Operating Systems

Operations
Operating System Concepts
by
Abraham Silberschatz, Greg Gagne and Peter B. Galvin

Dr.S.Meenatchi, SCORE, VIT, Vellore.

Operating Systems Operations
• Role of the Operating System
• OS provides - environment for program execution.
• Internally, OS design varies widely but shares common features.
• OS must be loaded before it can manage system operations.

Dr.S.Meenatchi, SCORE, VIT, Vellore.

Operating Systems Operations cont..
• Bootstrapping the System
• At power-on or reboot, computer runs an initial program:
• Called Bootstrap Program.
• Typically stored in firmware (ROM or EEPROM).
• Responsibilities of Bootstrap:
• Initialize CPU registers, device controllers, and memory.
• Locate and load the OS kernel into memory.

Dr.S.Meenatchi, SCORE, VIT, Vellore.

Operating Systems Operations cont..
• Kernel Execution
• After loading, kernel starts executing.
• Kernel:
• Provides core system services.
• Manages processes, memory, I/O, etc.
• System Programs and Daemons
• Some services are handled by system programs, not the kernel.
• These programs are loaded at boot time and become system daemons.
• On Linux:
• First program: system.
• Starts and manages other daemons continuously.
Dr.S.Meenatchi, SCORE, VIT, Vellore.
Operating Systems Operations cont..
• Waiting for Events
• Once booting is complete, system is idle until an event occurs.
• If no tasks or users are active, OS waits passively.
• Events and Interrupts
• Events are usually signaled by interrupts.
• Two main types:
• Hardware Interrupts: Triggered by external hardware (e.g., keyboard input,
disk I/O)
• Traps (Software Interrupts):
• Caused by errors (e.g., divide by zero)
• Or by system calls (user program requests an OS service)
Dr.S.Meenatchi, SCORE, VIT, Vellore.
Operating Systems Operations cont..
• System Call Mechanism
• A system call is a way for user programs to request services from OS.
• Generates a trap/exception, switching control to OS.
• Examples:
• File access
• Memory allocation
• Process control

Dr.S.Meenatchi, SCORE, VIT, Vellore.

Operating Systems Operations cont..
• Summary
• OS startup begins with bootstrap program.
• Kernel is loaded to manage system operations.
• System daemons provide services outside the kernel.
• OS remains idle until interrupts or system calls occur.
• Traps enable communication between user programs and OS.

Dr.S.Meenatchi, SCORE, VIT, Vellore.

1. Multiprogramming and Multitasking
• Why Multiprogramming?
• A single program cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy all the time.
• Users often want to run multiple programs simultaneously.
• Goal: Improve CPU utilization and user satisfaction.
• What is Multiprogramming?
• Multiple processes (programs in execution) are kept in main memory.
• OS selects one to run; when it waits (e.g., for I/O), CPU switches to another.
• CPU is never idle as long as a process is ready.

Dr.S.Meenatchi, SCORE, VIT, Vellore.

1. Multiprogramming and Multitasking cont..
• What is Multitasking?
• Extension of multiprogramming for interactive systems.
• CPU rapidly switches between processes for quick user
response.
• Useful during interactive I/O like typing or mouse clicks.
• Need for Memory Management
• Multiple processes in memory require memory
management.
• OS must:
• Allocate memory efficiently.
• Isolate processes from interfering with each other.
Dr.S.Meenatchi, SCORE, VIT, Vellore.
1. Multiprogramming and Multitasking cont..
• CPU Scheduling
• If multiple processes are ready, OS must choose which runs next.
• CPU scheduling is critical for:
• Efficiency
• Fairness
• Responsiveness
• Process Protection & Coordination
• Processes must be protected from affecting each other.
• OS ensures:
• Process synchronization and communication.
• Deadlock avoidance and detection.
Dr.S.Meenatchi, SCORE, VIT, Vellore.
1. Multiprogramming and Multitasking cont..
• Virtual Memory
• Allows execution of programs larger than physical memory.
• Creates an abstraction of memory as a large, continuous space.
• Helps ensure good response time and simplifies programming.
• File System & Storage Management
• File system is essential in multi-tasking systems.
• Resides on secondary storage.
• OS must manage:
• Files
• Disk space
• Access control
Dr.S.Meenatchi, SCORE, VIT, Vellore.
1. Multiprogramming and Multitasking cont..
• System Protection
• OS must protect resources from misuse or unauthorized access.
• Involves user permissions, resource limits, and security policies.

Dr.S.Meenatchi, SCORE, VIT, Vellore.

2. Dual-Mode and Multimode Operation
• Need for Mode Separation
• OS and user programs share hardware resources.
• Must protect OS and programs from incorrect or malicious behavior.
• Solution: Differentiate between user and kernel code execution.
• Dual-Mode Operation
• Two modes:
• User Mode (Mode bit = 1): Executes user applications.
• Kernel Mode (Mode bit = 0): Executes OS code.
• Mode bit in hardware indicates current execution mode.
• Kernel Mode - also called supervisor mode, system mode, or privileged mode.
Dr.S.Meenatchi, SCORE, VIT, Vellore.
2. Dual-Mode and Multimode Operation cont..

Dr.S.Meenatchi, SCORE, VIT, Vellore.

2. Dual-Mode and Multimode Operation cont..
• Mode Switching
• At boot time: System starts in kernel mode.
• OS loads, then switches to user mode to run applications.
• Switch to kernel mode happens during:
• Interrupts
• Traps (Error)
• System calls

Dr.S.Meenatchi, SCORE, VIT, Vellore.

2. Dual-Mode and Multimode Operation cont..
• Privileged Instructions
• Certain instructions can only be executed in kernel mode.
• Examples:
• I/O control
• Interrupt handling
• Timer management
• Attempting these in user mode → trap to OS
• Multimode Operation
• Some CPUs support more than two modes:
• Intel x86: 4 rings (Ring 0 = kernel, Ring 3 = user)
• ARMv8: 7 modes
• Virtualization: Mode for Virtual Machine Manager (VMM)
Dr.S.Meenatchi, SCORE, VIT, Vellore.
2. Dual-Mode and Multimode Operation cont..
• System Call Process
• Control passes to OS via interrupt vector.
• Mode switches to kernel mode.
• OS:
• Identifies the service request.
• Validates parameters.
• Performs requested operation.
• Returns control to user mode.

Dr.S.Meenatchi, SCORE, VIT, Vellore.

2. Dual-Mode and Multimode Operation cont..
• Error Handling with Protection
• Hardware detects:
• Illegal instructions
• Invalid memory access
• Traps to OS → abnormal termination
• OS:
• Displays error message.
• Creates memory dump file for debugging.

Dr.S.Meenatchi, SCORE, VIT, Vellore.

2. Dual-Mode and Multimode Operation cont..
• Summary
• Dual-mode ensures separation of user and OS tasks.
• Mode bit enables secure transitions.
• Privileged instructions protect system integrity.
• System calls are the bridge between user space and OS.
• Errors and traps are handled securely by OS.

Dr.S.Meenatchi, SCORE, VIT, Vellore.

3. Timer
• Purpose of Timer
• Ensures OS retains control over the CPU.
• Prevents user programs from:
• Running indefinitely (infinite loops).
• Never returning control to OS.
• How Timer Works
• A timer is set to generate an interrupt after a specific time.
• Types of timing intervals:
• Fixed (e.g., 1/60 second)
• Variable (e.g., 1 ms to 1 second)

Dr.S.Meenatchi, SCORE, VIT, Vellore.

3. Timer cont..
• Implementation
• Based on a fixed-rate clock and a counter.
• OS sets the counter value.
• Clock ticks → counter decrements.
• When counter = 0 → interrupt is generated.
• Example
• A 10-bit counter with 1 ms clock:
• Timer range: 1 ms to 1024 ms
• Step size: 1 ms

Dr.S.Meenatchi, SCORE, VIT, Vellore.

3. Timer cont..
• Use in Context Switching
• Timer is set before giving control to user.
• On timer interrupt:
• OS regains control.
• May terminate, pause, or extend the program.
• Security/Control
• Modifying the timer is a privileged instruction.
• Only OS (in kernel mode) can change timer settings.

Dr.S.Meenatchi, SCORE, VIT, Vellore.