Modern Physics: Galilean relativity, Lorentz transformation, Postulates of special theory of

relativity, Length contraction, Time dilation, Mass-energy relation, Photoelectric effect, Compton
effect, De Broglie’s Hypothesis, Wave Function, Schrodinger equation, Superposition of states.
Galilean relativity
The equation of classical physics, which establishes or expresses relation between time and co-
ordinates moving with constant speed with respect to one another are called Galilean
transformation. This is also called Newtonian transformation.
Postulates of special theory of relativity
The special theory of relativity is based on two postulates:
First Postulate: This postulate is called the principle of relativity. It states that the laws of
physics are expressed in same form in all inertial frame of references.
This means that the basic laws of physics such as F = ma has the same mathematical form for all
observers moving at constant speed with respect to each other.

Suppose S' is moving along X-axis with a constant speed 𝒗 with respect to frame S. In frame S the
Newton's second law of motion is in the form ⃗𝑭 = 𝑚 𝑎. In the frame S' this law is expressed as
⃗𝑭 = 𝑚 𝑎.

According to first postulates the laws of physics are absolute, universal and similar to all observers.
If these laws are valid to the observer of an inertial frame of reference it will be valid to an observer
in another inertial frame of reference.

Second Postulate: The second postulate is called the principle of constant velocity of light. It
states that-
In free space the speed of light is the same in all inertial frame of references.
This means that speed of light is independent of the motion of the observer or the source of light
i.e. the speed of light is the same for all observer irrespective of their frame of reference.

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Lorentz transformation
Let us consider two inertial frames S and S' (fig. 15.5). S' is moving with respect to S with
constant velocity v.

Here our initial condition is that when t = 0 the origin of S and S' coincides then the value 𝐭
will be zero i.e. t' = 0. Suppose when t = t' = 0 an event occurred and the observers of both
the frames measure the speed of light. According to second postulate both of will determine
the same speed c. That is, in S frame 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑡 and in S' frame 𝑥 ′ = 𝑐𝑡 ′ . We get the relation
between time and coordinate of S frame with time and coordinates of S',
𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡
𝑥′ =
2
√1 − 𝑣2
𝑐
𝑦′ = 𝑦
𝑧′ = 𝑧
𝑣𝑥
𝑡−
𝑡′ = 𝑐2
2
√1 − 𝑣2
𝑐
These equations are known as Lorentz transformation.

𝑥 ′ − 𝑣𝑡 ′
𝑥=
2
√1 − 𝑣2
𝑐
𝑦 = 𝑦′
𝑧 = 𝑧′
𝑣𝑥 ′
𝑡′ +
𝑡= 𝑐2
2
√1 − 𝑣2
𝑐

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These equations are known as inverse Lorentz transformation.
Length contraction
The length of an object in motion with respect to an observer appears to be shorter than
when it is at rest with respect to him, this phenomenon is known as length contraction or
Lorentz-Fitz Gerald contraction.

If the length of an object in motion with respect to the observer is 𝐿. and its length is 𝐿0 , when it
is at rest with respect to that observer, the L will always be shorter than 𝐿0 . That is the length of an
object in motion will always be shorter than the length of that object at rest. The length 𝐿0 is called
proper length.
The equation for length contraction is

𝑣2
𝐿 = 𝐿0 √1 −
𝑐2

Here,
Here 𝐿 = the length of the object when it is in motion with respect to the observer
𝐿0 = the length of the object when it is at rest with respect to the observer
𝑣 = relative velocity with respect to the observer
𝑐 = velocity of lights

𝑣2
√1 − is always less than 1, therefore, 𝐿 is always shorter than 𝐿0
𝑐2

Let consider a stick lying along X-axis in a frame S (fig. 3). An observer in this frame determines
its coordinate as 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 . Therefore, the length of the stick at rest is us
𝐿0 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 … … … … … … … … … … … . . (1)
An observer from a frame 𝑆 ′ moving with velocity 𝑣 with respect to the stick determines its
length

𝐿 = 𝑥2 ′ − 𝑥1 ′ … … … … … … … … … … … . . (2)

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Now we shall find out the relation between 𝐿 and 𝐿0 .
From the inverse Lorentz transformation, we get the relation of 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 with 𝑥1 ′ and 𝑥2 ′
𝑥 ′ 1 −𝑣𝑡 ′ 𝑥 ′ 2 −𝑣𝑡 ′
𝑥1 = 2
and 𝑥2 = 2
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐

We know from the equation (1) that,

𝐿0 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑥 ′ 2 − 𝑣𝑡 ′ 𝑥 ′1 − 𝑣𝑡 ′
𝐿0 = −
2 2
√1 − 𝑣2 √1 − 𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝐿0 =
2
√1 − 𝑣2
𝑐
𝐿
𝐿0 =
2
√1 − 𝑣2
𝑐
𝑣2
𝐿 = 𝐿0 √1 − 𝑐 2 ……………………… (3)

Therefore, the length of a stick at motion will be shorter than the length at rest.
Time Dilation
Definition: The time interval between the occurrence of two events which are in motion with
respect to an observer will be longer than the time interval of occurrence of the same two events
which are at rest with respect to the observer. This is called time dilation.
Let us consider a clock at a point 𝑥 , at a moving frame 𝑠 , . An observer in 𝑠 , frame determine certain
time as 𝑡1,
And an observer in frame 𝑠 determine this as 𝑡1 . After some time, the observer in the 𝑠 , frame
measure the time as 𝑡2, and the observer 𝑠 frame measure it 𝑡2 . According to the clock of the
observer in the moving frame the time interval will be,
𝑡0 = 𝑡2, − 𝑡1, … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (1)
But the observer in the frame 𝑠 will determine this time interval as 𝑡 where 𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
We know from the inverse Lorentz transformation that

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 𝑣𝑥 ′
𝑡1′ +
𝑡1 = 𝑐2
2
√1 − 𝑣2
𝑐
And
𝑣𝑥 ′
𝑡2′ +
𝑡2 = 𝑐2
2
√1 − 𝑣2
𝑐
Now we shall find out the relation between 𝑡0 and 𝑡. We know that

𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
𝑣𝑥 ′ 𝑣𝑥 ′
𝑡2′ + 𝑡 ′
+
𝑡= 𝑐2 − 1 𝑐2
2 2
√1 − 𝑣2 √1 − 𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐

𝑣𝑥 ′ 𝑣𝑥 ′
𝑡2′ + − 𝑡1
′
−
𝑡= 𝑐2 𝑐2
2
√1 − 𝑣2
𝑐

𝑡2′ − 𝑡1′
𝑡=
2
√1 − 𝑣2
𝑐
𝑡0
𝑡= 2
……………………….(2)
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

𝑣2
For any moving body √1 − 𝑐 2 is always less than 1 so, 𝑡 is always greater than 𝑡0 . Equation (2) is
the equation which expresses time dilation. The time 𝑡0 is called the proper time.

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Mass-energy relation
Einstein deduced a very important relationship with the help of special theory prof relativity. It is
the relation between mass and energy. This is the relationship of transforming mass into energy.
Mass energy relationship can be written with the following equation
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
Where E = Energy; m = mass of the object and c = speed of light
To deduce the relationship between mass and energy we can start with the definition of kinetic
energy.
Deduction of 𝑬 = 𝒎𝒄𝟐
We know that kinetic energy is the amount of work done to bring an object from rest to its state of
motion.
Let us suppose that force F is applied to an object to bring it to its state of motion and the object
covers a distance 𝒅𝒔 .The kinetic energy is 𝑭𝒅𝒔. If the object covers the total distance 𝒔 then the
total kinetic energy
𝑠
𝑇 = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑠 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (1)
0

We know that

𝑑
𝐹= (𝑚𝑣) … … … … … … … … … … … (2)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑠
And = 𝑣 ∴ 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑣𝑑𝑡 … … … … … … … … … … … (3)
𝑑𝑡

Now if we put the value of F and 𝒅𝒔 we get.

𝑚𝑣
𝑑
𝑇=∫ (𝑚𝑣) 𝑣𝑑𝑡
0 𝑑𝑡
𝑚𝑣
𝑇=∫ 𝑑(𝑚𝑣) 𝑣
0

𝑚𝑣
𝑇=∫ 𝑣𝑑(𝑚𝑣)
0

𝑚𝑣
𝑇=∫ 𝑣(𝑣𝑑𝑚 + 𝑚𝑑𝑣)
0

𝑚𝑣
𝑇=∫ (𝑣 2 𝑑𝑚 + 𝑚𝑣𝑑𝑣) … … … … … … … … . (4)
0

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From the relativity of mass, we know that
𝑚0
𝑚= 2
. By squaring this equation we get,
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

2
𝑚0 2
𝑚 =
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐

𝑣2
(1 − ) 𝑚 2 = 𝑚0 2
𝑐2

𝑚2 𝑐 2 − 𝑚2 𝑣 2 = 𝑚0 2 𝑐 2 … … … … … … … … . (5)

By differentiating this equation, we get

2𝑚𝑐 2 𝑑𝑚 − (2𝑚𝑣 2 𝑑𝑚 + 2𝑣𝑚2 𝑑𝑣) = 0

Dividing the above equation by 2m we get,

𝑐 2 𝑑𝑚 − 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑚 = 𝑚𝑣𝑑𝑣

Putting the value of 𝑚𝑣𝑑𝑣 in equation (4) we get

𝑚
𝑇 = ∫ 𝑐 2 𝑑𝑚 … … … … … … … … . (6)
𝑚0

Here 𝑚0 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

𝑚
𝑇 = 𝑐 2 ∫ 𝑑𝑚
𝑚0

𝑇 = 𝑐 2 [𝑚]𝑚
𝑚0

𝑇 = 𝑐 2 [𝑚 − 𝑚0 ]
𝑇 = 𝑐 2 𝑚 − 𝑚0 𝑐 2
𝑇 + 𝑚0 𝑐 2 = 𝑐 2 𝑚
But total energy 𝑇 + 𝑚0 𝑐 2 = 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 + 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝐸 = 𝑐2𝑚

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Photoelectric effect
When light of suitable and high frequency is incident on metal surface electrons are emitted from
that surface, this phenomenon is known as photoelectric effect. The electrons emitted from the
metal surface are called photoelectrons.
Experimental Description of Photoelectric Effect:
An experiment is discussed below to demonstrate the photoelectric effect. In fig. 1 there are two
metallic plate A and C in a vacuum tube made of quartz. The two plates are connected with a
battery B, resistance R and a milliammeter mA.
To measure the potential difference of the two plates
a voltmeter V connected in the circuit. The plate A is
connected with the negative terminal of the battery.
Now when rays of light fall on the plate A electric
current between A and C starts to flow which can be
measured with the milliammeter. Now if the potential
difference between the two plates is increased the
current will also be increased. For a particular value
of potential difference the current will not increase
further. It will become fixed at a particular value. For
a particular potential difference the maximum value Fig. 1
of the current is called the saturation current.
Now if the plate A is kept at a small positive potential and keeping the plate C at negative potential
if light of fixed frequency is allowed to fall on the plate A then the slow electrons will not reach at
plate C and will come back to plate A. If the potential difference between A and C is gradually
increased the photocurrent will be decreasing and for a particular positive potential at A the
photocurrent will be totally stopped for a particular metal plate this positive potential of A is called
the stopping potential. At this stopping potential even the most energetic electrons come back to
plate A. Now if we increase the intensity of light still no electron can reach the plate C. If we
multiply this potential difference with the charge of electron the maximum kinetic energy of
electron is obtained.
That is 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒𝑉0 … … … … … … … … … … … (1)
1 2
𝑚𝑣𝑚 = 𝑒𝑉0 … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (2)
2
Here, m = mass of the electron
𝑣𝑚 = velocity of the electron
𝑒 = = charge of the electron and
𝑣0 = stopping potential.

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Again, if A is made negative and C positive and keeping the frequency of the light unchanged the
intensity is increased then the value of stopping potential will remain unchanged but photocurrent
will be increased.
Explanation of Photoelectric Effect according to Quantum Theory: Einstein's Equation
The events of photoelectric effect can be explained extensively with the quantum theory. In 1905
Albert Einstein was able to explain satisfactorily photoelectric effect applying quantum theory.
For this he was awarded noble prize. According to quantum theory apparently continuous
electromagnetic wave is the sum of discrete quanta. This quantum is called photon. If the energy
of a photon is E and frequency is 𝑓 then,
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = … … … … … … … … … … . . (3)
𝜆
Here ℎ is the Planck's constant and its value is 6.63×10-34 Js. Planck considered that though light
is emitted in the form of discrete quanta it propagates continuously. But Einstein said that light is
not only emitted as independent particles but it also propagates discretely. So photoelectric effect
according to this theory Einstein proposed the following equation.
ℎ𝑓 = 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 + ℎ𝑓0 … … … … … … … … … … … (4)
Here, ℎ𝑓 = energy of each quantum of incident light
𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = maximum energy of the photoelectron
ℎ𝑓0 = minimum energy required to release electron from metal plate
The above equation is known as the Einstein's equation regarding photoelectric effect.
A minimum amount of energy is required to release an electron from a metal plate otherwise
in the absence of light electrons would have come out from the metal plate. This minimum
energy ℎ𝑓0 is called the work function of a metal plate.
This depends on the nature of the metal plate. Work function is generally expressed in electron
volt unit. So, equation (4) can be written,
quantum of energy = maximum energy of electron + work function of the surface
or,
ℎ𝑓 = 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝜑 … … … … … … … … … … … (5)
Here, 𝜑 = ℎ𝑓0 = work function
Example:
1. Find the frequency and wavelength of a 100 MeV photon.
We know, 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
𝐸
𝑓 = … … … … … … … … … … … … (7)
ℎ

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 Here, Energy, 𝐸 = 100 𝑀𝑒𝑉 = 100 × 106 𝑒𝑉
𝐸 = 100 × 106 × 10−19 𝐽
100 × 106 × 10−19 𝐽
𝑓=
6.63 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠
𝑓 = 2.14 × 1022 𝐻𝑧
Frequency. f =?
Wavelength, λ =?
Velocity of light, 𝑐 = 3.8 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
Planck's constant, h = 6.63 × 10-34 Js
𝑐
𝜆 = … … … … … … … … (8)
𝑓
𝜆 = 1.24 × 10−14 𝑚
2. What is the kinetic energy of photon of wavelength 6650 × 10-10 m
Planck's constant, ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠
Velocity of light, 𝑐 = 3.8 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
Wavelength of photon, λ = 6650 × 10−10 𝑚
Energy of photon, E =?
We know, 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
ℎ𝑐
𝐸= … … … … … … … … … … … … (9)
𝜆
6.63 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠 × 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝐸=
6650 × 10−10 𝑚
𝐸 = 2.99 × 10−19 𝐽
𝐸 = 1.869𝑒𝑉
3. The work-function of platinum is 6.31 eV. What is its threshold frequency? (Planck's
constant ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠 )
Here, Work-function, 𝜑 = 6.31𝑒𝑉 = 6.31 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽
Threshold frequency, 𝑓0 =?

We know,
ℎ𝑓0 = 𝜑
𝜑
𝑓0 =
ℎ
6.31 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽
𝑓0 =
6.63 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠
𝑓0 = 15.24 × 1014 𝐻𝑧
4. The work-function of a metal is 1.85eV and velocity of light is 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠 ). Find the
threshold wavelength of light. Planck's constant, ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠
Wave-function, 𝜑 = 1.85eV = 1.85 × 1.6 × 10 ^ - 19 × J
Velocity of light, c = 3 × 10 ^ 8 × m/ s

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 Threshold wavelength, 𝜆0 = ?
Planck's constant, h = 6.63 × 10 ^ - 34 Js
ℎ𝑐
𝜑 = ℎ𝑓0 =
𝜆0
ℎ𝑐
𝜆0 = = 6719.59 × 10 ^ - 10 × m = 6720 Aº
𝜑

5. Find the final velocity attained by an electron from the state of rest on the application of
potential difference of 10 kV.
Here, Mass of electron, m = 9.1 × 10 ^ - 31 × kg
Charge of electron, c = 1.6 × 10 ^ - 19 × C
Potential difference, 𝑉0 = 10kV = 10 × 10 ^ 3 × V
We know,
1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑉0
2
2𝑒𝑉0
𝑣=√
𝑚
= 5.93 × 10 ^ 7 × m/s

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Compton effect

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De Broglie’s Hypothesis
The concept that matter behaves like a wave was proposed by French physicist de
Broglie in 1924, and so matter waves are also known as de Broglie waves.

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Wave function
The Schrödinger wave function is a fundamental concept in quantum mechanics that
describes the quantum state of a particle or system. It is represented mathematically by
the Schrödinger equation, which provides a way to calculate the wave function, giving
probabilistic information about a particle's position and momentum. The wave function
encapsulates the wave-like behavior of particles, allowing for the prediction of their
behavior under various conditions. Essentially, it serves as a key tool for understanding the
dynamics of quantum systems and their interactions with external factors.

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