EXPERIMENT NO.

AIM: To measure mechanical strain in a cantilever beam using strain gages

and to compare the results with theoretical strain values calculated from an
equation derived from solid mechanics.

APPARATUS: Strain gauge kit, Cantilever beam weights, Multimeter

THEORY: Strain gages are made of thin metal wires whose resistance
changes whenever it is strained. Strain gauges are made into two basic forms,
bonded wire and bonded foil. Wire gauges are sandwiched between two sheets
thin paper and foil gauges are sandwiched between two thin sheets of epoxy.
The strain gauge is connected to the material in which it is required to
measure the strain, with a thin coat of adhesive. Most common adhesive used
is Eastman, Deco Cement, etc. as the test specimens extends or contracts
under stress in the direction of windings, the length and cross sectional area of
the conductor alter, resulting in a corresponding increase or decrease in
electrical resistance.

Figure 6: Strain gauge

As the wire is strained, its length L and its cross-sectional area A changes,
which leads to a change in resistance R given by the formula
𝑳
𝑹= 𝝆
𝑨

We can see that if the wire is stretched, L will increase, A will decrease, and
resistance R will increase. Note that the wires resistivity, ρ, will also change
when the wire is strained, but we will not take that into account here. As we
will see below, if we can measure the change in resistance, say ΔR, then we can
infer the strain and ultimately the stress. If we take the derivative of equation
1 with respect to each variable, we have that (derivation omitted)

𝒅𝑹 𝒅𝑳 𝒅𝝆 𝒅𝑨
= + −
𝑹 𝑳 𝝆 𝑨

From above equation, we can define Gage Factor (GF), as unit change in
resistance for per unit change in length of strain gauge wire given as

∆𝑹/𝑹 ∆𝑹/𝑹
𝑮𝑭 = =
𝜹𝑳/𝑳 ɛ

In this relationship R and L represent, respectively the initial resistance and

initial length of the strain gauge filament, while δR & δL represents the small
change in resistance and length, which occurs as the gauge is strained
along with the surface to which it is bonded. This gauge factor of a gauge is a
measure of the amount of resistance change for a given strain. The higher the
gauge factor greater the electrical output for indication or recording purpose.
The gauge factor is supplied by the manufacturer and may range from 1.7 to
4. The usual method of measuring the change of resistance in a gauge element
is by means of Wheatstone bridge as shown in figure. It consists of
Galvanometer, 4 resistors & a battery. Resistance R1 is the strain gauge is
used for strain measurement, which is mounted on the specimen. The three
resisters R2, R3 and R4 are internal to the device. Let us assume that the
resistance have been adjusted so that the bridge is balanced i.e. Voutput = 0.

Thus for initial balance,

𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
=
𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟒

If the structural member, to whom the strain

gauge is bonded, is to be loaded and strained,
there would be a resultant change in the
resistance R1. According to the relationship,
𝜹𝑳
𝑹 = 𝑹𝟏 𝑮𝑭
𝑳
Since ɛ is strain in the specified direction. Finally, we find that the relationship
between strain and the change in resistance of the wire is given by

∆𝑹/𝑹
ɛ𝒆𝒙𝒑 =
𝑮𝑭
Experimental strain is calculated from above equation

Arrangement: In certain applications where equal and opposite strains are

known to exist it is possible to attach similar gauges in way that one gauge
experiences positive strain and other negative strain. Depending on the
number of gauges used the bridge, the circuit configurations are:
a) Quarter Bridge :

b) Half Bridge:
 c) Full Bridge:

In Quarter Bridge, the strain gauge is connected in one arm as shown in the
above diagram. In half bridge arrangement two active gauges are used, while
in case of full bridge all the gauges are active. In this arrangement two acts in
tension while other two are compression. With the help of this type of
arrangement temperature compensation is also achieved. When possible, the
full-bridge configuration is the best to use. This is true not only because it is
more sensitive than the others, but because it is linear while the others are not.
Quarter-bridge and half-bridge circuits provide an output (imbalance) signal
that is only approximately proportional to applied strain gauge force.
Linearity, or proportionality, of these bridge circuits is best when the amount
of resistance change due to applied force is very small compared to the
nominal resistance of the gauge(s). With a full-bridge, however, the output
voltage is directly proportional to applied force, with no approximation.

Determination of theoretical strain:

Consider the beam shown by Figure 1. This a simple cantilevered beam

subject to a force F at the end of the beam. In this case, the top of the beam
will experience tension and the bottom of the beam will experience
compression. In this way, the wires in the strain gage on top of the beam will
be stretched, inducing a positive strain and thus positive ΔR. The wires in the
strain gage on the bottom of the beam will be compressed, inducing a negative
strain and thus negative ΔR. We will use this process to determine the strain
in this cantilever beam.
Figure 7:: Schematic of the Cantilever Beam used throughout the Experiment

Let us first determine the theoretical equation for strain in the beam using our
knowledge of beams in bending. A uniaxial stress state is obtained on the
surface of a cantilever beam when it is
loaded at its free end. The loading
condition, illustrated in Figure, places the
beam in a combined shear and bending
state but the shear stresses are zero on the
upper and lower surfaces. The bending
tresses are directed along the longitudinal
axis of the beam; they maximize on the
upper surface and decrease linearly through the thickness. When the beam
has a rectangular cross-section,
section, the magnitude of the tensile stress on the
upper surface is equal to that of the compressive stress on the lower surface.
Consider the bending stress experienced at the location of the strain gages.
This is given by

𝑴𝒚 𝑷𝑳𝒆 𝒚
𝑮𝑭 = =
𝑰 𝑰

The gageses are mounted at the top/bottom of the beam, i.e., y = t/2. Also, I =
3
bt /12. Thus
𝟔𝑷𝑳𝒆
𝝈=
𝒃𝒕𝟐

where
here b, and t are beam width and thickness and Le is equivalent length of
Beam, as shown in figure. Consider the stress-strain
strain relationship given
gi by
 𝝈
ɛ=
𝑬

Therefore final equation for the theoretical strain on the surface of the beam
at the location of the gages is given by

𝟔𝑷𝑳𝒆
ɛ𝒕𝒉 =
𝒃𝒕𝟐 𝑬

STRAIN GAUGE TRANSDUCER TRAINER PRODUCT CODE:

AL-E153
CONNECTOR

GAIN ADC
TRANSDUCER
AMPLIFIER CHANNEL

POWER SUPPLY
DIGITAL READOUT

200mV
ADC CHANNEL
+
-
- POWER SUPPLY 230V,50Hz
+

ON

WEIGHT CONTAINER
STRAIN GAUGE

100GM

BEAM

BASE

Figure 8: Strain gauge transducer trainer