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Recent progress in electrochemical recycling of

waste NdFeB magnets
Cite this: Chem. Commun., 2025,
61, 2257
Xuan Xu, *a Xiaozheng Jia,a Kunyuan Zhao,a Peng Xu,c Peng Jing,*a Baocang Liua
and Jun Zhang*ab
Published on 03 January 2025. Downloaded on 11/20/2025 [Link] AM.

Neodymium iron boron (NdFeB) magnets are critical components in green energy technologies and
have received increasing attention due to the limited availability of the raw materials, specifically rare
earth elements (REEs). The supply risks associated with primary mining of RE ores, which have significant
environmental impacts, underscore the necessity for recycling RE secondary resources. Waste NdFeB
magnets, generated during manufacturing processes and recovered from end-of-life products,
represent valuable RE secondary resources. Recycling these materials can ensure a reliable and
sustainable supply of REEs. Compared to conventional metallurgical processes, electrochemical
strategies offer advantages such as high efficiency, selectivity, ease of operation, and environmental
friendliness. This review presents an overview of the current status and future prospects of electro-
Received 20th August 2024, chemical technologies for recovering RE metals, alloys, or compounds from waste NdFeB magnets.
Accepted 6th December 2024 Special emphasis is placed on molten salt electrolysis and room-temperature electrolysis, including
DOI: 10.1039/d4cc04252b detailed reaction mechanisms involved in the recycling processes. Additionally, challenges and future
strategies for the electrochemical recycling of waste NdFeB magnets, focusing on environmental impact
[Link]/chemcomm evaluation, efficient recovery, and reduced reagent consumption are proposed.

Introduction permanent magnets used in these low-carbon technologies.

These REEs utilized in Neodymium Iron Boron (NdFeB) mag-
With the increasing pressure and policy efforts to address nets represent the largest application segment, accounting for
global climate change, the green and low-carbon transitions 45% of total usage.4 In 2022, global consumption of sintered
represented by green energy technologies, such as wind power, NdFeB magnets reached 184 000 tonnes, and this consumption
photovoltaics, electric vehicles and efficient energy storage, is projected to grow at an annual rate of 5.8%, reaching 322 000
have emerged as a global consensus.1 For example, the Inter- tonnes by 2032 (Fig. 1(a)).4 To meet projected demand in 2032,
national Energy Agency predicts that by 2030, the share of global supply for NdPr oxide needs to expand by 61 000 tonnes,
electric vehicles in global car sales will increase from approxi- based on a production level of 65 000 tonnes in 2022 (Fig. 1(b)).
mately 5% to over 60%. Furthermore, by 2050, it is anticipated To address the supply gap of NdPr, primary mining and ore
that 90% of global electricity production will derive from processing of REEs may be considered as viable options.
renewable energy sources, with wind and photovoltaic power However, the distribution of rare earth (RE) reserves is char-
generation accounting for 70%.2 This global transition to green acterized by a concentration in four main countries, with China
and low-carbon technologies will significantly drive the holding the largest share of 44 million metric tons of rare earth
demand for critical metals, particularly rare earth elements oxides (REOs) equivalent, followed by Vietnam with 22 million
(REEs), which are essential raw materials for low-carbon tech- metric tons, Brazil with 21 million metric tons, and Russia with
nologies such as wind power systems and electric vehicles.3 10 million metric tons, according to the U.S. Geological Survey.5
Specific REEs, neodymium (Nd), praseodymium (Pr), and dys- Many RE exporting countries have imposed restrictions on the
prosium (Dy) are crucial for manufacturing high-performance export of REEs due to their strategic importance, which has
inevitably led to a supply crisis.6 Moreover, the exploitation of
a
School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Inner Mongolia University, RE mineral resources is not only energy-intensive and challen-
Hohhot 010021, P. R. China. E-mail: [Link]@[Link], pjing@[Link], ging to decarbonize, but also causes significant environmental
cejzhang@[Link]
b
issues. For example, the mining of 1 tonne of REEs generates
School of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Inner Mongolia Normal
University, Hohhot, 010022, P. R. China
approximately 2000 tonnes of toxic waste, including 75 m3 of
c
SANY Heavy Industry Co., Ltd., Economic and Technological Development Zone, wastewater and 1 tonne of radioactive waste.7 Therefore, global
Changsha, 410100, P. R. China interest has been raised to produce REEs from secondary

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Fig. 1 (a) Forecasting NdFeB magnet consumption by segment (‘HEV, PHEV and EV’ stands for hybrid electric vehicle, plug-in hybrid electric vehicle and
electric vehicle, respectively. ‘Other’ includes Magnetic Resonance Imaging, MRI, elevator motor, robotics and industrial applications). (b) Global supply
and demand forecast for NdPr in transition to green and low carbon. Report from Arafura Resources ([Link]
[Link]).

resources, such as the NdFeB magnet waste generated during EoL products and the off-quality NdFeB magnets generated
the machining processes and spent NdFeB magnets from end- in the manufacturing process are collectively referred to as
of-life (EoL) products, with the aim of establishing new circular ‘‘NdFeB scraps’’. The wet NdFeB magnet sludge, a mixture of
supply chains. In fact, up to 50% of the raw materials are oil, machining chips, and other solid residue, generated during
wasted as scraps/swarf/sludge at the magnet manufacturing the grinding and polishing processes is termed as ‘‘NdFeB
sites, while the overall recycling potential of spent NdFeB swarf’’ (Fig. 2(b)).
magnets in the European Union from 2018 to 2040 is estimated
to be 25 700 tonnes.8 Thus, the anticipated gap between
demand and supply of NdPr may be partially alleviated through Challenges of current recycling
the recycling of these waste NdFeB magnets, thereby integrat- methods for waste NdFeB magnets
ing REEs into the circular economy.
The chemical composition of the NdFeB magnets varies The effectiveness of recycling methods for waste NdFeB mag-
across different applications. Generally, NdFeB magnets incor- nets (whether scrap or swarf) varies significantly depending on
porate 20–30 wt% of REEs, primarily neodymium (Nd) and the type of waste. A general schematic representation of the
praseodymium (Pr), with minor additions of dysprosium (Dy) recycling process for waste NdFeB magnets is illustrated in
and/or terbium (Tb), and over 60 wt% of iron (Fe).9,10 From a Fig. 3. As the NdFeB magnet scraps are slightly contaminated
microstructural perspective (Fig. 2(a)), NdFeB magnets typically and oxidized/corroded, a direct re-use of these magnet wastes
consist of three equilibrium phases: the hard magnetic matrix in their entirety is currently regarded as the most ecologically
phase (Nd2Fe14B), the minor boride phase (NdFe4B4) and the and economically favourable approach due to the mini-
RE-rich grain boundary phase (composed of metallic Nd and mum energy consumption in a very short loop without waste
Nd2O3).11 It should be noted that the term of ‘‘magnet scraps’’ generation. This magnet-to-magnet routes, such as re-sintering
is used variably in the literature to refer to different sources of process13 and hydrogenation disproportionation desorption
magnets. In this paper, the extracted NdFeB magnets from the and recombination (HDDR) process,14 ends up with new mag-
nets that can be reintegrated into the same systems or appli-
cations. However, since NdFeB magnet scraps are completely

Fig. 2 SEM images of (a) NdFeB scrap and (b) NdFeB swarf (after remov-
ing the grinding oil) with insets showing optical images. Reproduced with Fig. 3 Schematic of general process for treatment of waste NdFeB
permission from ref. 11 and 12. magnets.

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reused without separating the non-ferromagnetic phases, Based on fundamental investigations into alloy corrosion pheno-
e.g., RE oxides, the overall volume of these non-ferromagnetic mena25,26 and the electrochemical dissolution of ores and
phases increases with successive recycling cycles. As a result, minerals,27,28 electrochemical extraction and recycling systems
the magnetic properties of NdFeB magnets produced from have been progressively developed to address industrial wastes
these repeated recycling processes tend to deteriorate as the and urban mining challenges. Electrochemical processes trans-
number of recycling cycles increases.8 Consequently, the mag- port electrons from the anode (where oxidation reaction occurs) to
net industry still prefers to manufacture magnets using fresh the cathode (where reduction reaction occurs) by applying voltage
raw material to ensure desirable magnetic strength. between the electrodes without the need for significant toxic
To date, many studies have reported the extraction of critical chemical inputs. Therefore, the recycling of waste NdFeB magnets
raw materials from waste NdFeB magnets in the form of RE through etching or even complete leaching can be achieved via
salts/oxides/alloys, using either pyrometallurgical or hydro- oxidation reactions at the anode, with simultaneous deposition of
metallurgical processing route. A variety of pyrometallurgical metals or alloys at the cathode. These electrochemical processes
processes, including selective chlorination method,15,16 liquid- have the advantages of environmental compatibility, broad tun-
metal extraction,17,18 slag refining19 and glass slag method,20,21 ability, and minimal chemical usage, all of which may alter the
Published on 03 January 2025. Downloaded on 11/20/2025 [Link] AM.

are detailed in the literature for recycling waste NdFeB mag- current waste NdFeB magnets recycling route and efficiently
nets. In general, the pyrometallurgical processes are applicable promote the recovery of REEs from more complicated industrial
to all types of waste NdFeB magnets, offering high treatment waste streams. This paper systematically summarizes the current
capacity while requiring minimal water usage, making them status and recent advances in electrochemical recycling of waste
suitable for regions with limited water resources. However, NdFeB magnets, focusing on molten salt electrolysis and room-
pyrometallurgy involves high-temperature processes, necessi- temperature electrolysis. Emphasis is placed on the fundamental
tating significant energy input and leading to losses of REEs. studies of redox reaction design at both the anode and cathode, as
Moreover, the use of non-recyclable and/or unstable chemicals, well as the mechanisms involved. Additionally, the challenges and
along with the generation of considerable solid waste, pose future perspectives of electrochemical recycling technology are
substantial environmental challenges. Hydrometallurgy is prac- expounded in detail. The objective of this paper is to provide a
tically the main processing technique in the industry for comprehensive understanding of the state-of-the-art electroche-
recovering REEs from waste NdFeB magnets in the form of mical recycling strategies and future directions for waste NdFeB
RE fluorides/oxides. The hydrometallurgical recycling of waste magnets and to provide a general guideline for the electrochemi-
NdFeB magnets is applicable to both slightly and heavily cal treatment of industrial wastes.
oxidized magnet materials with diverse compositions. Acid
leaching represents a critical step, as it significantly influences
the extraction efficiency of REEs, their concentrations in Molten salt electrolysis
the leachate, and selectivity against contaminants, such as Fe,
which needs to be minimized during the precipitation of REEs. Molten salt possesses high ionic conductivity and wide electro-
To date, two different leaching routes have been established: chemical windows, making it an excellent electrolyte for
a complete leaching route and a selective leaching route. extracting and refining metals/alloys. Molten salt electrolysis
Currently, the oxidative roasting-selective leaching process, is extensively employed for electrolytic reduction of metal salts/
i.e., HCl-preferential dissolution method is widely implemen- oxides to metals/alloys. Notably, molten salt electrolysis is the
ted in industrial production in China for REE recovery from predominant industrial technique to obtain approximately
waste NdFeB magnets.22 This method is commercially attrac- 80–90% of RE metals, including Ce, La, Nd, and Pr.29 The
tive thanks to the appropriate consumption of acids and alkalis recovered RE metals/alloys hold potential for integration into
compared to the complete leaching route.23 As the hydrome- existing NdFeB production line, thereby streamlining the recy-
tallurgical recycling route is quite similar to the existing hydro- cling process from waste magnets to new magnets.
metallurgical processing of ores for REEs, the RE-rich leaching
solutions can be integrated into an existing RE separation plant REE dissolution by direct anodization
following the removal of non-REEs.24 The separated REOs Due to the variation of the electrochemical potential of Nd/Nd3+
or fluorides (REF3) obtained through hydrometallurgical pro- (–2.32 V vs. standard hydrogen electrode, SHE), Fe/Fe2+
cesses inherently exhibit a substantial environmental footprint (–0.447 V vs. SHE) and B/H3BO3 (–0.89 V vs. SHE),30 the REEs
because of the significant consumption of strong mineral can be, theoretically, leached away selectively through electro-
acids and alkalis, along with the generation of considerable chemical anodization by controlling the potential and main-
wastewater. taining it in the region where the dissolution of the REEs occurs
Conventional pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical while the metallic Fe, B and other elements are stable or
technologies involve high-temperature processing, lengthy pro- immune. The overall recycling route based on anodic dissolu-
cess flows, pollutant emissions, equipment corrosion, and tion for waste NdFeB magnets in molten salts is illustrated
costly chemical consumption. In contrast, electrochemical in Fig. 4.
metal recovery is an emerging field offering a sustainable Kamimoto et al.31 investigated the electrochemical leaching
approach for extracting valuable metals from industrial wastes. behaviour of various elements in sintered NdFeB magnet scraps

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To enhance the diffusion of REEs during anodic oxidation,

Yang et al.34 proposed an idea of forming anode channels
within the RE permanent magnets (REPMs), specifically NdFeB
magnet scrap, which was directly used as the anode in a molten
LiF–CaF2 bath at 1123 K (Fig. 5(a)). These channels could
provide continuous transport paths between the electrolyte
and the REEs inside the electrode, thus promoting the oxida-
tion of REEs that did not diffuse to the surface of the NdFeB
magnet. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) was employed to investigate
the redox reactions of the NdFeB magnet electrode, confirming
Fig. 4 Schematic of the overall recycling route based on anodic dissolu- the oxidation peaks of both the RE-rich phase and the REEs in
tion for waste NdFeB magnets using molten salt electrolysis. the Nd2Fe14B phase. By applying currents on the NdFeB magnet
anode, pores and channels were formed due to the oxidation of
the RE-rich phase, while the observed micropores could be
using a molten bath consisting of 59 mol% LiCl + 41 mol% KCl
Published on 03 January 2025. Downloaded on 11/20/2025 [Link] AM.

ascribed to the dissolution of REEs in the Nd2Fe14B phase. The

at 723 K. Potentiostatic electrolysis enabled the selective leach- selectively dissolved RE ions in molten LiF–CaF2 salts were
ing of REEs from the magnet within a potential range from directly deposited on the cathode as RE metals, while other
1.8 to 0.8 V (vs. Ag/AgCl). Controlling the oxidation potential elements were left in the form of Fe and Fe2B. Although the
allowed for the regulation of the oxidation stage during poten- pores and channels improved access between the electrolyte
tiostatic electrolysis. In the first stage, the REEs were leached and REEs within the REPM electrode, the dissolution of Fe
from the grain boundary phase of the magnets. In the second from the REPM electrode still could not be completely avoided.
stage, the REEs were leached from the interior of the Nd2Fe14B Konishi et al.35 proposed a novel process that utilized an
matrix phase, leaving metallic FeB as a residue. Therefore, alloy diaphragm in a molten LiCl–KCl (45 : 55 wt%) salt at
the oxidation reaction of the NdFeB magnet scrap on the anode 723 K. A rare earth-transition metal (RE-TM) alloy served as
could be expressed by eqn (1): the diaphragm, functioning as a bipolar electrode and facilitat-
ing the selective ‘‘permeation’’ of the RE ions (Fig. 5(b)). The
NdFeB 3e - Nd3+ + FeB (1)
recovery of RE metals or alloys involved the following steps: (i) a
Fe 2e - Fe2+ (2) REE-containing material, such as sintered NdFeB magnet
scrap, is used as the anode, causing the selective dissolution
Although the estimated leaching ratio of the REEs was of RE metals into the melt as ions; (ii) the dissolved RE3+ ions
approximately 90% at controlled potentials, the oxidation are reduced at the anode side surface of the diaphragm while
reaction of Fe (eqn (2)) could not be avoided because of the REE atoms diffuse through the diaphragm; (iii) REE atoms are
limited diffusion rate of REEs from the interior of the NdFeB dissolved from the cathode side surface of the diaphragm as
magnet scrap to its surface.32 Additionally, the dissolved RE in ions, and (iv) REEs are ultimately recovered as metals or alloys
the electrolyte was deposited on the liquid Zn cathode to form on the cathode by the reduction of the dissolved RE3+ ions.
RE-Zn alloys with the current efficiency up to 91.5%.33 The RE3+ ions in the anode compartment can be collected by

Fig. 5 (a) Illustration of REEs recovery from REPMs by molten salt electrolysis. (b) The process for separation and recovery of the REEs from a NdFeB
magnet scrap using a bipolar electrode. Reproduced with permission from ref. 34 and 35.

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relies on differences in the saturated vapor pressures of metals,41

is an energy-intensive process that increases the overall cost of
recycling. Additionally, the current RE electrolysis industry favors
fluoride electrolysis over chloride electrowinning due to the
hygroscopic nature and vaporization issues of chlorides.42 Never-
theless, the overall recycling route based on flux extraction for
waste NdFeB magnets using molten salt electrolysis is illustrated
in Fig. 6.
Hua et al.43 investigated the use of MgCl2–KCl molten salts
for the selective extraction of REEs from NdFeB scraps. The
Fig. 6 Schematic of the overall recycling route based on fluxes extraction
extraction process was proposed as follows: initially, the REEs
for waste NdFeB magnets using molten salt electrolysis.
on the surface of the granulated magnet scrap reacted with
molten MgCl2, leaving behind FeB residue that formed an ash
electrolysis using an additional cathode. Almost all impurities layer, while the reaction products penetrated the bulk molten
Published on 03 January 2025. Downloaded on 11/20/2025 [Link] AM.

remain in the anode compartment as residue or anode slime. chlorides. During the chlorination process, the MgCl2 in the
This process has the potential to recover highly pure RE bulk melts diffused through the ash layer to the surface of
materials or even allows the selective recovery of the RE metals unreacted scrap, facilitating the extraction of REEs, while the
like Dy from sintered NdFeB magnet scraps because of the high reaction interface was moving gradually toward the core of
selectivity during the alloying step on the anode side surface of magnet scrap. Consequently, the ash layer thickened and the
the diaphragm. On the other hand, some technical problems size of the unreacted scrap core decreased until the reaction
remain unresolved, including the low mechanical strength of was complete, as illustrated in Fig. 7. Approximately 90% of the
the RE-TM alloys and difficulties in maintaining the alloy REEs in the scrap could be extracted into molten chlorides by
diaphragm at an optimal composition. Thus, further investiga- keeping contact with the molten MgCl2–KCl (0.6 : 0.4 mol%) at
tions are required to determine the commercial applicability of temperatures ranging from 1000 to 1200 1C for more than 10 h.
this process. To achieve selective extraction of REEs from NdFeB scraps
at lower temperatures and shorter reaction times with higher
REE extraction by fluxes efficiency, molten CdCl2–LiCl–KCl was utilized.44 With suffi-
An alternative method to anodic dissolution for separating cient content of CdCl2, over 99% of Nd could be selectively
REEs from waste NdFeB magnets involves the reaction between extracted into the molten salts within 2 h at a temperature of
REEs and fluxes. The commonly used fluxes, metal chlorides36,37 773 K, while Fe and B remained in the solid phase. Addition-
(e.g., AlCl3 and MgCl2) and fluorides38 (e.g., AlF3, ZnF2 and FeF3) ally, the correlations between CdCl2 content and cyclic voltam-
selectively react with REEs in the magnets to form RE halides, metry data were utilized to monitor the reaction progress and
while Fe remains unreacted in the molten salts. The extraction determine the extraction endpoint in real-time. Abbasalizadeh
mechanisms of REEs in chloride and fluoride fluxes are similar. et al.45 further demonstrated that REOs in molten fluorides
For instance, the reactions and Gibbs free energies associated could be converted into REF3 with the addition of fluorinating
with AlF3 are summarized by eqn (3)–(7):38 agents such as AlF3, ZnF2, FeF3 and Na3AlF6 prior to electrolysis
(eqn (8)–(11)). The resulting REF3 can subsequently be pro-
Nd + AlF3 2 NdF3 + Al DG0 = 176 kJ mol 1
(3) cessed through electrolysis in the same reactor to extract RE
Dy + AlF3 2 DyF3 + Al DG0 = 199 kJ mol 1
(4)

Fe + AlF3 2 FeF3 + Al 0
DG = 411 kJ mol 1
(5)

3Fe + 2AlF3 2 3FeF2 + 2Al DG0 = 769 kJ mol 1

(6)

B + AlF3 2 BF3 + Al DG0 = 130 kJ mol 1

(7)

The resulting RE halides can be reduced at the cathode

to form RE metals. However, metal ions from the fluxes, such as
Al, Mg, Zn and Fe are preferentially reduced due to their more
positive reduction potentials compared to RE3+ ions, leading to
the co-reduction of RE alloys at the cathode. This co-reduction
process avoids the comproportionation of Nd2+ (2Nd3+ + Nd 2
3Nd2+),39 which commonly occurs during electrolysis, thereby
enhancing the electrical efficiency. On the other hand, further
separation of REEs from these alloys, such as vacuum Fig. 7 Schematic diagram of the unreacted shrinking core model for the
distillation,40 is required if pure RE metals are the ultimate extraction of REEs from NdFeB scraps using molten MgCl2–KCl salts.
target. It is important to note that vacuum distillation, which Reproduced with permission from ref. 43.

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alloys as the cathodic deposits. This finding indicates that

molten salt electrolysis, coupled with flux extraction is effective
for recycling heavily oxidized NdFeB swarf in addition to NdFeB
scraps.

Nd2O3 + 2AlF3 2 2NdF3 + Al2O3 DG0 = 177 kJ mol 1

(8)

Nd2O3 + 3ZnF2 2 2NdF3 + 3ZnO DG0 = 274 kJ mol 1

(9)

Nd2O3 + 2FeF3 2 2NdF3 + Fe2O3 0

DG = 222 kJ mol 1
(10)

Nd2O3 + 2Na3AlF6 2 2NdF3 + Al2O3 + 6NaF

DG0 = 23.4 kJ mol 1
(11)
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Although the recycling of waste NdFeB magnets through

molten salt electrolysis results in RE metals/alloys that can be
directly utilized as raw materials in the production of new
NdFeB magnets. This process significantly reduces the steps
involved in recycling compared to conventional hydrometallur-
Fig. 8 Schematic illustration of the electrolytic cell for recovering the
gical methods. However, the separation of individual REEs Nd2Fe14B grains from the sintered NdFeB magnets. Reproduced with
from the RE metals/alloys necessitates additional efforts to permission from ref. 11.
expand their applications beyond NdFeB magnets. Further-
more, molten salt electrolysis operates at high temperatures,
which not only demands substantial energy but also presents Xu et al.11 developed an electrochemical etching process that
significant technical challenges in precisely controlling the selectively dissolved the RE-rich grain boundaries of a NdFeB
composition of the molten salts, which is an essential factor magnet scrap in an organic N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF)–
for the effective dissolution of waste NdFeB magnets. FeCl2 electrolyte at room temperature (Fig. 8). By fine-tuning of
the applied anodic current density to less than 5 mA cm 2, the
selective dissolution priority of the phases inside the magnets
Room-temperature electrolysis is as follow: metallic Nd 4 intergranular NdFe4B4 4 matrix
Room-temperature electrolysis, characterized by minimal Nd2Fe14B (eqn (12)–(14)).
chemical input and mild operating conditions, offers a sustain- Nd 3e - Nd3+ (12)
able and environmentally friendly strategy for resource recovery
through the electrochemical oxidation or reduction of valuable NdFe4B4 23e - Nd3+ + 4Fe2++ 4B3+ (13)
metals. Specifically, electrochemical oxidation provides a selec-
Nd2Fe14B 37e - 2Nd3+ + 14Fe2+ + B3+ (14)
tive and green approach for the treatment of industrial waste
by applying an external voltage to the anode, facilitating the
dissolution of valuable metals. Therefore, RE metal in the grain boundaries could be
preferentially dissolved, leaving behind the Nd2Fe14B grains
Direct anodic dissolution and RE oxides for magnetic separation. At the anodic current
NdFeB magnet scraps, being highly conductive, can be directly density of 2 mA cm 2, 67.2% of the NdFeB magnet was
used as the anode for electrochemical leaching, thereby bypass- recovered as Nd2Fe14B grains with an energy consumption of
ing energy-intensive processes such as crushing, grinding, and only 0.58 kW h kg 1. The mechanism study of the electroche-
roasting. It should be noted that the microstructure of the mical etching process suggested that the recovery of the
NdFeB magnet scraps plays a crucial role in their dissolution Nd2Fe14B grains could be further improved by promptly remov-
mechanisms. Generally, NdFeB magnets consist of Nd2Fe14B ing the Nd2Fe14B grains from the magnet anode to avoid their
grains (the matrix phase, accounting for 85–87% of the whole dissolution via electrochemical direct oxidation. Additionally, a
magnet),46 surrounded by a RE-rich phase and a B-rich phase in novel recycling route based on electrochemical etching was
the grain boundaries. The RE-rich phase corrodes preferentially proposed, which is anticipated to be more economically feasi-
due to the negative standard reduction potential of REEs, ble in the long term and offers significantly greater flexibility
followed by the dissolution of the B-rich phase, which may compared to direct reuse methods.
even lead to the pulverization of the magnet.47–49 Thus, reco- Compared to organic electrolytes, aqueous electrolytes offer
vering Nd2Fe14B matrix grains as raw material for new magnet several advantages, including high solubility for metal salts,
production could be a viable alternative to direct reuse method. low volatility and low cost. Moreover, RE metals in the NdFeB

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Fig. 9 Schematic representation of (a) recovering RE oxides from NdFeB magnet waste using a dual anode electrolysis reactor, (b) the electrolysis cell
for in situ electrochemical oxidation of Fe2+, (c) a dual anode electrolysis device for recovering REEs from NdFeB magnets (CE, counter electrode;
RE, reference electrode; and WE, working electrode) and (d) the closed-loop recycling route for recovering REEs from the NdFeB magnet waste.
Reproduced with permission from ref. 51–54.

magnets could react spontaneously with water.50 Therefore, 2H+ + 2e - H2m (17)
aqueous electrolytes are suitable for recovering REEs from waste
NdFeB magnets. Venkatesan et al.51 employed a dual anode
It is important to note that in situ electrochemical oxidation
system to leach NdFeB magnets via electrochemical direct oxida-
of Fe2+ to Fe3+ is an effective method that facilitates the removal
tion in a NH4Cl solution. One anode, a bulky NdFeB magnet
of Fe in the leachate in the form of Fe(OH)3. Venkatesan et al.52
scrap, was directly dissolved in the electrolyte by passing an
reported that approximately 99% of Fe2+ in the leach solution,
electric current, while the other, a Ti/Pt inert anode, converted
obtained by completely dissolving waste NdFeB magnets, was
Fe2+ dissolved from the waste magnet to Fe3+ (eqn (15)) in situ by
electrochemically oxidized by applying a current of 1.2 A for 4 h
electrochemical oxidation (Fig. 9(a)). The electrolysis process was
in a single-chamber cell (Fig. 9(b)). In comparison, only 2% of
carried out at room temperature for 8 h (anodic dissolution
FeCl2 was oxidized to FeCl3 through air bubbling over a period
current of 0.5 A, 3.0 mol L 1 of NH4Cl), resulting in the dissolu-
of 64 h. Since the anode and cathode were placed in a single
tion of more than 97% of the REEs from the magnet. Subse-
chamber, the back reduction of Fe3+ to Fe2+ on the cathode
quently, the REEs and Co were selectively recovered from the
(eqn (16)) was thermodynamically favourable. Therefore, an
leach solution with 0.14 mol L 1 HCl over 3 h, leaving Fe(OH)3 as
anode with a substantially larger surface area than the cathode
a residue. The REEs were then recovered by oxalic acid preci-
was employed to promote the hydrogen evolution reaction
pitation, followed by calcination to produce high-purity RE
(eqn (17)) as the primary cathodic reaction, minimizing the
oxides (99%).
back-reduction of Fe3+ to Fe2+ on the cathode.
An alternative strategy to prevent the back-reduction of Fe3+
Fe2+ e - Fe3+ (15)
to Fe2+ on the cathode is to introduce a competing cathodic
reaction that occurs before the reduction of Fe3+ in a single-
Fe3+ + e - Fe2+ (16) chamber cell. Zhang et al.53 introduced a ZnCl2 solution as the

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electrolyte in a double-anode electrochemical system to selec-

tively recover REEs from spent NdFeB magnets (Fig. 9(c)).
A NdFeB magnet served as the active anode to produce RE3+
ions and Fe2+. Since Zn2+ was preferentially reduced to Zn metal
on the cathode, the Fe3+ formed at the inert anode could not be
reduced on the cathode and was hydrolysed in situ to Fe(OH)3,
consequently separated from the REEs. Na2SO4 was added to
the electrolyte to form a NdNa(SO4)2 precipitate, which was
then converted to Nd(OH)3 using NaOH solution. The energy
consumption of this process was 0.9078 kWh per kilogram of
NdFeB and the chemical input was approximately half of that of
Fig. 10 (a) Configuration of NdFeB swarf on a dimensional stable anode
traditional hydrometallurgy. (DSA) surface with the attraction of an external magnet. (b) The in situ
anodic leaching processes of NdFeB swarf under the applied current.
Fe2+ + 2e - Fe (18)
Reproduced with permission from ref. 12.
Published on 03 January 2025. Downloaded on 11/20/2025 [Link] AM.

Nd2Fe14B + 9H+ - 2Nd3+ + 14Fe + B3+ + 4.5H2m (19)

Instead of oxidizing Fe2+ at the anode to facilitate its hydro- IrO2/Ti), on which the NdFeB swarf was magnetically coated,
lysis, direct depositing Fe metal on the cathode could be a in situ anodic leaching was successfully achieved. This in situ
promising alternative (eqn (18)). Xu et al.54 proposed a two-step anodic leaching consisted of two parallel processes: chemical
recycling route, i.e., electrolysis-selective precipitation to leaching by anode-generated H+ (eqn (21)) and direct anodiza-
recover REEs from bulky NdFeB scraps (Fig. 9(d)). By balancing tion (eqn (14)), with the former primarily driving the leaching of
the Fe leaching efficiency from the NdFeB anode with the Fe NdFeB swarf (Fig. 10).
deposition efficiency on the cathode, selective leaching of REEs The leaching rates of the REEs during in situ anodic leaching
(eqn (19)) was successfully achieved with the electrolyte being at current densities of 10–40 mA cm 2 were 2.4–9.0 times
recyclable. At an anodic current density of 25 mA cm 2 and higher than those observed during chemical leaching at a
a cathodic current density of 12.5 mA cm 2, a REE recovery of maintained pH of 3.7. A mechanism study revealed that the
92.5% with a relatively stable composition of the electrolyte was high concentration of H+ surrounding the NdFeB swarf particles,
achieved. The proposed method largely reduces the chemical coupled with the improved mass transfer efficiency of H+ due to
consumption and avoids the generation Fe-based solid waste the electric field and oxygen bubble agitation, effectively promotes
and wastewater discharge, making it economically and environ- the leaching kinetics. Obviously, the anodic redox mediator, H2O/
mentally attractive for industrial applications. Additionally, the H+, acted as the key role in the effective leaching of NdFeB swarf.
reports from Makarova55 and Kumari56 further demonstrated that By combining the in situ anodic leaching reactions (eqn (14), (20)
the leaching rate of NdFeB scraps was much higher using anodic and (21)) and the cathodic deposition reactions (eqn (17) and (18))
leaching than using traditional chemical leaching. The leaching with balanced Fe concentration in the electrolyte, selective leach-
kinetics could be tuned by changing the applied current density. ing of REEs from NdFeB swarf was realized (eqn (19)). Further-
more, the in situ anodic leaching has proven to be an effective
Electrochemical indirect leaching method for leaching SmCo swarf as well.59
Direct anodic dissolution of NdFeB magnet scraps yielded
2H2O 4e - 4H+ + O2m (20)
similar outcomes to those of strong acid leaching. However,
this method is currently limited to highly conductive and block-
shaped magnet scraps. For NdFeB swarf, the fluid nature and
severe surface oxidation make it challenging to be used directly
as an anode.57 Since NdFeB swarf mainly consists of the
metallic Nd2Fe14B matrix phase, the dissolution of which is
an oxidation process. Thus, indirect leaching of NdFeB swarf
through electrochemical redox mediation could be a promising
strategy. Specifically, the anodic redox pairs, such as, H2O/H+,
Fe2+/Fe3+, etc. can be tuned to achieve the goal of metal/alloy
dissolution. Traditionally, NdFeB swarf is dissolved by H+ ions
from strong acids.58 Therefore, H+ ions generated during
electrochemical reactions could theoretically be utilized for
NdFeB swarf leaching. Xu et al.12 found that the formation rate
of H+ on the anode surface could reach 1.03 mol L 1 s 1 during
the oxygen evolution reaction (OER, eqn (20)) at a current
density of 10 mA cm 2. By applying the current density of Fig. 11 Schematic illustration of the membrane reactor for electroche-
10–40 mA cm 2 to a dimensional stable anode (DSA, Ta2O5
mical oxidation of Fe2+. Reproduced with permission from ref. 59.

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Table 1 Recycling processes studied for the treatment of waste NdFeB magnets
ChemComm

Energy and chemical

Type of waste Process step Electrolyte/leaching solution Final products Efficiency Purity consumption Ref.
NdFeB scrap Molten salt electrolysis - Water rinsing LiF + CaF2 (80 : 20 mol%, 1123 K, 0.288 A) RE metal, FeB 90% 499% — 34
NdFeB scrap Molten salt electrolysis - Water rinsing LiCl + KCl (58.5 : 41.5 mol%, 723 K, RE alloy — — — 35
0.67 V, 24 h)
NdFeB scrap Room-temperature electrolysis DMF + 0.3 mol L 1 FeCl2 (25 1C, Nd2Fe14B grains, 67.2% — 0.58 kWh kg 1, 11
- Magnetic separation 2 mA cm 2, 6 h) Fe metal 1.52 kg FeCl2 per kg
NdFeB scrap Room-temperature electrolysis 3 mol L 1 NH4Cl (25 1C, 0.5 A, 8 h) RE oxides, Fe(OH)3 497% 99.2% 2.9–3.6 kWh kg 1 51
- Selective leaching in HCl 0.37 kg oxalic acid per kg
- Oxalic acid precipitation - Calcination
NdFeB scrap Room-temperature electrolysis 0.5 mol L 1 citric acid (25 1C, RE oxides, Fe2O3 B100% 99.9% 4.6 kWh kg 1 56
- Solvent extraction - Precipitation 20 mA cm 2, 5 h) 1.05 kg oxalic acid per kg
- Calcination
NdFeB scrap Room-temperature electrolysis 0.4 mol L 1 FeSO4 + (NH4)2SO4 RE double salts, 99.9% 99.4% 1.36 kWh kg 1 54

This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2025

- Selective precipitation + 0.175 mol L 1 Na3Cit + 0.4 mol L 1 H3BO3 Fe metal 0.32 kg Na2SO4 per kg
(25 1C, 25 mA cm 2, 8 h) 0.34 kg H2SO4 per kg
NdFeB scrap Partial HCl leaching - Room-temperature HCl (nHCl/nREE = 3.5) + 3.5 mol L 1 RE oxides, Fe(OH)3 495% 99.5% 40.95 kWh kg 1 60
electrolysis - Filtration NaCl (25  2 1C, 125 mA cm 2, 2.5 h) 19.5 kg NaCl per kg
- Precipitation - Calcination 0.37 kg oxalic acid per kg
1
NdFeB swarf Room-temperature electrolysis 0.6 mol L 1 Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2 + 0.175 mol L RE double salts, 92.2% 98.4% 3.23 kWh kg 1 12
- Selective precipitation Na3Cit + 0.4 mol L 1 H3BO3 (25 1C, Fe metal 0.34 kg Na2SO4 per kg
20 mA cm 2, 10 h) 0.33 kg H2SO4 per kg
NdFeB scrap Oxidative roasting (950 1C, 15 h) 5 mol L 1 HNO3 (80 1C, 72 h) RE oxides, 499% 499.5% 0.47 kg HNO3 per kg 62
- Acid leaching - Solvent extraction Fe2O3, CoO 1.6 kg NH4NO3 per kg
- Precipitation - Calcination 0.32 kg oxalic acid per kg
1
NdFeB swarf Oxidative roasting (400 1C, 2 h) 6 mol L HCl (90 1C, 2h) RE oxalate, 98.28% 98.39% 3.74 kg HCl per kg 63
- Acid leaching - Solvent extraction Fe oxalate 1.04 kg oxalic acid per kg
- Precipitation
1
NdFeB scrap Oxidative roasting (800 1C, 2 h) 0.6 mol L HCl (180 1C, 2h) RE oxalate, Fe2O3 99% 99.95% 0.63 kg HCl per kg 64
- Acid leaching - Precipitation 0.02 kg NaNO3 per kg
0.27 kg oxalic acid per kg
NdFeB scrap Sulfation roasting (14.5 mol L 1 H2SO4, Water (25 1C, 1 h) RE sulfate 98% 99.98% 4.3 kg H2SO4 per kg 65
750 1C, 1 h) - Water leaching solution, Fe2O3
NdFeB scrap Alkali baking (10 mol L 1 NaOH, 20 vol% versatic acid (60 1C, 1 h) RE oxides, Fe2O3 495% 98% 6.0 kg NaOH per kg 66
200 1C, 1.5 h) - Acid leaching 5.93 kg versatic acid per kg
- Solvent extraction - Precipitation 2.93 kg oxalic acid per kg
- Calcination
Note: ‘‘Energy and chemical consumption’’ was calculated based on the consumed electricity (kWh) and chemicals (kg) per kilogram of waste NdFeB magnets.
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Feature Article
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Feature Article ChemComm

2Nd2Fe14B + 74H+ - 4Nd3+ + 28Fe2+ + 2B3+ + 37H2m environmentally friendly alternative. Electrochemical recycling
(21) of waste NdFeB magnets provides a novel pathway to improve
recycling outcomes by eliminating waste generation, fostering
Fe2+ + 3H2O e - Fe(OH)3 + 3H+ (22) technological innovations, and achieving high recovery effi-
ciency. Molten salt electrolysis can selectively dissolve REEs
Venkatesan et al.60 successfully recovered REEs from
from both NdFeB magnet scraps and swarf through direct
crushed NdFeB magnets through a two-step process involving
anodization and flux extraction process, respectively and ends
partial leaching in HCl solution followed by electrolysis.
up with the products of RE metals and FeB alloys. These
To completely prevent the migration of Fe3+ to the cathode,
products could be directly used in new magnet manufacturing.
an anion exchange membrane (AEM) was used an effective
Room-temperature electrolysis can be applicable to both NdFeB
physical barrier to divide the electrolytic reactor into a two-
magnet scraps and swarf, using organic electrolytes and aqu-
chamber cell (Fig. 11). Consequently, Fe2+ was effectively oxi-
eous electrolytes to recover Nd2Fe14B grains and REEs, respec-
dized in the anodic chamber during the electrolysis process
tively. The recovered Nd2Fe14B grains hold potential for high-
and hydrolysed as Fe(OH)3 with the release of H+ (eqn (22)).
performance magnet production, while the recovered REEs
The liberated H+ from the oxidation process was utilized for
Published on 03 January 2025. Downloaded on 11/20/2025 [Link] AM.

could be used in other high-tech applications beyond perma-

leaching the undissolved magnet. Therefore, the anodic redox
nent magnets.
mediator, Fe2+/Fe3+, could be regarded as the effective leaching
However, the electrochemical processes for recycling waste
agent for NdFeB swarf dissolution. Nevertheless, higher than
NdFeB magnets are still in their early stages. Challenges such
95% of the REEs were leached into the solution under the
as suboptimal current efficiency and electrode stability require
optimal condition (current density of 125 mA cm 2, 3.5 mol L 1
further research to develop more practical and efficient electro-
of anolyte NaCl and 0.05 mol L 1 of catholyte NaCl) and all the
chemical strategies. This paper provides the following oppor-
Fe was removed as Fe(OH)3 precipitate.
tunities to advance the electrochemical recycling of waste
The REEs present in the leaching solution were then sepa-
NdFeB magnets:
rated by oxalic acid precipitation. The whole process consumed
(1) Environmental and economic evaluation of entire recy-
only NaCl, oxalic acid and electric current and produced RE
cling processes: despite the relative simplicity of electrochemi-
oxides with a purity of Z99%. Additionally, other electroche-
cal recycling routes, the final products are typically RE alloys or
mically generated oxidants, such as hydroxyl radicals ( OH) and
compounds. A systematic assessment of the potential environ-
chlorine (Cl2), etc., which have been applied in the dissolution
mental impacts of the entire process is necessary, accounting
of valuable metals in vanadium- and chromium-containing slag
for emissions and energy consumption.
and waste printed circuit boards,61 also hold potential for
(2) High-efficiency electrochemical leaching: aqueous
dissolving NdFeB swarf.
electrolyte-based REE recovery is often limited by mass trans-
The recycling of waste NdFeB magnets through room-
port. Electrochemically generated oxidants, such as hydroxyl
temperature electrolysis significantly diminishes the use of
radicals ( OH) and chlorine (Cl2), with strong oxidizing capa-
strong acids and alkalis. Nevertheless, challenges related to
cities, could potentially enhance leaching kinetics.
slow reaction rates during the dissolution of waste NdFeB
(3) Rational design of novel recycling route with reduced
magnets, precise control of both anodic and cathodic reactions,
reagent consumption: current electrochemical recycling meth-
and scaling up the process remain unresolved and require
ods mainly target NdFeB scraps, with insufficient attention
further investigation. Table 1 summarizes the different electro-
given to heavily contaminated NdFeB swarf. Furthermore, sub-
chemical processes used for the recycling of waste NdFeB
stantial amounts of strong acids and alkalis are still required to
magnets.
deeply separate REEs from Fe. Proper utilization of the in situ
anode-generated H+ and cathode-generated OH may offer a
Conclusions and perspectives viable alternative to reduce the chemical consumption.

The demand for NdFeB permanent magnets has been steadily

increasing and is expected to continue to rise, primarily driven Author contributions
by the rapid development of wind power and electric vehicles
amid the global green and low-carbon transition. The growing X. Xu wrote the original draft, X. Jia, K. Zhao, P. Xu and B. Liu
demand for NdFeB magnets, coupled with the limited supply of collected textual and diagram information, P. Jing and J. Zhang
RE resources, will likely lead to a supply gap for Nd and Pr, reviewed and edited the manuscript.
which are key REEs for producing NdFeB magnets. Recycling
waste NdFeB magnets presents a promising strategy to mitigate
this supply gap and support sustainable economic growth. Data availability
Current recycling methods largely rely on metallurgical
processes that involve extreme reaction conditions and signifi- No primary research results, software or code have been
cant chemical consumption, leading to considerable solid and included and no new data were generated or analysed as part
liquid waste generation. Electrochemical recovery offers a more of this review.

2266 | Chem. Commun., 2025, 61, 2257–2268 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2025
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ChemComm Feature Article

Conflicts of interest 22 Z. Zhihan, W. Dong, L. Chenghao, Z. Wang, X. Wanhai,

Q. Guoyu and L. Guobiao, J. Environ. Chem. Eng., 2022, 10,
There are no conflicts to declare. 108946.
23 Y. Jiang, Y. Deng, W. Xin and C. Guo, Trans. Indian Inst. Met., 2020,
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24 K. Binnemans, P. T. Jones, B. Blanpain, T. Van Gerven, Y. Yang,
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