that the yield line themselves are straight, go through the intersection
of axes of rotation and end at the slab boundary. The aim of investigating yield line pattern is
to find the one pattern that gives the critical moment (the highest moment or the least load
capacity). All deformations are assumed to take place in the yield lines and the fractured slab
at collapse consists of rigid portions held together by the reinforcement. Some yield line
patterns are shown in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5: Typical yield pattern

Methods of analysis
After predicting the general yield pattern and locating the axes of rotation, the specific pattern
and location of axes of rotation and the collapse load for the slab can be determined by one of
the two methods;

3
 i. Method of segmental equilibrium
ii. Method of virtual work

Method of segmental equilibrium

In this method, equilibrium of the individual slab segments causing the collapse forming the
required mechanism is considered to arrive at a set of simultaneous equations. The solutions of
simultaneous equations give the values of geometrical parameters for finalizing the yield
pattern and the relation between the load capacity and resisting moment.

Thus, in segmental equilibrium method, each segment of the slab is studied as a free body
which is in equilibrium at incipient failure under the action of the applied loads, moment along
the yield lines, and reactions or shear along the support lines. Since yield moments are principal
moments, twisting moments are zero along the yield lines. Thus, with reference to figure 5.5(b),
the vector sum of moments along yield lines AO and OB (segment AOB) is equal to moments
of the loads on the segment AOB about the axis of rotation 1-1 just before collapse. The
governing equilibrium equation for a small slab element of lengths dx and dy is

𝜕 𝑀 𝜕 𝑀𝑥𝑦 𝜕 𝑀𝑦
+2 + = −𝑤 … … … 2.2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

Where w is the external load per unit area; Mx and My are the bending moments per unit width
in x and y directions, respectively; and Mxy is the twisting moment.

As shown in figure below, each segment is studied as a free body. Each segment is under
equilibrium under the action of moment, loads along the yield line. The reactions and shear
will be along the supports. The twisting moments along the yield lines will be zero.

Considering segments AOB, about the axis of rotation 1-1; the sum of moments along AO and
OB equals moments due to the loads on the segment AOB.

Method of virtual work

4
This method is based on the principle of virtual work. The principle of virtual work states that
if a structure is in equilibrium under the action of a set of external forces and is subjected to a
set of displacements compatible with the constraints of the structure, the total work done by
the external and internal forces during the displacements must be zero. After predicting the
possible yield line pattern and the axes of rotation, the slab, which is in equilibrium with the
moments and loads on the structure, is given an infinitesimal increase in load to cause the
structure further deflection. The principle of virtual work method is that the external work done
by the loads to cause a small virtual deflection should be equal to the internal work done by the
yield moments to cause the rotation in accommodating the virtual deflection. The relation
between the applied loads and the ultimate resisting moments of the slab is obtained by
equating the internal and external works. As the elastic deflections and rotations are small
compared to the plastic deformations and rotations, they are neglected in the governing
equation. The work equation is written as follows;

𝑤∆= 𝑀𝜃𝑙 … … … … 2.3

Where w – collapse load

Δ – vertical deflection through which the collapse load w moves
M – Moment capacity of the section per unit length
θ – rotation of the slab segment satisfying the compatibility of deflection
L – length of the yield line

Both the methods of segmental equilibrium and virtual work are upper bound methods.
Therefore, the collapse load obtained by either method of yield line analysis will be at the
higher end of the true collapse load. The solution of both methods has two essential parts;
predicting the correct yield pattern, and determining the geometric parameters that define the
exact location and orientation of the yield pattern and solving for the relation between applied
load and resisting moments.

Consider the two-way simply supported slab shown in figure below. The slab has failed due to
a uniformly distributed load. Note that:

 Triangular regions A, B, C and D have all rotated about their lines of support
 The loads on the regions have moved vertically and rotation has taken place about the
yield lines and supports
 The uniformly distributed load on each of these regions will have moved on average
1/3 of the maximum deflection.

5
Analysis of one-way slab
Figure 2.6(a) and (b) show one-way continuous slab whose one meter span is considered. The
factored moments of resistance are MA and MB at the continuous supports A and B where
negative yield lines have formed and MC at C where the positive yield line has formed. Figure
2.6(c) shows the free body diagrams of the two segments of slab, which are in equilibrium.

Method of segmental equilibrium: the line C-C, where the positive yield line has formed is a
distance of x from AA. The shear V = 0 at C as the bending moment is the maximum (positive)
there. There are two unknowns x, the location of the positive yield line and w, the collapse load,
which are determined from the two equations of equilibrium ΣV = 0 and ΣM = 0.

6
Figure 2.6: One-way continuous slab under uniformly distributed loads

From statistical analysis, the vertical reactions VA and VB at A and B, respectively are,

𝑤𝐿 𝑀 − 𝑀
𝑉 = + … … … … 2.3
2 𝐿
𝑤𝐿 𝑀 − 𝑀
𝑉 = − … … … … 2.4
2 𝐿
When ΣV = 0

𝑉 − 𝑤𝑥 = 0 … … 2.5

Substituting the expression for VA from equation 2.3 in equation 2.5, we have

𝑤𝐿 𝑀 − 𝑀
+ − 𝑤𝑥 = 0
2 𝐿
−2(𝑀 − 𝑀 )
𝑤= … … 2.6
𝐿(𝐿 − 2𝑥)

ΣM = 0, gives

𝑤𝑥
𝑉 𝑥−𝑀 − − 𝑀 = 0 … … 2.7
2

7
Substituting the expression of VA from equation 2.3

𝑤𝐿 𝑀 − 𝑀 𝑤𝑥
+ 𝑥−𝑀 − − 𝑀 = 0 … … 2.8
2 𝐿 2
Substituting the expression of w from equation 2.6

(𝑀 − 𝑀 )𝑥 + 2(𝑀 + 𝑀 )𝐿𝑥 − (𝑀 + 𝑀 )𝐿 = 0 … … 2.9

Method of virtual work: the work equation (equation 2.3) relates the total work done by the
collapse loads during the rotation of slab segments, maintaining the deflection compatibility to
the total internal work done by bending and twisting moments on all the yield lines. Figure
2.6(d) presents the rigid body rotations of the two slab segments. The left segment AACC
rotates by θA in the clockwise direction and the right segment BBCC rotates by θB in the
anticlockwise direction, while maintaining the deflection Δ compatible

∆ ∆ 𝑤𝐿∆
𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑤𝑥 + 𝑤(𝐿 − 𝑥) = … … 2.10
2 2 2
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = +𝑀 𝜃 + 𝑀 𝜃 + 𝑀 (𝜃 + 𝜃 ) … … 2.11

From figure 2.6(d)

∆ ∆
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = … … 2.12
𝑥 𝐿−𝑥
Substituting the values of θA and θB from equation 2.12 into equation 2.11

∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑀 +𝑀 +𝑀 + … 2.13
𝑥 𝐿−𝑥 𝑥 𝐿−𝑥
Equating the works

𝑤𝐿∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
=𝑀 +𝑀 +𝑀 +
2 𝑥 𝐿−𝑥 𝑥 𝐿−𝑥
2𝑀 2𝑀 2𝑀
𝑤= + + … … 2.14
𝐿𝑥 𝐿(𝐿 − 𝑥) 𝑥(𝐿 − 𝑥)

In the method of segmental equilibrium, we have two equations for the two unknowns x and
w. In the method of virtual work, however, we have only one equation to determine the
unknowns. The other equation by be obtained by differential calculus since the method of
analysis is upper bound. This can be obtained by differentiating w of equation 2.14 with respect
to x and putting dw/dx = 0.

𝑑𝑤 2𝑀 −1 2𝑀 1 1 −1 1 1
= + + 2𝑀 +
𝑑𝑥 𝐿 𝑥 𝐿 (𝐿 − 𝑥) 𝐿−𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 (𝐿 − 𝑥)
= 0. .2.15

Arranging the coefficients and constant terms

8
 (𝑀 − 𝑀 )𝑥 + 2(𝑀 + 𝑀 )𝐿𝑥 − (𝑀 + 𝑀 )𝐿 = 0

Moment of resistance along a yield line

Figure 2.7(a) shows a portion of a slab reinforced in two directions at right angles; the ultimate
moments of resistance of the reinforcement are m1 per unit width of slab and m2 per unit width
of slab. Suppose the yield line occurs at an angle α to the reinforcement m2, and a triangular
element formed by a length a of the yield line and reinforcement, then the moment of
equilibrium of the element in the direction mα, will be;

𝑚 𝑎 = 𝑚 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼) + 𝑚 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼)

𝑚 = 𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 … … … 2.16

From the moment equilibrium of the element in the direction of mt

𝑚 𝑎 = 𝑚 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼) − 𝑚 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼)

So that

(𝑚 − 𝑚 )
𝑚 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼 … … … 2.17
2
For an isotropic slab (one in which the reinforcements in the two directions at right angles are
equal), m1 = m2 = m, say, so that

𝑚 = 𝑚, 𝑚 = 0

That is, the moment of resistance is the same in all directions and the twisting moment is
zero. Such a slab with equal reinforcement in both directions is termed an isotropic slab.

Figure 2.7: Determination of the ultimate moment along a yield line

Internal virtual Work due to an ultimate moment

Figure 2.8 shows part of a slab and its axis of rotation. The slab has a yield line inclined at an
angle α to the axis of rotation, and the ultimate moment is m per unit length along the yield

9
line. Suppose the slab is given a small virtual rotation θ, the virtual work done by the ultimate
moment is then given by;

𝑉𝑊(𝑚) = (𝑚𝐿)(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼)𝜃 = 𝑚(𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼)𝜃 … … … 2.18

Figure 2.8: Determination of work done by an ultimate moment

Therefore, from equation 2.18 we see that, the internal virtual work done by an ultimate
moment along a yield line is the value of the moment multiplied by the angle of rotation of the
slab and the projection of the yield line on the axis of rotation.

It is simpler to give a point on a yield line a unit virtual displacement, so, from figure 2.8, the
point A is given a unit virtual displacement then

1
𝜃=
𝑏
where, b is the perpendicular distance of A from the axis of rotation.

10
Example 2.1

Figure 2.9 shows a rectangular slab supported on two edges A and B, the other two edges being
free. The reinforcement and slab thickness is such that mA = -100,000 Nm/m width, mB = -
120,000 Nm/m and for positive moment mC = +80,000 Nm/m. By yield line method, calculate
the ultimate uniform load the slab can carry if the span is 6 m.

11
Figure 2.9: For example 2.1

Solution

By virtual work principle: a unit deflection is given to the slab at C. then the external work
done by the load is the sum of the load times their displacement,
𝑤𝑥 𝑤
+ (6 − 𝑥)
2 2
The rotations at the hinges are calculated in terms of the unit deflection,

1 1
𝜃 =𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝜃 = 𝜃 =
𝑥 6−𝑥
The internal work is the sum of the moments times their rotation angles,

1 1 1 1
100000 + 80000 + 80000 + 120000
𝑥 𝑥 6−𝑥 6−𝑥
Equating the external and internal work,

𝑤𝑥 𝑤𝑥 180000 200000
+ 3𝑤 − = +
2 2 𝑥 6−𝑥
60000 200000
𝑤= +
𝑥 3(6 − 𝑥)

To determine the minimum value of w, this expression is differentiated with respect to x and
set equal to zero

12
 𝑑𝑤 60000 200000
=− + =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 3(6 − 𝑥)

From which, x = 2.921 m

Substituting this value in the expression for w, we have 42193 N/m2

Example 2.3

The factored moment capacities of the one-way continuous reinforced concrete slab of figure
2.11 are MA = 32 kNm, MB = 36 kNm and MC = 30 kNm. The span of the slab is 5 m. Determine
the location of plastic hinges and the collapse load employing the method of segmental
equilibrium.

Figure 2.11: For example 2.3

Solution

(𝑀 − 𝑀 )𝑥 + 2(𝑀 + 𝑀 )𝐿𝑥 − (𝑀 + 𝑀 )𝐿 = 0

Using the given values of MA = 32kNm, MB = 36kNm and MC = 30kNm.

4𝑥 + 2(62)(5)𝑥 − 62𝑥25 = 0

𝑥 + 155𝑥 − 387.5 = 0

𝑥 = 2.4609𝑚

−2(𝑀 − 𝑀 )
𝑤=
𝐿(𝐿 − 2𝑥)

𝑤 = 20.4604𝑘𝑁𝑚

Example 2.4

13
One of the spans of a continuous one-way slab has been so reinforced that the ultimate moment
capacities at the left end, right end, and in the span are 1400, 1200 and 900 kg.m/m respectively.
The center to center distance of supports is 3 m and the slab is uniformly loaded. Locate the
yield line and compute the collapse load.

Solution

Let the positive yield line form at a distance x from the left support. Using the mechanism
method,

𝑊 = 𝑀 𝜃 + 𝑀 𝜃 + 𝑀 (𝜃 + 𝜃 )

𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
=𝑀 +𝑀 +𝑀 −
𝑥 𝐵(1 − 𝑥) 𝑥 𝑙−𝑥

𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
= 1400 + 1200 + 900 +
𝑥 (3 − 𝑥) 𝑥 3−𝑥

2300 2100
=𝛿 +
𝑥 (3 − 𝑥)

𝛿 𝛿 𝑤𝑥 3−𝑥
𝑊 = 𝑤𝑥 + 𝑤(𝑙 − 𝑥) = 𝛿 +𝑤
2 2 2 2

By the virtual work method, 𝑊 = 𝑊 and hence

2300 2100 𝑤𝑥 3−𝑥

=𝛿 + =𝛿 +𝑤
𝑥 (3 − 𝑥) 2 2

3𝑤 2300 2100
= +
2 𝑥 (3 − 𝑥)

2 2300 2100
𝑤= +
3 𝑥 (3 − 𝑥)

Since the yield line theory is upper bound, to find the minimum of w is by taking the
derivative of the right hand side and equating to zero.

𝑑𝑤 2 2300 1
= − − 2100(−1) =0
𝑑𝑥 3 𝑥 (3 − 𝑥)

2300 2100
=
𝑥 (3 − 𝑥)

2300(3 − 𝑥) = 2100𝑥

2300(9 − 6𝑥 + 𝑥 ) = 2100𝑥

200𝑥 − 12800𝑥 + 20700 = 0

14
Solving 𝑥 = 1.534 𝑚

Hence the collapse load

2 2300 2100
𝑤= + = 1954.5 𝑘𝑔𝑚
3 1.534 1.466

15