Chapter 1

Introduction to Computers
COMPUTER
A computer, in simple terms, can be defined as an electronic device that is designed to accept
data, perform the required mathematical and logical operations at high speed, and output the
result,

We all have seen computers in our homes, schools, and

colleges. In fact, in today’s scenario, we find computers in
most aspects of our duily lives. For some of us, it is hard to
even imagine a world without them,

In the past, computers were extremely large in size

and often required an entire room for installation. These
computers consumed enormous amounts of power and
were too expensive to be used for commercial applications.
Therefore, they were used only for limited tasks, such
as computing trajectories for astronomical or military
applications, However, with technological advancements,
the size of computers became smaller and their energy
requirements reduced immensely. This opened the way for
adoption of computers for commercial purposes.

These days, computers have become so prevalent in

the market that all interactive devices such as cellular
phones, global positioning system (GPS) units, portable
organizers, automated teller machines (ATMs), and gas
pumps, work with computers.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS
We have seen that a computer is an electronic device that
performs a function based on a given set of instructions
known as a program. A computer accepts data, processes
it, and produces information. Here, data refers to some
raw fact or figure, and information implies the processed
data. For example, if 12-12-92 is the date of birth of a
student, then it is data (a raw fact/figure). However, when
we process this data (subtract it from the present-date)

oduction to Computers

and say that the age of the student is 23 years, then the
outcome is information,

These days, computers have become a crucial part of

our everyday lives, and we need computers just like we
need televisions, telephones, or other electronic devices at
home. Computers are basically meant to solve problems
quickly and accurately, The important characteristics
of a computer (refer to Figure 1.1) are discussed in the
following text.

Figure 1.1 Characteristics of computers

Speed Computers can perform millions of operations per

second, which means that data that may otherwise take
many hours to process is output as information in the
blink of an eye. The speed of computers is usually given
in nanoseconds and picoseconds, where | nanosecond =
1 x 10” seconds and 1 picosecond = 1 x 10~™ seconds.

Accuracy A computer is a very fast, reliable, and robust

electronic device. It always gives accurate results,
provided the correct data and set of instructions are input
to it. Hence, in the event of an error, it is the user who has

{ 4 Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C

id the incorrect data/program is responsible. This clearly

means that the output generated by a computer depends on
the given instructions and input data, If the input data is
wrong, then the output will also be erroneous. In computer
terminology, this is known as garbage-in, garbage-out
(GIGO).

Automation Besides being very fast and accurate,

computers are automatable devices that can perform a
task without any user intervention. The user just needs to
assign the task to the computer, after which it automati-
cally controls different devices attached to it and executes
the program instructions.

Diligence Unlike humans, computers never get tired of a

repetitive task. It can continually work for hours without
creating errors. Even if a large number of executions need
to be executed, each and every execution requires the same
duration, and is executed with the same accuracy.

Versatile Versatility is the quality of being flexible. Today,

computers are used in our daily life in different fields. For
example, they are used as personal computers (PCs) for
home use, for business-oriented tasks, weather forecasting,
space exploration, teaching, railways, banking, medicine,
and so on, indicating that computers can perform different
tasks simultaneously. On the PC that you use at home,
you may play a game, compose and send e-mails, listen
to music, etc. Therefore, computers are versatile devices
as they can perform multiple tasks of different nature at
the same time.

Memory Similar to humans, computers also have

memory. Just the way we cannot store everything in our
memory and need secondary media, such as a notebook,
to record certain important things, computers also have
internal or primary memory (storage space) as well as
external or secondary memory. While the internal memory
of computers is very expensive and limited in size, the
secondary storage is cheaper and of bigger capacity.

The computer stores a large amount of data and

programs in the secondary storage space. The stored
data and programs can be retrieved and used whenever
required, Secondary memory is the key for data storage.
Some examples of secondary devices include floppy disks,
optical disks (CDs and DVDs), hard disk drives (HDDs),
and pen drives.

When data and programs have to be used, they are

copied from the secondary memory into the internal
memory, often known as random access memory (RAM).
The concept of computer memory is discussed in detail in
Chapter 3.

No 1Q Although the trend today is to make computers

intelligent by inducing artificial intelligence (AI) in them,
they still do not have any decision-making abilities of their
own. They need guidance to perform various tasks.

Economical Today, computers are considered as short-

term investments for achieving long-term gains. Using

computers also reduces manpower requirements and leads

toan elegant and efficient way of performing various tasks.
Hence, computers save time, energy, and money, When
compared to other systems, computers can do more work
in lesser time. For example, using the conventional postal
system to send an important document takes at least two to
three days, whereas the same information when sent using
the Internet (e-mail) will be delivered instantaneously,

STORED PROGRAM CONCEPT

All digital computers are based on the principle of stored

program concept,which was introduced by Sir John von
Neumann in the late 1940s. The following are the key
characteristic features of this concept:

* Before any data is processed, instructions are read into

memory.

+ Instructions are stored in the computer's memory for

execution.

* Instructions are stored in binary form (using binary

numbers—only Os and Is),

+ Processing starts with the first instruction in the program,

which is copied into a control unit circuit. The control
unit executes the instructions.

+ Instructions written by the users are performed

sequentially until there is a break in the current flow.

* Input/Output and processing operations are performed

simultaneously, While data is being read/written, the
central processing unit (CPU) executes another program
in the memory that is ready for execution,

John W. Mauchly, an American physicist, and J.

Presper Eckert, an American engineer, further contributed
to the stored program concept to make digital computers
much more flexible and powerful. As a result, engineers
in England built the first stored-program computer,
Manchester Mark I, in the year 1949, They were shortly
followed by the Americans who designed EDVAC in the
very same year.

Today, a CPU chip can handle billions of instructions

per second. It executes instructions provided both the data
and instructions are valid. In case either one of them or
both are not valid, the computer stops the processing of
instructions.
1.3.1 Types of Stored Program Computers

A computer with a Von Neumann architecture stores data

and instructions in the same memory. There is a serial
machine in which data and instructions are selected one

®)

Introduction to Computers

peaches address
Read/Write Data

Figure 1.2 Von Neumann architecture (a) Shared memory for instructions and data (b)
Separate
memories for instructions and data

at a time. Data and instructions are transferred to and

from memory through a shared data bus. Since there is a
single bus to carry data and instructions, process execution
becomes slower.

Later Harvard University proposed a stored program

concept in which there was a separate memory to store
data and instructions, Instructions are selected serially
from the instruction memory and executed in the processor.
When an instruction needs data, it is selected from the data
memory, Since there are separate memories, execution
becomes faster,

HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

Early computers were designed not for entertainment but

for solving number-crunching problems. These computers
were punch-card based computers that took up entire rooms,
‘Today, our smurtphones have much more computing power
than that was available in those early computers,

In this section, we will read about history of computers

way back from the invention of abacus and take a look at
the remarkable achievements in computing technology till
the current time,

Timeline of Developments

300 BC: The abacus was an early aid for mathematical

computations and was designed to aid human’s memory
while performing calculations. A skilled abacus operator
can add and subtract with the same speed as that of a person
performing the same calculation using a hand calculator.
The invention of abacus is often wrongly attributed to

China. It was used by the Babylonians even in 300 BC and

is still in use today (in the Far East).
1822: English mathematician Charles Babbage designed
a steam-driven calculating machine that could compute
tables of numbers. Though the project failed as he could
not complete the construction of the engine, it laid the
foundation for the first computer.

1890: Herman Hollerith, an American inventor, designed

a punched card system to calculate the 1880 census,
The system completed the task in three years saving the
US government $5 million. Later Herman established a
company that we today know as IBM.

1936: British mathematician Alan Turing introduced

4 universal machine called the Turing machine capable
of computing anything that is computuble, The central
concept of the modern computer is based on this machine.
1941: John Vincent Atanasoff, a Bulgarian-American
physicist, and his graduate student, Clifford Berry, at lowa
State College designed Atanasoff—Berry computer (ABC)
that could solve 29 equations simultaneously. It was the
first time a computer could store information in its main
memory.

1943-1944: John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert

built the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator
(ENIAC), which is considered as the grandfather of digital
computers. It filled a 20 x 40 feet room and had 18,000
vacuum tubes.
1946: Mauchly and Presper designed the UNIVAC,
which was the first commercial computer for business and
government applications.

8 6 Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C

: William Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter

Brattain of Bell Laboratories invented the transistor. Soon
vacuum tubes in computers were replaced by transistors.

1953: Grace Hopper developed the first computer

language COBOL.

1954: The FORTRAN programming language was

developed.

1958: Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments and Robert

Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation separately
invented integrated circuit, which is commonly known as
the computer chip.

1964: Douglas Engelbart developed a prototype of the

modern computer, with a mouse and a graphical user
interface (GUI). This was a remarkable achievement
as it shifted computers from a specialized machine for
scientists and mathematicians to general public.

1969: Unix operating system was developed at Bell Labs.

It was written in the C programming language and was
designed to be portable across multiple platforms, Soon it
became the operating system of choice among mainframes
at large companies and government entities.

1970: DRAM chip was introduced by Intel.

1971: Alan Shugart with his team in IBM invented

the floppy disk which allowed data to be shared among
computers.

1973: Robert Metcalfe, a research member at Xerox,

developed Ethernet for connecting multiple computers
and other hardware.
1974-1977: Personal
popular,

1975: Paul Allen and Bill Gates started writing software for
the Altair 8800 using the new BASIC language. On Apnil 4.
they both formed their own software company, Microsoft.
1976: Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak started Apple
Computers and developed Apple I, the first computer with
a single-circuit board.

1977: Apple Il was launched that offered colour graphics

and incorporated an audio cassette drive for storage.
1978: WordStar, a word processor application, was
released by MicroPro International.

1979: VisiCalc. the first computerized spreadsheet

program for personal computers, was unveiled.
1981: The first IBM personal computer was introduced
that used Microsoft's MS-DOS operating system. The
term PC was popularized.

1983: The first laptop was introduced. Moreover, Apple

introduced Lisa as the first personal computer with a GUI
with drop-down menus and icons.

1985: Microsoft announced Windows as a new operating

system,

computers started = becoming

1986: Compaq introduced Deskpro 386 in the market,

which was a 32-bit architecture machine that provides
speed comparable to mainframes.

1990: Tim Berners-Lee invented World Wide Web with

HTML as its publishing language.

1993: The Pentium microprocessor introduced the use of

graphics and music on PCs.

1994: PC games became popular.

1996: Sergey Brin and Larry Page developed the Google

search engine at Stanford University.

1999: The term Wi-Fi was introduced when users started

connecting to the Internet without wires.
2001: Apple introduced Mac OS X operating system,
which had protected memory architecture and pre-emptive
multi-tasking, among other benefits, To stay competitive,
Microsoft launched Windows XP.

2003: The first 64-bit processor, AMD's Athlon 64, was

brought into the consumer market,

2004: Mozilla released Firefox 1.0 and in the same year

Facebook, a social networking site, was launched.

2005: YouTube, a video sharing service, was launched. In

the same year, Google acquired Android, a Linux-based
mobile phone operating system.

2006: Apple introduced MacBook Pro, its first Intel-

based, dual-core mobile computer.

2007: Apple released iPhone, which brought many

computer functions in the smartphone.

2009: Microsoft launched Windows 7 in which users

could pin applications to the taskbar.

2010: Apple launched iPad, which revived the tablet

computer segment.
2011: Google introduced Chromebook, a laptop that runs
on the Google Chrome operating system.
2015: Apple released the Apple Watch. In the same year,
Microsoft launched Windows 10.
After reading these interesting developments in
computing technology, let us also understand the evolution
of computers through different generations.

First Generation (1942-1955)

Hardware Technology First generation computers were

manufactured using thousands of vacuum tubes (see
Figure 1.3); a vacuum tube is a device made of fragile glass.
Memory Electromagnetic relay was used as primary
memory and punched cards were used to store data and
instructions.

Software
or assembly language.

Programming was done in machine

Used for Scientific applications

Examples ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC, UNIVAC 1, IBM 701

Highlights

* They were the fastest calculating device of those times

* Computers were too bulky and required a complete

room for storage
* Highly unreliable as vacuum tubes emitted a large

amount of heat and burnt frequently

Required air-conditioned rooms for installation

Costly

Difficult to use

Required constant’ maintenance because vacuum

tubes used filaments that had limited life time.

Therefore, these computers were prone to frequent

hardware failures

Figure 1.3 Vacuum tube

Source: Viadyslav Danilin/Shutterstock

Second Generation (1955-1964)

Hardware Technology Sccond generation computers

were manufactured using transistors (see Figure 1.4).
Transistors were reliable, powerful, cheaper, smaller, and
cooler than vacuum tubes.
Memory Magnetic core memory was used as primary
memory; magnetic tapes and magnetic disks were used
to store data and instructions. These computers had faster
and larger memory than the first generation computers.
Software Technology Programming was done in high
level programming languages. Batch operating system
was used.

Used for Scientific and commercial applications

Examples Honeywell 400, IBM 7030, CDC

UNIVAC LARC

Highlights

* Faster, smaller, cheaper, reliable, and easier to use than

the first generation computers

1604,

Introduction to Computers Cc

* They consumed 1/10th the power consumed by

generation computers

* Bulky in size and required a complete room for its

installation
+ Dissipated less heat than first generation computers but
still required air-conditioned rooms

* Costly

* Difficult to use

até

o*

Figure 1.4 Transistors

Source: yurazaga/Shutterstock

Third Generation (1964-1975)

Hardware Technology Third generation computers were

manufactured using integrated chips (ICs) (shown in
Figure 1.5). ICs consist of several components such as
transistors, capacitors, and resistors on a single chip to
avoid wired interconnections between components, These
computers used S$/ and MSI technology. Minicomputers
came into existence,

Initially, (Cs contained 10-20 components, This

technology was called Small Scale Integration (SSi). Later,
was enhanced to contain about 100 components. This
was called MSI (Medium Scale integration),

Memory Larger magnetic core memory was used as

primary memory; larger capacity magnetic tapes and
magnetic disks were used to store data and instructions.
Software Technology Programming was done in high level
programming languages such as FORTRAN, COBOL,
Pascal, and BASIC. Time sharing operating system was
used. Software was separated from the hardware. This
allowed users to invest only in the software they need.

Used for Scientific, commercial, and interactive online

applications

Examples 1BM 360/370, PDP-8, PADP-11, CDC6600

Highlights

* Faster, smaller, cheaper, reliable, and easier to use than

the second generation computers

* They consumed less power than second generation

computers

8 Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C

Bulky in size and required a complete room for

installation
* Dissipated less heat than second generation computers

but still required air-conditioned rooms

* Costly
* Easier to use and upgrade

Integrated circuits

Figure 1.5
Source: cooldesign/FreeDigitalPhotos. net

Fourth Generation (1975-1989)

Hardware Technology Fourth generation computers

were manufactured using ICs with LSI (Large Scale
Integrated) and later with VLSI technology (Very Large
Scule Integration), Microcomputers came into existence.
Use of personal computers became widespread. High
speed computer networks in the form of LANs, WANs,
and MANs started growing, Besides mainframes,
supercomputers were also used

LSI circuits contained 30,000 components on a single chip

and VLSI technology had about one million electronic
components on a single chip.
Memory Semiconductor memory was used as primary
memory, large capacity magnetic disks were used as built-
in secondary memory. Magnetic tapes and floppy disks
were used as portable storage devices

Software Technology Programming was done in

high level programming language such as C and C++
Graphical User Interface (GUI) based operating system
(c.g. Windows) was introduced. It had icons and menus
among other features to allow computers to be used as
a general purpose machine by all users. UNIX was also
introduced as an open source operating system. Apple Mac
OS and MS DOS were also released during this period. All
these operating systems had multi-processing and multi-
programming capabilities,

Used for Scientific, commercial. interactive online, and

network applications

Examples 1BM PC. Apple Il, TRS-80, VAX 9000, CRAY-

1, CRAY-2, CRAY-X/MP

Highlights Faster, smaller, cheaper, powerful, reliable,

and easier to use than the previous generation computers

Figure 1.6 VLSI chip

Fifth Generation (1989-Present)

Hardware Technology Fifth generation compute:

manufactured using ICs with ULSI (Ulta Large Scale
Integrated) technology. The use of Internet became
widespread and very powerful mainframes, desktops,
portable laptops, and smartphones are being used commonly
Supercomputers use parallel processing techniques,

ULSI circuits contain about 10 million electronic

components on a single chip.

are

Memory Semiconductor memory is used as primary

memory: large capacity magnetic disks are used as built-in
secondary memory. Magnetic tapes and floppy disks were
used as portable storage devices, which have now been
replaced by optical disks and USB flash drives.

Software Technology Programming is done in high-level

programming languages such as Java, Python, and C#
Graphical User Interface (GUI)-based operating systems
such as Windows, Unix, Linux, Ubuntu, and Apple Mac
are being used. These operating systems are more powerful
and user friendly than the ones available in the previous
generations.
Used for Scientific, commercial, interactive
multimedia (graphics, audio, video), and network applications

online,

Examples 1BM_ notebooks, Pentium PCs, SUM

workstations, IBM SP/2, Param supercomputer
Highlights

* Faster, smaller, cheaper, powerful, reliable, and easier to

use than the previous generation computers

* Speed of microprocessors and the size of memory are

growing rapidly

* High-end features available on mainframe computers

in the fourth generation are now available on the
mucroprocessors

* They consume less power than computers of prior

generations

* Air-conditioned rooms required for mainframes and

supercomputers but not for microprocessors

Figure 1.7 ULSI chip

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Computers can be broadly classified into four categories

based on their speed, amount of data that they can process,
and price (refer to Figure 1.8). These categories are as
follows:

+ Supercomputers

+ Mainframe computers

+ Minicomputers

* Microcomputers

1.5.1 Supercomputers

Among the four categories, the supercomputer is the

fastest, most powerful, and most expensive computer.
Supercomputers were first developed in the 1980s to
process large amounts of data and to solve complex
scientific problems, Supercomputers use parallel
processing technology and can perform more than one
trillion calculations in a second.

A single supercomputer can support thousands of users at

the same time, Such computers are mainly used for weather
forecasting, nuclear energy research, aircraft design,
automotive design, online banking, controlling industrial

ce
Introduction to Computers (0 )

units, etc. Some examples of supercomputers are CRAY=Ty

CRAY-2, Control Data CYBER 205, and ETA A-10,

1.5.2 Mainframe Computers

Mainframe computers are large-scale computers (but

smaller than supercomputers). These are very expensive and
need a very large clean room with air conditioning, thereby
making them very costly to deploy. As with supercomputers,
mainframes can also support multiple processors. For
example, the IBM $/390 mainframe can support 50,000
users at the same time. Users can access mainframes by
cither using terminals or via PCs. The two types of terminals
that can be used with mainframe systems are as follows:

Dumb Terminals

Dumb terminals consist of only a monitor and a keyboard

(or mouse). They do not have their own CPU and memory
and use the mainframe system's CPU and storage devices.
Intelligent Terminals

In contrast to dumb terminals, intelligent terminals have

their own processor and thus can perform some processing
operations. However, just like the dumb terminals, they do
not have their own storage space. Usually, PCs are used
as intelligent terminals to facilitate data access and other
services from the mainframe system.

Mainframe computers are typically used as servers on

the World Wide Web. They are also used in organizations
such as banks, airline companies, and universities. where
a large number of users frequently access the data stored
in their databases, IBM is the major manufacturer of
mainframe computers. Some examples of mainframe
computers include IBM $/390, Control Data CYBER 176,
and Amdah! 580.

1.5.3 Minicomputers

As the name suggests, minicomputers are smaller,

cheaper, and slower than mainframes. They are called
minicomputers because they were the smallest computer
of their times. Also known as midrange computers, the
capabilities of minicomputers fall between mainframe and

personal computers.
Classification of computers
Supercomputers Mainframe computers Minicomputers Microcomputers
Dumb terminals Intelligent terminals Desktop PCs Laptops Handheld devices

Workstations Network computers

Figure 1.8 Classification of computers

fi 10 Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C

are widely used in business, education,

hospitals, government organizations, ctc. While some
minicomputers can be used only by a single user, others
are specifically designed to handle multiple users
simultancously, Usually, single-user minicomputers are
used for performing complex design tasks.

As with mainframes, minicomputers can also be used

as servers in a networked environment, and hundreds of
PCs can be connected to it,

The first minicomputer was introduced by Digital

Equipment Corporation (DEC) in the mid-1960s, Other
manufacturers of minicomputers include IBM Corporation
(AS/400 computers), Data General Corporation, and
Prime Computer.

1.5.4 Microcomputers
Microcomputers, commonly known as PCs, are very small
and cheap. The first microcomputer was designed by IBM
in 1981 and was named IBM-PC, Later on, many computer
hardware companies copied this design and termed their
microcomputers as PC-compatible, which refers to any
PC that is based on the original IBM PC design.

Another type of popular PC is designed by Apple. PCs

designed by IBM and other PC-compatible computers
have a different architecture from that of Apple computers.
Moreover, PCs and PC-compatible computers commonly
use the Windows operating system, while Apple computers
use the Macintosh operating system (MacOS). PCs can be
classified into the following categories:

Desktop PCs

A desktop PC is the most popular model of PCs. The

system unit of the desktop PC can be placed flat on a desk
or table. It is widely used in homes and offices.

Laptops

Laptops (Figure 1.9) are small microcomputers that can

eusily fit inside a briefcase. They are very handy and can
Figure 1.9 Laptop
Source: You can more/Shutterstock

easily be carried from one place to another. They may also

be placed on the user's lap (thus the name). Hence, laptops
are very useful, especially when going on long journeys.
Laptops operate on a battery and do not always have to be
plugged in like desktop computers.

‘The memory and storage capacity of a laptop is almost

equivalent to that of a desktop computer. As with desktop
computers, laptops also have hard disk drives, USB drives,
etc, For input, laptops have a built-in keyboard and a
trackball/touchpad, which is used as a pointing device (as
a mouse is used for a desktop PC).

Today, laptops have the same features and processing

speed as the most powerful PCs. However, a drawback is
that laptops are generally more expensive than desktop
computers. These computers are very popular among
business travellers.

Workstations
Workstations are single-user computers that have the same
features as PCs, but their processing speed matches that
of a minicomputer or mainframe computer. Workstation
computers have advanced processors, more RAM and
storage capacity than PCs. Therefore. they are more
expensive and powerful than a normal desktop computer.
Although workstation computers are widely used as
powerful single-user computers by scientists, engineers,
architects, and graphic designers, they can also be used as
servers in a networked environment,

Network Computers

Network computers have less processing power,

memory, and storage than a desktop computer. These are
specially designed to be used as terminals in a networked
environment. For example, some network computers are
specifically designed to access data stored on a network
(including the Intemet and intranet).

Some network computers do not have any storage space

and merely rely on the network’s server for data storage and
processing tasks. The concept of network computers had
become popular in the mid-1990s when several variations
of computers such as Windows terminals, NetPCs, and
diskless workstations were widely used.

Network computers thatare specifically designed to access

only the Internet or intranet are often known as Internet PCs
or Intemet boxes. Some network computers used in homes do
not even have a monitor. Such computers may be connected
to a television, which serves as the output device, The most
common example of a home-based network computer is
Web TV, which enables the user to connect a television to the
Internet. The Web TV is equipped with a special set-top box
that is used to connect to the Internet. The set-top box also
provides controls to enable the user to navigate the Internet,
send and receive e-mails, and to perform other tasks on the
network while watching television. The other reason for the
popularity of network computers is that they are cheaper to
purchase and maintain than PCs.

Handheld Computers

The mid-1990s witnessed a range of small personal

computing devices that are commonly known as handheld
computers, or mobile computers. These computers are
called handheld computers because they can fit in one
hand, while users can use the other hand to operate them.
Handheld computers are very small in size, and hence they
have small-sized screens and keyboards. These computers
are preferred by business travellers and mobile employees
whose jobs require them to move from place to place.
Some examples of handheld computers are as follows:
* Smartphones
* Tablet PCs

Smartphones Thescdays,cellularphones are web-enabled

telephones. Such phones are also known as smartphones
because, in addition to basic phone capabilities, they also
facilitate the users to access the Intemet and send e-mails,
edit Word documents, generate an Excel sheet, create a
presentation, and lots more,

Smartphones run an advanced mobile operating

system that enables it to run various applications, The
four major mobile operating systems are iOS, Android,
BlackBerryOS, and Windows Mobile. Smartphones also
have a CPU, more storage space, more memory, and 4
larger screen than a regular cell phone.

In & nutshell, smartphone refers to a multi-functional

mobile phone handset that packs in varied functionalities
from a camera to a web browser to a high-density display.

Tablet PCs A tablet PC (sce Figure 1.10) is a computing

device that is smaller than a laptop, but bigger than a
smartphone. Features such as user-friendly interface,
portability, and touch screen huve made them very
popular in the last few years. These days, a wide range
of high-performance tablets are available in the market.
While all of them look similar from outside, they may
differ in features such as operating system, speed of data
connectivity, camera specifications, size of the screen,
processing power, battery life, and storage capability.

Some operating systems that are used in tablets are

Android Jellybean (an open-source operating system
built by Google), Windows 8, and iOS (developed by
Apple), Each operating system has its own advantages
and disadvantages and a proprietary app store, from which
users can download applications, extending the tablet’s
functionality, These apps range from games to specialized
word processors and even instruments.

While users can easily type directly on the surface of a

tablet, some users prefer a wireless or bluctooth-connected
keyboard. These days, tablets also offer an optional
docking station with keyboards that transforms the tablet
into a full-featured netbook.
Uses The following are the uses of Tablet PCs:
+ View presentations

« Videoconferencing

* Reading e-books, e-newspaper

Introduction to Computers { or i

+ Watching movies

+ Playing games

* Sharing pictures, video, songs, documents, etc.

* Browsing the Internet

* Keeping in touch with friends and family on popular

social networks, sending emails

* Business people use them to perform tasks such as

editing a document, exchanging documents, taking
notes, and giving presentations

+ Tablets are best used in crowded places such as airports

and coffee shops, where size and portability become
more important.

‘Tablets may replace laptops if users don’t have to

perform heavy processing tasks and do not require a CD
or DVD player
Figure 1.10 Tablet
Source: bloomua/Shutterstock/OUP Picture Bank

RD Appuications OF COMPUTERS

When the first computers were developed, they were used

only in the fields of mathematics and science, In fact, the
first effective utilization of computers was for decoding
messages in military applications. Later on, computers
were used in real-time control systems, like for landing on
the moon. However, with the advancement of technology,
the cost of computers and their maintenance declined.
This opened the way for computers to be extensively used
in the business and commercial sector for information
processing. Today, computers are widely used in fields
such as engineering, health care, banking, education,
etc, Let us discuss how computers are being effectively
utilized to perform important tasks.

Word processing Word processing software enables users

to read and write documents. Users can also add images,
tables, and graphs for illustrating a concept. The software
automatically corrects spelling mistakes and includes
copy-paste features (which is very useful where the same
text has to be repeated several times).

i 12 Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C

The Intemet is a network of networks that
connects computers all over the world. It gives the user
access (0 an enormous amount of information, much more
than available in any library. Using e-mail, the user can
communicate in seconds with a person who is located
thousands of miles away. Chat software enables users
to chat with another person in real-time (irrespective of
the physical location of that person), Video conferencing
tools are becoming popular for conducting mectings with
people who are unable to be present at a particular place.

Digital video or audio composition Computers make

audio or video composition and editing very simple. This
has drastically reduced the cost of equipment to compose
music or make a film. Graphics engineers use computers
for developing short or full-length films and creating 3-D
models and special effects in science fiction and action
movies,

Desktop publishing Desktop publishing software enables

us to create page layouts for entire books.

After discussing how computers are used in today’s

scenario, let us now have a look at the different areas
where computers are being widely utilized.

e-Business
e-Business or electronic business is the process of
conducting business via the Internet. This may include
buying and selling of goods and services using computers
and the Internet, Use of email and videoconferencing
technology has revolutionized the way business is being
conducted these days,

While an e-mail is a service that delivers messages

from a sender to One or more receivers via computer,
voice mail systems capture, store, and transmit spoken
messages. Videoconferencing, which is an advanced form
of teleconferencing, provides a complete simulation of
a normal meeting environment in which all concerned
parties can sec, heur, and present material, just as if they
were in the same room, These meetings not only speed up
business process but also save the cost of travel and cost of
the time wasted during travel.

Companies today use ¢-commerce applications for

marketing, tansaction, processing, and product and
customer services processing. For example, the website
of a company can perform activities such as interactive
marketing, ordering, payment, and customer support
process.

e-commerce used to perform transactions between

business partners or customers has several applications
such as home banking. electronic shopping, buying

stocks, finding a job, conducting an auction, marketing

and advertising products or services, and providing
customer service. The following are techniques in which
e-commerce helps users to conduct business transactions.

Business-to-consumer or B2C In this form of electronic

commerce, business companies deploy their websites
on the Internet to sell their products and services to the
customers. On their websites, they provide features such
as cutalogues, interactive order processing system, secure
electronic payment system, and online customer support.

Business-to-business or B2B This type of electronic

commerce involves business transactions performed
between business partners (customers are not involved).
For example, companies use computers and networks (in
the form of extranets) to order raw materials from their
suppliers. Companies can also use extranets to supply
their products to their dealers.

Consumer-to-consumer or C2C This type of electronic

commerce enables customers to carry business transactions
among themselves. For example, on auction websites,
a customer sells his/her product which is purchased by
another customer.

Electronic banking Electronic banking, also known as

cyberbanking or online banking, supports various banking
activities conducted from home, a business, or on the road
instead of a physical bank location,
Bioinformatics

Bioinformatics is the application of computer technology

fo manage large amount of biological information.
Computers are used to collect, store, analyse, and integrate
biological and genetic information to facilitate gene-based
drug discovery and development, The need for analysis has
become even more important with enormous amount of
genomic information available publicly from the Human
Genome Project.

Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field of molecular

biology, computer science, statistics, and mathematics. It
involves analyses of genomic information to understand
human diseases and thus discover new drugs to treat those

We know that DNA is made up of smaller picces of

molecules and the sequence of molecules along a string
of DNA contains all information about an organism, This
information can be used to grow new organisms. For
example, scientists are using this information to grow
better variety of crops, to generate a genome that will
enable cows to yield more milk, so and so forth.

Therefore. bioinformatics helps scientists to store the

DNA information in huge databases, retrieve it as and
when required, and analyse it to grow and develop new

Scientists also use bioinformatics to identify diseases

and discover drugs for them. This is done by writing
special programs that compare the sequence of molecules
in DNA of a healthy person with that of the patient's. These
analyses help them to identify what is missing in a patient
and to determine drugs that can make the molecules in
DNA of the patient look similar to that of a healthy person.
For example, one of the drugs to treat AIDS was designed
using bioinformatics techniques.

Health care

Last few years have seen a massive growth of computers

and smartphone users. Like in our daily lives, computers
have also become 4 necessary device in the health care
industry, The following are areas in which computers are
extensively used in the health care industry.

Storing records To begin with, computers are first and

foremost used to store the medical records of patients.
Earlier, patient records were kept on paper, with separate
records dealing with different medical issues from separate
healthcare organizations. With time, the number of
prescriptions, medical reports, etc., grow in volume making
it difficult to maintain and analyse. Use of computers to
store patient records has been a game-changer in terms of
improving the efficiency and accuracy of the entire process.

Now, the entire medical history of patients is easily

accessible, Since the records are electronically stored, they
can be easily shared between different doctors (in same
or different healthcare organizations) who are treating
the same patient. Besides saving paper and enhancing
efficiency, use of computers also saves patients’ money by
reducing duplication of tests and procedures.

Surgical procedures Computers are used for certain

surgical procedures. They enable the surgeon to use
computer to control and move surgical instruments in
the patient's body for a variety of surgical procedures. In
such surgeries, a small incision is made, and then a small
surgical tool with an attached camera is placed inside the
patient's body. This reduces the risk of complications from
a larger surgical wound, and minimizes damage done to
the patient's body. In such a scenario, computers are not
only used to drive the tools but also used to relay images
from inside the patient's body out to the doctors.

Computers also help to determine the cause of an

affliction or illness. For example, computers can combine
ultrasonography and imaging in fields like cardiology to
check the functionality of the heart. In case of a serious
ailment, the causes can be detected in less time and
treatment can be started at the earliest thereby saving a
number of lives.

Today, tablets and computers are being used in surgical

consultations and videoconferencing between doctors.

Better diagnosis and treatment Computers help

physicians make better diagnoses and recommend
treatments. Moreover, computers can be used to compare
expected results with actual results in order to help
physicians make better decisions.

Introduction to Computers ( 13

Doctors sitting in hospitals can monitor their t

sitting in their homes by using computer-based systems.
As soon as warning signs of serious illnesses are spotted,
they alert the concerned doctor quickly.

Geographic Information System and

Remote Sensing

A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-

based tool for mapping and analysing earth’s features.
It integrates database operations and statistical
analysis to be used with maps. GIS manages location-
based information and provides tools for display and
analysis of statistics such as population count, types of
vegetation, and economic development opportunities.
Such type of information helps to predict outcomes and
plan strategies.

Remote sensing is the science of taking measurements

of the earth using sensors. on airplanes or satellites. These
sensors collect data in the form of images, which are then
analysed to derive useful information.

The key feature of remote sensing is that it acquires

information about an object without making physical
contact with it, Remote sensing is a sub-field of geography,
which can be applied in the following areas to collect data
of dangerous or inaccessible areas for the following:

* Monitoring deforestation in areas like the Amazon

Basin

* Studying features of glaciers in Arctic and Antarctic

regions

Analysing the depth of coastal and ocean areas

Studying land usage in agriculture

Examining the health of indigenous plants and crops

Determining the prospect for minerals

Locating and measuring intensity of earthquakes (after

they had occurred) by comparing the relative intensity

and precise timings of seismograms collected from

different locations

CUS ew
Meteorology

Metcorology is the study of the atmosphere, This branch of

science observes variables of Earth’s atmosphere such as
temperature, air pressure, water vapour, and the gradients
and interactions of each variable, and how they change
over time, Meteorology has applications in many diverse
fields such as the military, energy production, transport,
agriculture, and construction. Some of the applications
include the following:

Weather forecasting It includes application of science

and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere
(temperature, precipitation, etc.) for a future time and a
given location, Weather forecasting is done by collecting
quantitative data about the current state of the atmosphere
and analysing the atmospheric processes to project how
the atmosphere will evolve.

{ 4 Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C

forecasts are especially made to generate

warnings regarding heavy rainfall, snowfall, etc. They are
also important to agriculturists and also to commodity
traders within stock markets, Temperature forecasts
are used by utility companies to estimate demand over
coming days.
Aviation meteorology Aviation meteorology studies the
impact of weather on air traffic management. It helps
cabin crews to understand the implications of weather on
their flight plan as well as their aircraft,

Agricultural meteorology Agricultural meteorology

deals with the study of effects of weather and climate on
plant distribution, crop yield, water-use efficiency, plant
and animal development.

Nuclear meteorology Nuclear meteorology studies

the distribution of radioactive aerosols and gases in the
atmosphere.

Maritime meteorology Maritime meteorology is the

study of air and wave forecusts for ships operating al sea,

Multimedia and Animation

Multimedia and animation that combines still images,

moving images, text, and sound in meaningful ways is
one of most powerful aspects of computer technology. We
all have seen cartoon movies, which are nothing but an
example of computer animation.

N
Displaying a number of still images within a fraction of a
at least 30 still images in a second gives an effect of a

ote

Using animation software, we can reproduce real-

world phenomena such as fire, smoke, fluids, movement of
chemicals through the air and ground. and the respiratory
system to name a few, Animation is an easy and effective
way to show complex interactions or events. Thus, it is an
excellent tool for educating an audience.

A dynamic multimedia presentation (created using

tools like MS PowerPoint) can make the message not
only easily understood but also effective. Multimedia
presentation helps corporate people to share information
or their ideas and graphically present information in a
more understandable and persuasive manner. Multimedia
presentations can be recorded and played or displayed
dynamically depending on user's inputs. Multimedia and
animation is used to create computer games. A laser show
is also an example of a multimedia application,

Multimedia and animation is used to add special effects

in movies. In education, multimedia is used to prepare
training courses, Students find learning complex computer
algorithms and data structures by reading only a textual

explanation. However, they find it interesting to learn

through interacting with an animation of the algorithm

Edutainment is the combination of education with

entertainment.

Legal System

Computers are used by lawyers to shorten the time required

to conduct legal precedent and case research. Lawyers use
computers to look through millions of individual cases and
tind whether similar or parallel cases have been approved,
denied, criticized, or overruled in the past. This enables
the lawyers to formulate strategies based on past case
decisions. Moreover. computers are also used to keep
track of appointments and prepare legal documents and
briefs in time for filling cases,

Retail Business

Computers are used in retail shops to enter orders, calculate

costs, and print receipts. They are also used to keep an
inventory of the products available and their complete
description,

Sports
In sports, computers are used to compile statistics,
identify weak players and strong players by analysing
statistics, sell tickets, create training programs and diets
for athletes, and suggest game plan strategies based on
the competitor's past performance. Computers are also
used to generate most of the graphic art displays flashed
on scoreboards.

Television networks use computers in the control room

to display action replays and insert commercial breaks as
per schedule.

In addition, there are simulation software packages

available that help a sportsperson to practice his or her
skills as well as identify flaws in the technique,

Travel and Tourism

Computers are used to prepare tickets, monitor the train's

or airplane's route, and guide the plane to a safe landing.
‘They are ulso used to research about hotels in an area,
reserve rooms, Or to rent a car.

Simulation

Supercomputers that can process enormous amount of

data are widely used in simulation tests. Simulation of
automobile crashes or airplane emergency landings is done
to identify potential weaknesses in designs without risking
human lives. Supercomputers also enable engineers to
design aircraft models and simulate the effects that winds
and other environmental forces have on those designs.

Astronauts are trained using computer-simulated problems

that could be encountered during launch, in space, or upon
return to earth.

Astronomy

Spacecrafts are usually monitored using computers that

not only keep a continuous record of the voyage and
of the speed, direction, fuel, and temperature, but also
suggest corrective action if the vehicle makes a mistake.
The remote stations on the carth compare all these
quantities with the desired values, and in case these values
need to be modified to enhance the performance of the
spacecraft, signals are immediately sent that set in motion
the mechanics to rectify the situation. With the help of
computers, all this is done within a fraction of a second.

Education

A computer is a powerful teaching aid and can act as

another teacher in the classroom, Teachers use computers to
develop instructional material. Teachers may use pictures,
graphs, and graphical presentations to casily illustrate
an otherwise difficult concept. Moreover, teachers at all
levels can use computers to administer assignments and
keep track of grades. Students can also give exams online
and get instant results.

Industry and Engineering

Computers are found in all kinds of industries, such

as thermal power plants, oil refineries, and chemical
industries, for process control, computer-aided designing
(CAD), and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM).

Computerized process control (with or without human

intervention) is used to enhance efficiency in applications
such as production of various chemical products, oil
refining, paper manufacture, and rolling and cutting steel
to customer requirements.

In CAD, computers and graphics-oriented software are

integrated for automating the design and drafting process.
It helps an engincer to design a 3D machine part, analyse
its characteristics, and then subject it to simulated stresses.
In case a part fails the stress test, its specifications can be
modified on the computer and retested. The final design
specifications are released for production only when the
engineer is satisfied that the part meets strength and other
quality considerations.

The CAM phase begins when the CAD phase is

complete. In this phase, the metal or other materials are
manufactured while complying with their specifications.
For this computer controlled manufacturing, tools are used
to produce high quality products.

Robotics

Robots are computer-controlled machines mainly used in

the manufacturing process in extreme conditions where

Introduction to Computers ce

humans cannot work, For example, in high t

high pressure conditions or in processes that demand very

high levels of accuracy. The main distinguishing feature
between a robot and other automated machines is that @
robot can be programmed to carry out a complex task and
then reprogrammed to carry out another complex tasks.

Decision Support Systems

Computers help managers to analyse their organization's

data to understand the present scenario of their business,
view the trends in the market, and predict the future of their
products. Managers also use decision support systems to
analyse market research data, to size up the competition,
and to plan effective strategies for penetrating their
markets.
Expert Systems

Expert systems are used to automate the decision-making

process in a specific area, such as analysing the credit
histories for loan approval and diagnosing a patient's
condition for prescribing an appropriate treatment. Expert
systems analyse the available data in depth to recommend
a course of action. A medical expert system might provide
the most likely diagnosis of patient's condition.

To create an expert system, an extensive amount of

human expertise in a specific area is collected and stored
in a database, also known as a knowledge base. A software
called an interface engine analyses the data available
in the knowledge base and selects the most appropriate
response.

Adding more to it, in today’s scenario, computers are

used to find jobs on the Internet, read news and articles
online, find your batchmates, send and receive greetings
pertaining to different occasions, etc.

BASIC ORGANIZATION OF
A COMPUTER

A computer is an electronic device that performs five

major operations:
* Accepting data or instructions (input)
* Storing data
* Processing data
* Displaying results (output)
* Controlling and coordinating all operations inside a
computer
In this section, we will discuss all these functions and
see how one unit of a computer interacts with another to
perform these operations. Refer to Figure 1.11, which
shows the interaction between the different units of a
computer system.
Input This is the process of entering data and instructions
(also known as programs) into the computer system, The

{ (16 } Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C

Data and
é; R

Input Storage Output Results

cru
Control unit
'
aga Flow of data and instructions

— Control exercised by control unit

Figure 1.11 Block diagram of a computer

data and instructions can be entered by using different

input devices such as keyboard, mouse, scanner, and
trackball. Note that computers understand binary language,
which consists of only two symbols (0 and 1), so it is the
responsibility of the input devices to convert the input data
into binary codes.

Storage Storage is the process of saving data and

instructions permanently in the computer so that they can
be used for processing, The computer storage space not
only stores the data and programs that operate on that data
but also stores the intermediate results and the final results
of processing,

A computer has two types of storage areas:

Primary storage Primary storage, also known as the main

memory, is the storage area that is directly accessible by
the CPU at very high speeds. It is used to store the data and
purts of programs, the intermediate results of processing,
and the recently generated results of jobs that are currently
being worked on by the computer. Primary storage space
is very expensive and therefore limited in capacity.
Another drawback of main memory is that it is volatile
in nature; that is, as soon as the computer is switched off,
the information stored gets erased. Hence, it cannot be
used as a permanent storage of useful data and programs
for future use. An example of primary storage is random
access memory (RAM).

Secondary storage Also known as auxiliary memory,

this memory is just the opposite of primary memory, It
overcomes all the drawbacks of the primary storage area.
It is cheaper, non-volatile, and used to permanently store
data and programs of those jobs thal are not being currently
executed by the CPU. Secondary memory supplements
the limited storage capacity of the primary memory. An
example is the magnetic disk used to store data, such as C
and D drives, for future use.

Output Output is the process of giving the result of data

processing to the outside world (external to the computer
system). The results are given through output devices such
as monitor, and printer. Since the computer accepts data

only in binary form and the result of processing is also in

binary form, the result cannot be directly given to the user.
The output devices, therefore, convert the results available
in binary codes into a human-readable language before
displaying it to the user.

Control The control unit (CU) is the central nervous

system of the entire computer system. It manages and
controls all the components of the computer system. It
is the CU that decides the manner in which instructions
will be executed and operations performed. It takes care
of the step-by-step processing of all operations that are
performed in the computer.

Note that the CPU is a combination of the arithmetic

logic unit (ALU) and the CU. The CPU is better known
as the brain of the computer system because the entire
processing of data is done in the ALU, and the CU activates
and monitors the operations of other units (such as input,
output, and storage) of the computer system.

Processing The process of performing operations on the

data as per the instructions specified by the user (program)
is called processing. Data and instructions are taken from
the primary memory and transferred to the ALU, which
performs all sorts of calculations. The intermediate results
of processing may be stored in the main memory, as they
might be required again. When the processing completes,
the final result is then transferred to the main memory.
Hence, the data may move from main memory to the ALU
multiple times before the processing is over.

LAB SESSION—INSIDE THE

COMPUTER

As a part of this chapter, the instructor must show the parts

of the computer to the students, as illustrated in Figure 1.12.

PS/2 Keyboard

USK Serial! Serial? Graphics Secondary ethernet

Sound card
Figure 1.12 Computer case and its parts

The following are some of the major parts of the

computer:

CPU The CPU is the brain of the computer. It performs

all calculations and controls the devices connected to
the computer system. The faster the CPU, the quicker
programs can process the instructions.

RAM A fast CPU is of no use if the computer does not

have sufficient RAM. As discussed earlier, RAM is the
computer's memory which stores information used by
applications that are currently being executed by the
CPU. More memory means more applications can be
executed at the same time without degrading the system's
performance.

Hard disk drive (HDD) The HDD of the computer is

the secondary memory of the computer system where
information is stored permanently. All types of data,
documents, and programs are stored on the hard disk.
The larger the hard disk, the more the amount of data that
can be stored on the drive. Though the size of the HDD
does not affect the speed of execution of the program, it
does affect the speed at which the user can access his/
her files.
Video card The video card is a board that plugs into
the motherboard of the computer and generates images
for display. Many video cards these days have their own
RAM and processor to enhance the speed of the graphics
display, Many computers come with an in-built video chip.
In such a computer, a separate video card is used only if
the computer has to be used for high-end multimedia work
or to play video games,

Soundcard As with video cards, sound cards are expansion

boards that are used to enable a computer to manipulate
sound. For example, sound cards allow the users to plug in
speakers and a microphone. Some sound cards also provide
the jacks for hooking your computer up to a common stereo.

These days, many computers come with a built-in sound

chip, which makes it unnecessary to buy a separate card
unless a higher quality of sound is needed,

Modem A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device

that enables the computer to use a telephone line to
communicate and connect to the Internet,

Network card A network card is used to connect the

computer cither to other computers or to the Internet (in
case you are using a fast Internet connection such as cable
or DSL).
Fans There are one or more fans inside the computer to
keep the air moving and the computer cool.

Cables There are multiple wires inside the computer

that are flat, ribbon-like cables. They are used to provide
power and communication to the various parts inside the
computer.

MOTHERBOARD

The motherboard, also known as the mainboard or the

parent board (refer Figure 1.13), is the primary component
of a computer. It is used to connect all the components
of the computer. The motherboard is a printed circuit that
has connectors for expansion cards, memory modules, the
processor, etc.

1.9.1 Characteristics of a Motherboard

A motherboard can be classified depending on the

following characteristics:

* Form factor

* Chipset

* Type of processor socket used

* Input-Output connectors

18 Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C

Input-Output connectors

Jumpers

Disk drive and floppy drive connectors

Case fan power supply

connector

Figure 1.13 Computer's motherboard

Form factor Form factor refers to the motherboard's

geometry, dimensions, arrangement, and clectrical
requirements. The industry has defined a few standards
for the form factors, so that they can be used in different
brands of cases,

Integrated components Some of the motherboard’s

components are integrated into its printed circuitry. These
include the following:
* The chipset is a circuit that controls the majority of the
computer's resources such as the bus interface with the
processor, cache memory, RAM, and expansion cards.

* CMOS clock and battery

+ BIOS

* System bus and expansion bus

In addition to these, the latest motherboards also have

a number of onboard multimedia and networking devices
(which can be disabled), such as integrated network
card, integrated graphics card, integrated sound card, and
upgraded hard drive controllers.

Chipset The chipset is an electronic circuit that basically

coordinates data transfers between the different components

of the computer (such as the processor and memory). In

order to enhance the computer's upgradeability, one must
choose a motherboard that has the latest chipset integrated
in it, Some chipsets may include a graphics or audio chip,
which makes it unnecessary to install a separate graphics
card or sound card. However, in case you need very high
quality of audio and visual capabilities, then you must
disable the graphics/audio chip in the BIOS setup and
install high-quality expansion cards in the appropriate slots.
CMOS clock and battery The real-time clock (or RTC)
is 4 circuit that is used to synchronize the computer's
signals. When the computer is switched off, the power
supply stops providing electricity to the motherboard.
You must have observed that when we turn on the system,
it always displays the correct time. This is because an
electronic circuit, called the complementary metal-
oxide semiconductor (CMOS) chip, saves some system
information, such as the time, date, and other essential
system settings,

The CMOS chip is powered by a battery located on the

motherboard. Information on the hardware installed in the
computer (such as the number of tracks or sectors on cach

Introduction to Computers

USB
Figure 1.14

hard drive) is stored in the CMOS chip. Since the CMOS

chip is quite slow, some systems prefer to copy the CMOS
chip's content into the RAM, which is a comparatively
faster storage. This process of copying data into RAM is
better known as memory shadow.

Have you noticed that, at times, the system time gets

reset automatically, or the clock runs late’? This indicates
that you need to change the battery.
BIOS The basic inpuV/output system (BIOS) is an interface
between the operating system and the motherboard.
The BIOS is stored in the read-only memory (ROM),
which cannot be rewritten. The BIOS uses data stored
in the CMOS chip to know about the system's hardware
configuration,

‘To configure the BIOS, the user can use an interface

known as B/OS setup. which can be accessed when the
computer is booting. To enter BIOS setup, the user must
press the DEL key. Fl and F2 keys can also be used.

Processor socket The processor (also called the micro-

processor) is the brain of the computer, The processor is
characterized by its speed or frequency, which is the rate at
which it executes instructions. For example, an 800-MHz
processor can perform 800 million operations per second.

The slot on the motherboard into which the processor is

inserted is called the processor socket or slot. Irrespective
of whether you use a slot or a socket, you must gently
insert the processor, so that none of its pins are bent (it has
hundreds of them). Usually, a concept called zero insertion
force (ZIP) is used. The ZIF sockets allow the processor to
be inserted very gently and casily.

When the computer is on, the processor is working

and it releases heat, which must be dissipated to keep the
circuits from melting. Therefore, the processor is generally
mounted on a cooler that is made of metal (such as copper
or aluminum), which conducts heat well. In addition to the
cooler, there is also a fan to improve air circulation around

POINTS TO REMEMBER

. A computer is an electronic machine that accepts data

and instructions and performs computations on the
data based on those instructions.

. Computers are used in all interactive devices, such as

cellular telephones, GPS units, portable organizers,
ATMs, and gas pumps.

VGA
1/O connectors

it and to improve the heat transfer. The fan vents hot air
from the case and lets fresh air come in from outside.

RAM connectors RAM is the primary storage area that

stores data while the computer is running. However, its
contents are erased when the computer is turned off or
restarted, While the hard disk can store data permanently,
we still need RAM because it is extremely fast when
compared to mass storage devices such as hard drives.
Therefore, the fast processor accesses data from RAM
and not from the hard disk. The data is transferred from
the hard disk to the RAM, from where it is used by the
processor. RAM is available in the form of modules that
plug into motherboard connectors.

Expansion slots Expansion slots are compartments into

which expansion cards can be inserted. Such curds render
new features or enhance the computer's performance. For
example, the AGP slot (also known as Accelerated Graphic
Port) is a fast port used for graphics cards,

1/0 connectors The motherboard has a number of input~

output sockets (Figure 1.14) on its rear panel, some of
which include:

* A serial port to connect some old peripherals

A parallel port to connect old printers

USB ports to connect more recent peripherals such as

mouse and pen drive.

RJ45 connector (also known as LAN or Ethernet port)

to connect the computer to a network. It corresponds to
a network card integrated into the motherboard.

Video graphics array (VGA) connector fo connect &

monitor. This connector interfaces with the built-in
graphics card.

Audio plugs that include the line in, line out, and
microphone to connect sound speakers, hi-fi system, or
microphone, This connector interfaces with the built-in
sound card.

* Modern-day computers are based on the principle of

the stored program concept, which was introduced by
Sir John von Neumann in the late 1940s.

* The speed of the computer is usually given in

nanoseconds and picoseconds.

G) Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C

© The term computer generation refers to the different

advancements of new computer technology. With
each new generation of computers, the circuitry has
become smaller and more advanced than that in its
previous generation,

© First-generation computers used a very large number

of vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for
memory.

* Second-generation computers were manufactured

using transistors rather than vacuum tubes.

* The development of the integrated circuit was the

hallmark of the third generation of computers.

¢ The microprocessor started the fourth generation of

| GLOSSARY

Tee "Kcomputer is an electronic machine that takes

instructions and performs computations based on those
instructions.

Expert systems Expert systems are custom-written computer

programs that are ‘expert’ in a particular problem area, and
embody a human expert’s knowledge, experience, and
problem-solving strategies. They are being used in many
areas such as medicine, chemistry, geology, meteorology, and
computer systems.

Garbage-in, garbage-out |f input data is wrong, then the

output will also be erroneous.

GUI A GUI is a type of user interface that enables users to

Interact with programs in more ways than typing. A GUI!
offers graphical icons and visual indicators to display the
Information and actions available to a user. The actions are
performed by direct manipulation of the graphical elements.
Input The process of entering data and instructions into
the computer system.

Integrated circuit Also called a chip or microchip, an IC

is a semiconductor wafer on which thousands or millions
of tiny resistors, capacitors, and transistors are fabricated.
it can be used as an amplifier, oscillator, timer, counter,
computer memory, or microprocessor.

Internet It is a network of networks that connects

computers, with thousands of integrated circuits built
on to a single silicon chip.

© Fifth-generation computers are manufactured using

integrated chips (ICs) built with ultra-large scale
integration (ULSI) technology.

© The CPU is a combination of the ALU and the CU. The

CPU is known as the brain of the computer system.

* The CU is the central nervous system of the entire

computer system. It manages and controls all the
components of the computer system.

* The motherboard, also known as the mainboard or

the parent board, is the primary component of a
computer.

computers all over the world.

Memory shadow The process of copying data from CMOS

into RAM.

Program A set of instructions executed by the computer.

Robotics Computers programmed to look, listen, and
react to other sensory stimuli.

Semiconductor devices Semiconductor devices are

electronic components that make use of the electronic
properties of semiconductor materials (such as silicon
and germanium). The conductivity of such devices can be
controlled by introducing an electric field, by exposure to
light, and even pressure and heat, thereby making such
devices excellent sensors.

Storage The process of saving data and instructions

permanently in the computer so that it can be used for
processing.

Stylus A stylus is an electronic pen that looks like a small

ballpoint pen.

Transistor A transistor is a semiconductor device that is

used to amplify and switch electronic signals. Although
some transistors are packaged individually, others are
usually found embedded in ICs.

Vacuum tube A vacuum tube is a device used to amplify

electronic signals.

EXERCISES

Fill in the Blanks

1, Aprogram is the
2. Computers operate on based on
3. Computers can perform calculations in a second.

4. The speed of computers is expressed in

5. Raw facts or figures are called
6. is an example of primary memory.

or

and______ are examples of first-generation

computing devices.
. Second-generation computers were first developed for
the industry.
3 packages allow easy manipulation and analysis
of data organized in rows and columns.
|. CRAY-1, CRAY-2, Control Data CYBER 205, and ETA A-10
are -
enables the computer to use a telephone line
to communicate and connect to the Internet.
connector is used to connect a monitor.
hs concept was introduced by Sir John von
Neumann in the late 1940s.
. Android Jellybean, Windows, and iOS are all examples of
popular operating systems used in and

f is an interface between the operating system

and the motherboard.

Multiple-choice Questions
1, Which was the first commercial computer delivered to a
business client?
(a) UNIVAC (b) ENIAC
{c) EDSAC (d) None of these
. Which technology was used to manufacture second-
generation computers?
(a) Vacuum tubes (b) Transistors
(c) ICs {d) None of these
. Time sharing operating systems were used in which
generation of computers?
(a) First {b) Second
(c) Third (d) Fourth
. Choose the computer languages that are specially
designed for the fifth generation of computers.
(a) ALGOL ({b) SNOBOL
(c) Lise {d) Prolog
. Web TV is an example of
(a) supercomputer
(c) network Computer

{b) minicomputer
(d) laptop

6. The brain of the computer is the

(a) control unit
{e) CPU

(b) ALU
(d) All of these
State True or False

1. Computers work on the GIGO concept.

2. Lnanosecond = 1x10"™ seconds,

3. Floppy disks and hard disks are examples of primary

memory.

4. First-generation computers used a very large number of

transistors.

5. First-generation computers could be programmed only

in binary language.
ALGOL is used in the third generation of computers,

. Fifth-generation computers are based on Al.

Network computers have more processing power,

memory, and storage than a desktop computer.

. RAM stores the data and parts of program, the

intermediate results of processing, and the recently
generated results of jobs that are currently being worked
on by the computer.

10. Aserial port is used to connect old printers,

Review Questions

1. Define a computer.
2. Differentiate between data and Information,

3. Differentiate between primary memory and secondary

memory.

4. Write a short note on the characteristics of a computer.

5. Computers work on the garbage-in, garbage-out

concept. Comment.

6. Explain the evolution of computers. Further, state how

computers in one generation are better than their
predecessors.

. Broadly classify computers based on their speed, the

amount of data that they can hold, and price.
Discuss the variants of microcomputers that are widely
used today,

. Explain the areas in which computers are being applied

to carry out routine and highly-specialized tasks,

TAKEAWAYS
© Input devices * Optical devices
* Pointing devices * Audiovisual input devices

* Output devices

INPUT DEVICES
An input device is used to feed data and instructions into
‘a computer, In the absence of an input device, a computer
would have only been a display device, In this section,
we will read about some of the widely used input devices,
Figure 2.1 categorizes input devices into different groups.

2.1.1 Keyboard

The keyboard is the main input device for computers.

Computer keyboards look very similar to the keyboards
of typewriters, with some additional keys, as shown in
Figure 2.2.

Using a keyboard, the user can type & document, use

keystroke shortcuts, access menus, play games, and
perform numerous other tasks. Most keyboards have
between 80 and 110 keys, which include the following:

Typing keys These include the letters of the alphabet.

The layout of the keyboard is known as QWERTY for
its first six letters. The QWERTY pattern has been a
standard right from the time computer keyboards were
introduced.

Numeric keys These include a set of keys, arranged in the

same configuration found on calculators to speed up data
entry of numbers. When the Num Lock key is set to ON,
the user can type numbers, dot, or input the symbols /, *, ~,
and +. When the Num Lock key is set to OFF, the numeric
keys can be used to move the cursor on the screen,

Function keys These are used by applications and

operating systems to input specific commands, They
are often placed on the top of the keyboard in a single
row. Function keys can be programmed so that their
functionality varies from one program to another,

Control keys These are used to handle control of the

cursor and the screen. Four arrow keys are arranged in

put and Output Devices

© Soft copy devices

* Hard copy devices

an inverted T-type fashion between the typing and the

numeric keys, and are used to move the cursor on the
screen in small increments. In addition to the arrow keys,
there are other cursor keys (or navigational keys), such as:
+ Home and End to move the cursor to the beginning and
end of the current line, respectively
* Page Up and Page Down to move the cursor up and
down by one screen at a time, respectively.
+ Insert to enter a character between two existing
characters
+ Delete to delete a character at the cursor position
Other common control keys on the keyboard include
Control (Ctrl), Alternate (Alt), Exeape ( Esc), Print Screen,
Pause, the Windows or Start key (Microsoft Windows
logo), and a shortcut key. The shortcut key is used to access
the options available by pressing the right mouse button.
The Esc key cancels the selected option, and the Pause
key suspends a command/process in progress. Finally, the
Print Screen key captures everything on the screen as an
image. The image can be pasted into any document.

Inside the Keyboard

A keyboard is like a miniature computer that has its own

processor and circuitry to carry information to and from
that processor. The circuitry has a key matrix, which is
a grid of circuits underneath the keys. Each circuit is
broken at a point below each key. When a key is pressed,
it corresponds to pressing a switch, thereby completing
the circuit,

Input and Output Devices Gs

Input devices
Keyboard Pointing devices Handheld devices Optical devices Audio/Visual devices
Mouse Pen Barcode readers
Trackball Touchscreen Scanners
Trackpad Joystick OCR
OMR
MICR
Figure 2.1 Categories of input devices

re)
—a

fTITTIi11i. a"

Figure 2.2 Keyboard

Source: digital art/FreeDigitalPhotos.net

When the processor finds a closed circuit, it compares

the location of that circuit on the key matrix to the character
map in its read-only memory (ROM). A character map is
a lookup table that tells the processor what each keystroke
or a combination of keystrokes represents. For example,
the character map tells the processor that pressing the key
*¢' corresponds to a small letter *¢” but the keys “Shift and
*e’ pressed together is a °C”.

Note that a computer can also use separate character

maps, overriding the one found in the keyboard. This is
usually done when the user is typing in a language that
uses letters that don’t have English equivalents on a
keyboard with English letters.

Advantage The keyboard is casy to use and inexpensive.

Disadvantages

* The keyboard cannot be used to draw figures.

* The process of moving the cursor to another position is

very slow. Mouse and other pointing devices are more
apt for this purpose.

2.1.2 Pointing Devices

A pointing input device enables the users to easily control

the movement of the pointer to select items on a display
screen, to select commands from commands menu, to draw
graphics, etc. Some examples of pointing devices include
mouse, trackball, light pen, joystick, and touchpad.

Mouse

The mouse is an input device that was invented by Douglas

Engelbart in 1963. It is the key input device used in a
graphical user interface (GUI). It can be used to handle the
pointer easily on the screen to perform various functions
such as opening a program or file. With the mouse, the users
no longer need to memorize commands, which was earlier
a necessity when working with text-based command line
environments like MS-DOS. A mouse is shown in Figure 2.3,

Scroller
Right button

Left button

Figure 2.3. Mouse

The mouse has two buttons and a scroll wheel. It can

be held in the hand and easily moved, without lifting,
along a hard flat surface to move the cursor to the desired
location—up, down, left, or right. Once the mouse is
placed at the appropriate position, the user may perform
the following operations:

Point Placing the pointer over the word or the object on

the screen by moving the mouse on the desk is termed as
pointing.

(4 Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C

Pressing cither the left or the right button of the

mouse is known as clicking. Clicking a mouse button
initiates some action; for example, when you click the
right button by pointing the mouse on a word, a menu pops
up on the screen. When you move the pointer over the icon
of an application, say Internet Explorer, and double-click
on it, then it opens that application for you.

Drag Dragging means pointing to a desired location while

pressing the left button.

Scroll The scroll wheel, which is placed in between the

left and right buttons of the mouse, is used to vertically
scroll through long documents,

Today, the mouse has become so important that every

user buys a mouse when he or she buys a computer. The
mouse is specially used to create graphics such as lines,
curves, and freehand shapes on the screen. It is connected
to a serial or a universal serial bus (USB) port on the system
unit. Some of the popular mouse types are as follows:

Mechanical mouse This type of mouse has a rubber or

metal ball at its bottom and an electronic circuit containing
sensors, When the mouse is moved over a flat surface, the
sensors detect the direction of movement of the ball. The
electronic circuit translates the movement into signals and
feeds it as input to the computer.

Optical mouse The optical mouse is more advanced

than the mechanical mouse, It contains a ball inside. The
movement of the mouse is detected using laser technology,
by using optical sensors.
Cordless mouse A cordless or wireless mouse is not
connected to the computer. The movement of the mouse is
detected using radio waves or infrared light waves.

Advantages

* The mouse is easy to use and can be used to quickly

place the cursor anywhere on the screen.

* Italso helps to quickly and easily draw figures.

* Itis inexpensive.

* Its point-and-click capabilities make it unnecessary to

remember and type in commands.

Disadvantages

* The mouse needs extra desk space to be placed and

moved easily.

* The ball in the mechanical mouse must be cleaned to

remove dust from it.

Trackball

A trackball is a pointing device that is used to control the

position of the cursor on the screen, It is usually used in
notebook computers, where it is placed on the keyboard,
as shown in Figure 2.4.
The trackball is nothing but an upside-down mouse
where the ball rotates in place within a socket. The user
rolls the ball to position the cursor at an appropriate
position on the screen and then clicks one of the buttons

Trackball

Fig. 2.4 Trackball on keyboard

Source: Eugene Sergeev/Shutterstock

Figure 2.5 Trackball used like a mouse

Source: Andrew Buckin/Shutterstock

(identical to mouse buttons) near the trackball, cither to

select objects or to position the cursor for text entry. This
is shown in Pigure 2.5.

To move the pointer, the ball is rotated with the thumb,

fingers, or the palm of the hand. The advantage of a
trackball over a mouse is that the former is stationary,
and so it does not require much space to use, Moreover,
individual trackballs can be placed on any type of surface,
including the user's lap. These advantages make trackballs
very popular pointing devices for portable computers and
mobile phones.

Note that the working of a trackball is identical to that

of mouse.
Advantages

* The trackball provides better resolution.

* It occupies less space.

* It is easier to use as compared to a mouse as its use

involves less hand and arm movements.

Di
The trackball chamber is often covered with dust, so it
must be cleaned regularly.

Touchpad

A touchpad (or trackpad), as shown in Figure 2.6, is a

small, flat, rectangular stationary pointing device with
a sensitive surface of 1.5—2 square inches, The user has
to slide his or her fingertips across the surface of the pad
to point to a specific object on the screen. The surface
translates the motion and position of the user’s fingers to
a relative position on the screen. There are also buttons

Figure 2.6 Touchpad

Source: Yulia Nikulyasha Nikitina/

Shutterstock/OUP Picture Bank
around the edge of the pad that work like mouse buttons.
Touchpads are widely used in laptops, and are in built on
the laptop keyboards, They can also be attached to a PC or
be used with personal digital assistants (PDAs) and iPods.

The working of a touchpad is similar to that of a mouse

or a trackball. The pressure of the finger on the surface
leads to a capacitance effect, which is detected by the
sensors, The sensors send appropriate signals to the CPU,
which interprets them and displays the pointer on the
screen

Advantages

* Touchpads occupy less space.

* They are casier to use as compared to a mouse as their

use involves less hand and arm movements.

* A touchpad is in-built in the keyboard, and hence

negates the need to carry an extra device

2.1.3 Handheld Devices

A handheld device is a pocket-sized computing device

with a display sereen and touch input and/or a miniature
keyboard, Some common examples of handheld devices
include smartphones, PDAs, handheld game consoles,
and portable media players (c.g., iPods). In this section,
we will read about joystick stylus (pen) and touchscreens,
which are the means to input data to handheld devices

Joystick

A joystick = (refer
Figure 2.7) is a cursor
control device widely
used in computer
games and computer-
aided design (CAD)
computer-aided
manufacturing (CAM)
applications. It
consists of a handheld
lever that pivots on
one end and transmits
its coordinates to a
computer. A joystick
has one or more push

Figure 2.7
Source: Viktor Kunz/Shutterstock

Joystick

Input and Output Devices 25

buttons, called switches, whose position can also be read
by the computer,

The lever of a joystick moves in all directions to control the

movement of the pointer on the computer screen. A joystick
is similar to a mouse, but with the mouse, the cursor stops
moving as soon as you stop moving the mouse. However,
in case of a joystick, the pointer continues moving in the
direction to which the joystick is pointing. To stop the pointer,
the user must return the joystick to its upright position,

Stylus

A stylus (shown in Fig. 2.8) is a pen-shaped input device

used fo enter information or write on the touchscreen of
a handheld device
It is a small stick
that can also be used
to draw lines on a
Surface as input into
a device, choose an
option from a menu,
move the cursor to
another location
on the sereen, take
notes, and create
short messages. The
stylus usually slides
into a slot built into
the device for that

purpose

Figure 2.8 Stylus

Source: Photodisc/OUP Picture Bank

Touchscreen

Atouchsereen (shown in Figure 2.9) is a display screen that

can identify the occurrence and position of a touch inside
the display region, The user can touch the sereen either by
using a finger or a stylus. The touchscreen facilitates the
users fo interact with what is displayed on the sercen in a
straightforward manner, rather than in an indirect way by
using 4 mouse or a touchpad, Touchscreens make using
another input device redundant, since the user can interact
with the sereen by directly touching it. Such touchscreen
displays are available on computers, laptops, PDAs, and
mobile phones.

Figure 2.9 Touchscreen

Source: Gareth Boden/OUP Picture Bank

26 Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C

‘ouchscreen monitors are an casy way of entering
information into the computer (or mobile phone, etc).
Touchscreen monitors have become more and more
commonplace as their price has steadily dropped over the
past decade, These days, touchscreen monitors are widely
used in different applications including point-of-sale
(POS) cash registers, PDAs, automated teller machines
(ATMs), car navigation screens, mobile phones, gaming
consoles, and any other type of appliance that requires the
user to input and receive information instantly,

2.1.4 Optical Devices

Optical devices, also known as data-scanning devices,

use light as a source of input for detecting or recognizing
different objects such as characters, marks, codes, and
images. These devices convert these objects into digital
data and send it to the computer for further processing.
Some optical devices that are discussed in this section
include barcode readers, image scanners, optical
character recognition (OCR) devices, optical mark
readers (OMR), and magnetic ink character recognition
(MICR) devices.

Barcode Reader

A barcode reader (also price scanner or POS scanner) is

a handheld input device that is used to capture and read
information stored in a barcode. It consists of a scanner,
a decoder, and a cable used to connect the reader to a
computer, The function of the barcode reader is to capture
and translate the barcode into numerals and/or letters. It
is connected to a computer for further processing of the
captured information, This connection is achieved through
a serial port, keyboard port, or an interface device called
awedge.

Abarcode reader works by directing a beam of light across

the barcode and measuring the amount of light reflected
back. The dark bars reflect less light when compared to the
amount of light reflected by the white spaces between those
bars. The scanner converts this light energy into electrical
energy, The decoder then converts these signals into data
and sends it to the computer for processing.

These days, barcode readers are widely used in

following areas:

* Generate bills in supermarkets and retail stores

* Take stock of inventory in retail stores

* Check out books from a library

* Track manufacturing and shipping movement

* Keep track of employee login

* Identify hospital patients

* Tabulate the results of direct mail marketing returns

* Tag honeybees used in research
Advantages

* Barcode readers are inexpensive.

* They are portable.

* They are handy and easy to use.

Disadvantages

* Barcode readers must be handled with care. If they

develop a scratch, the user may not be able to read the
code.

* They can interpret information using a limited series of

thin and wide bars. To interpret other unique identifiers,
the bar display area must be widened.

Image Scanner

A scanner (shown in Fig. 2.10) is a device that captures

images, printed text, and handwriting, from different
sources such as photographic prints, posters, and magazines
and converts them into digital images for editing and
display on computers, Scanners come in handheld, feed-in,
and flatbed types, and for scanning cither colour imuges,
black-and-white images, or both. While lower resolution
scanners are adequate for capturing images for computer
display, very high resolution scanners, on the other hand,
are used for scanning of high-resolution printing, Some
scanners have software like Adobe Photoshop to help the
user resize or modify a captured image.

Figure 2.10 Flatbed image scanner

Source: Mile Atanasov/Shutterstock

Some scanners can be connected to the computer using

a small computer system interface (SCSI). Some major
manufacturers of scanners are Epson, Hewlett-Packard,
Microtek, and Relisys, The basic types of image scanners
are flatbed, hand, film, and drum scanners.

The scanners that we see in our colleges or offices are

flatbed scanners. In this type, the object to be scanned is
placed on a glass pane and an opaque cover is lowered over
it. A sensor and light move along the pane, reflecting off
the image placed on the glass. The cover is used to prevent
other light from interfering, and the image becomes visible
to the detector.

A hand image scanner has to be manually moved across

the object or image to be scanned. The scanner produces
light from green light emitting diodes (LEDs), which
highlight and scan the image onto a computer for further
processing. However, these days, 3D image scanners have
become the most popular form of hand scanners, as they
are able to compensate for jerky hand movements during
scanning.
Film scanners are usually used in photography and
slides. The slide or negative film is first inserted in strips
of six or less frames into the film scanner, and then moved
across a lens and sensor to capture the image.

While handheld and film scanners use charge coupled

device (CCD) arrays, drum scanners. on the other hand,
use photo multiplier tubes. Drum scanners are mounted
on an acrylic cylinder that rotates while passing the object
in front of precision optics, which in tum transfers the
image information to the photo multiplier tubes, Most
drum scanners use three matched PMTs that are capable
of detecting red, blue, and green light. The light of the
object being scanned is separated into red, blue, and green
beams. Drum scanners are very expensive and are often
used for high-end applications of film.

Advantages

* Any printed or handwritten document can be scanned

and stored in a computer for further processing.

* The scanned and stored document will never deteriorate

in quality with time. The document can be displayed
and printed whenever required.

* There is no fear of loss of documents. The user can scan

important documents and store them permanently in the
computer.

Disadvantages
* Scanners are usually costlier than other input devices.

* The documents that are scanned and stored as images

have a higher size as compared to other equivalent text
files.

* Text documents are scanned and stored as images.

Therefore, they occupy more space and are also
uneditable because computers cannot interpret
individual characters and numbers in the image.

Optical Character Recognition (OCR) Device

Optical character recognition is the process of converting

printed materials into text or word processing files that can

be easily edited and stored. The steps involved in OCR

include:

* Scanning the text character by character

+ Analysing the scanned image to translate the character

images into character codes (¢.g., ASCII)

Printed
documents:
4 ‘Scans the documents and
makes a bitmap of size
50-150 KB per page

Input and Output Devices @

In OCR processing, the analysis of the scanned i

is done to detect light and dark areas so as to identify each
letter or numeral. When a character is recognized, it is
converted into an ASCII code.

OCR has facilitated users to store text documents as

text files (rather than as images, as in case of scanners).
Hence, the text files occupy much less storage space and
can be easily edited. These days, OCR is widely used in
the following areas:

* Digitize and preserve documents in libraries

* Process checks and credit card slips
+ Sort letters for speeding up mail delivery

Letus take a real-world example to understand the power

of OCR. The police department usually has all the criminal
records stored in large file cabinets. Seanning millions of
pages to find a particular record is not only tedious and
error-prone but also an expensive process. However, if
OCR is used to convert the pages into computer-readable
text, the police can casily search through the entire
history in a few seconds. OCR technology can be easily
understood from Figure 2.11.
Advantages

+ Printed documents can be converted into text files.

+ Advanced OCR can recognize handwritten text and

convert it into computer-readable text files.

Disadvantages

+ OCR cannot recognize all types of fonts.

+ Documents that are poorly typed or have strikeover

cannot be recognized.

+ Very old documents when passed through OCR may not

convert into an exact copy of the text file. This is because
some characters may not have been recognized properly.
In such cases, the user has to manually edit the file.

Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) Device

Optical mark recognition is the process of electronically

extracting data from marked fields, such as checkboxes
and fill-in fields, on printed forms. The optical mark reader,
as shown in Figure 2.12, is fed with an OMR sheet that has
pen or pencil marks in pre-defined positions to indicate
each selected response (¢.g., answers for multiple-choice
questions in an entrance examination).

Figure 2.11 OCR technology

( (28 | Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C
————

Figure 2.12 Optical mark reader

The OMR sheet is scanned by the reader to detect the

presence of a mark by measuring the reflected light levels.
The dark or the marked areas reflect less light than the
unmarked ones, The OM reader interprets this pattern
of marks and spaces, and stores the interpreted data in a
computer for storage, analysis, and reporting, The error rate
for OMR technology is less than 1%. For this reason, OMR
is widely used for applications in which large numbers of
hand-filled forms have to be quickly processed with great
accuracy, such as surveys, reply cards, questionnaires,
ballots, or sheets for multiple-choice questions.

Advantage

Optical mark readers work at very high speeds. They can

read up to 9000 forms per hour.

Disadvantages

+ It is difficult to gather large amounts of information

using an OMR.
+ Some data may be missing in the scanned document.

+ Itis a sensitive device that rejects the OMR sheet if itis

folded, torn, or crushed.

Magnetic Ink Character Reader

Magnetic ink character reader (MICR) is used to verify

the legitimacy of paper documents, especially bank
checks, It consists of magnetic ink printed characters that
can be recognized by high-speed magnetic recognition
devices (refer Figure 2.13), The printed characters provide
important information (such as cheque number, bank

Pay DATE:
ae)
RUPEES

Magnetic ink character recognition

Figure 2.13 A cheque containing magnetic ink characters

printed on it

routing number, account number, and, in some cases, the

amount on the cheque) for processing to the receiving party.
MICR characters are usually printed in E-13B or
CMC-7 fonts. Each font is made up of a series of numbers
and symbols specifically designed for readability on high-
speed check-sorting machines. The symbols provide
beginning and end points for cach group of numbers in
order to enable the machine to determine what cach series
of numbers mean. To print the magnetic characters on the
check is a critical task, and the line placement, character
placement, skew, quality, and the positioning of the line
in the MICR clear band area (depicted by an arrow in
Figure 2.13) must be done very precisely.

MICR is widely used to enhance security, speed up the

sorting of documents, and minimize the exposure to check
fraud. Let us take a real-world problem to understand how
MICR reduces risk to fraud. If a person gives a cheque
produced using a colour photocopying machine, the
magnetic ink line will either not respond to the magnetic
fields, or will produce an incorrect code when scanned
using an MICR reader. The MICR device even rejects
cheques issued by an account owner who has a history of
writing bad cheques.

2.1.5 Audiovisual Input Devices

Today, all computers are multimedia-enabled_ that is,

computers not only allow one to read or write text, but also
enable the user to record songs, view animated movies,
etc. Hence, in addition to having a keyboard and a mouse,
audio-video devices have become a necessity today.
Audio Devices

Audio devices are used to either capture or create sound.

They enable computers to accept music, speech, or sound
effects for recording and/or editing. Microphones and CD
players are examples of two widely used audio input devices.

A microphone feeds audio input to the computer.

However, the audio input must be converted into digital
data before being stored in the computer. For this, the
computer must have a sound card. The sound card is a
hardware unit that converts analog signals generated
through the microphone into digital data, so that it can
be stored in the computer. When the user wants to hear
the pre-recorded audio input, the sound card converts the
digital data into equivalent analog signals and sends them
to the speakers, This process is depicted in Figure 2.14.

A computer with a microphone and speakers can be

used to make telephone calls and do videoconferencing
(using a web camera or ‘webcam’) over the Internet.

Video Input Devices

Video input devices are used to capture video from the

outside world into the computer. Here, the term video
means moving picture along with sound (as in television).
As we have sound cards to convert analog audio signals
a4

Sound card
The user speaks in The sound card converts analog
the microphone signals into digital data so that it can
be stored in the computer

Input and Output Devices (9 i

=W

Speakers

‘The sound card converts digital data stored

in the computer into analog signals and
sends it to the speakers so that users may

hear the sound

Figure 2.14 Recording and retrieving audio data

into digital data and vice versa, we also have video cards
to convert analog video signals to digital data fo store it
in the computer (and vice versa). Digital camera and web
camera are popular examples of video input devices.
A digital camera as shown in Figure 2.15(a) is a
handheld and easily portable device used to capture
images or videos. The digital camera digitizes image or
video (converts them into Is and 0s) and stores them on
a memory card. The data can then be transferred to the
computer using a cable that connects the computer to the
digital camera, Once the images or videos are transferred
to the computer, they can be easily edited, printed, or
transmitted (c.g., through e-mails),

As with digital cameras, web cameras (also called

webcams) too capture videos that can be transferred
via the Internet in real-time, Web cameras are widely
used for videoconferencing. They are not very costly,
and this is one reason why they are so widely used for
security and privacy purposes. Webcams are also used
4s security cameras, since PC-connected cameras can be
used to watch for movement and sound, recording both
when they are detected, These recordings can then be
saved in the computer and used to detect or investigate
theft or any other crime. A web camera is shown in
Figure 2.15(b).

Advantages

* Audio devices can be used by people who are visually

impaired.

* Audio input devices are best used in situations where

users want to avoid input through keyboard or mouse.
+ Video input devices are very useful for applications
such as videoconferencing,

@) (b)
Figure 2.15 Video input devices (2) Web camera
(b) Digital camera

* They can be used to record memorable moments in

one’s life.
* They can also be used for security purposes,

Disadvantages

* Audio input devices are not effective in noisy places,

+ With audio input devices, it is difficult to clearly

distinguish between two similar sounding words such
as ‘sea’ and ‘see’.

* Videos and images captured using video input devices

have very big file sizes, and they must be compressed
before being stored on the computer.

OUTPUT DEVICES

Any device that outputs/gives information from a computer

can be called an output device. Basically, output devices
are electromechanical devices that accept digital data (in
the form of 0s and 1s) from the computer and convert them
into human-understandable language.

Since these days all computers are multimedia-enabled,

the information from computers is usually output in cither
visual or auditory format. Monitors and speakers are two
widely used output devices. These devices provide instant
feedback to the user's input. For example, monitors
display characters as they are typed. Similarly, speakers
play a song instantly when the user selects one from a
playlist. Other examples of output devices include printers,
plotters, and projectors.

In this section, we will discuss these output devices.

However, before going into their details, let us classify the
output devices based on whether they give a hard copy or
a soft copy output (refer Figure 2.16).

2.2.1 Soft Copy Devices

Soft copy output devices are those that produce an

electronic version of an output—for example, a file that is
stored on a hard disk, CD, or pen drive—and is displayed
on the computer screen (monitor). Features of a sofi copy
output include the following:

* The output can be viewed only when the computer is on.

+ The user can easily edit soft copy output.

Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C

Projector

Speaker

Hard copy devices

Figure 2.16 Classification of output devices

(a) (b) {e)

Figure 2.17 Types of monitors (a) CRT (b) LCD (c) Plasma

* Soft copy cannot be used by people who do not have a

computer.

* Scarching for data in a soft copy is easy and fast.

* Electronic distribution of material as soft copy is

cheaper, It can be done easily and quickly.

Monitors

The monitor is a soft copy output device used to display

video and graphics information generated by the computer
through the video card. Computer monitors are similar to
television screens but they display information at a much
higher quality, The monitor is connected to cither the VGA
or the digital video interface (DVI) port on the video card
(on the motherboard or separately purchased).

Monitors come in three variants—cathode ray

tube (CRT), liquid crystal display (LCD), and plasma
(refer Figure 2,17), While CRT monitors look much
like traditional televisions and are very huge in size,
LCD monitors on the other hand are thinner, offering
equivalent graphics quality. However, these days, LCD
monitors are replacing CRT monitors as they are cheaper
and occupy less space on the desk. Most monitors have
a size range of 15’ to 21’ or more (where size is defined
as a diagonal measurement from one corner of the screen
to the other).

CRT monitor CRT monitors work by firing charged

electrons at a phosphorus film (refer Figure 2.18). When
electrons hit the phosphor-coated screen, they glow,
thereby enabling the user to see the output.

In a CRT, the cathode (negative terminal) is a heated

filament that is placed in a vacuum created inside a

glass tube. The ray is a stream of electrons that come

out from a heated cathode into the vacuum, While
electrons are negative, the anode, on the other hand, is
positive, so it attracts the electrons coming out of the
cathode. That is, the focusing anode focuses the stream
of electrons to form a tight beam that is then accelerated
by an accelerating anode. This tight, high-speed beam of
electrons flies through the vacuum in the tube and hits
the flat screen at the other end of the tube, This screen is
coated with phosphor, which glows when struck by the
beam, thereby displaying a picture, which the user sees
on the monitor,

Note that, colour CRT monitors contain three electron

guns (one each for red, blue, and green).

ach pixel or dot on the screen has three phosphors (red,

blue, and green). When the beam from these guns is
focused on the phosphors, they light up. By varying the
intensities of the beam, the user can obtain different
colours.

Advantages

* CRT monitors provide images of good quality (bright as

well as clear).

* CRT monitors are cheapest when compared to LCD and

plasma monitors.

* The images are clear even when you try to view it from
an angle.

Cathode ray tube

Working of a CRT monitor
Figure 2.18

Disadvantages

* CRT monitors occupy a large space on the desk.

* They are bigger in size and weight and therefore difficult

to move from one place to another when compared with
other types of monitors.

* Power consumption is higher than the other monitors.

LCD Monitor An LCD monitor (shown in Figure 2.19)

is a thin, flat, electronic visual display that uses the light
modulating properties of liquid crystals, which do not emit
light directly, LCD screens are used in a wide range of
applications ranging from computer monitors, televisions,
instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, signage,
etc,, 10 consumer devices such as video players, gaming
devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and telephones.

Polarizing Liquid crystal layer

filters

Figure 2.19 Working of a LCD monitor

These days, LCDs have become so popular that there are

replacing the traditional CRT displays at a fast pace. LCD
screens are more compact, lightweight, portable, more
reliable, and casier on the eyes. LCDs are more energy
efficient and offer safer disposal than CRTs. It is because of
their low electrical power consumption that they are widely
being used in battery-powered electronic equipment,

LCD technology is based on the principle of blocking

light. The LCD consists of two pieces of polarizing
filters (or substrates) that contain a liquid crystal material
between them. A backlight creates light, which is made
to pass through the first substrate. Simultaneously, the
electrical currents cause the liquid crystal molecules to
align, thus allowing varying levels of light to pass through
to the second substrate and create the colours, and hence
images are seen on the screen.

Input and Output Devices GI

Most LCD displays use active matrix technology

which a thin film transistor (TFT) arranges tiny transistors
and capacitors in a matrix on the glass of the display. To
refer to a particular pixel, the proper row is turned on, and
then a charge is sent through the correct column. Since all
the other rows are switched off, only the capacitor at the
designated pixel receives a charge.

Passive matrix technology is the other type of LCD,

which uses a grid of conductive metal to charge each
pixel. Although these LCDs are cheaper, they are hardly
used today because of slow response time and imprecise
voltage control compared to active matrix technology.

Advantages

+ LCD monitors are very compact and lightweight.

* They consume less power.

* They do not suffer from geometric distortion.

* There is little or no flicker of images (depending on the

backlight technology used).

* They are more reliable than CRTs.

* They can be made in almost any size or shape.

* They cause less eye fatigue.

Disadvantages

* They are more expensive than CRTs.

* Images are not very clear when tried to view from an

angle.

Plasma monitor Plasma monitors are thin and flat

monitors widely used in televisions and computers.
The plasma display contains two glass plates that have
hundreds of thousands of tiny cells filled with xenon and
neon gases. The address clectrode and the transparent
display electrode are sandwiched between the glass plates.
The display electrode is covered by a magnesium oxide
protective layer and is arranged in horizontal rows along
the screen, while the address electrodes are arranged in
vertical columns, thereby forming a grid-like structure as
shown in Figure 2.20.

Figure 2.20 Working of a plasma monitor

32. Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C

‘To ionize the gas in a particular cell, the electrodes that

intersect at that cell are charged at least thousands of times
within a small fraction of a second (charging cach cell
in turn).

Once the intersecting electrodes are charged, an electric

current begins to flow through the gas in the cell. The
current creates a rapid flow of charged particles, thereby
stimulating the gas atoms to release ultraviolet photons.
When these UV photons hit a phosphor atom in the cell,
one of phosphor’s electrons jumps to a higher energy level,
and the atom heats up. When the electron falls back to its
normal level, it rele:
light photon,

es energy in the form of a visible

Advantages

* The technology used in plasma monitors allows

producing a very wide sereen using extremely thin
materials,

* Very bright images are formed which look good from

almost every angle.

* These monitors are not heavy and are thus easily

portable.

Disadvantages

* These monitors are very expensive.

* They have a high power consumption.

* Since the images are phosphor-based, at times, they

may suffer from flicker

Projectors

A projector (Figure 2.21) is a device that takes an image

from a video source and projects it onto a screen or another
surface, These days, projectors are used for a wide range
of applications, varying from home theater systems for

projecting movies and television programs onto a screen

much larger than even the biggest available television, to
organizations for projecting information and presentations
onto screens large enough for rooms filled with many
people, Projectors also allow users to change/adjust
some features of the image such as brightness, sharpness,
and colour settings, similar to the features available in
a standard television. Projectors are now available in a
variety of different shapes and sizes, and are produced by
many different companies.

The projector works by receiving a video signal from

some external device such as a DVD player or a computer
and projects that signal onto a sercen. To display the image

9|

Figure 2.21 Projector

Source: olegbush/Shutterstock

on a big screen, the projector first displays that image

(represented in the video signal) onto a small screen inside
the projector itself, which is then projected onto the final
sercen using bright light and a lens. The lens is shaped in
such a way that it takes the small image and turns it into a
dramatically larger one.

Projectors can be broadly classified into two categories

depending on the technology they use.
LCD projector LCD projectors make use of their own light
to display the image on the screen/wall. These proj
are based on LCD technology. To use these projectors, the
room must be first darkened, else the image formed will
be blurred.

Digital light processing (DLP) projector DLP projectors

use a number of mirrors to reflect the light. When using
the DLP projector, the room may or may not be darkened
because it displays a clear image in both situations.

Speakers

Initially, computers were designed to be used only

for scientific purposes, but later, with the advances in
technology, computers became so popular and inexpensive
that they are now used in almost every sphere of our day-
to-day lives. Today, all business and home users demand
audio capabilities from their computers. For this purpose,
speakers were developed in different sizes and shape:
and with different powers and sound quality, With all
these types of speakers, the user can enjoy music, movie,
or a game, and the voice will be spread through the entire
room. With good quality speakers, the voice will also be
audible even to people sitting in another room or even to
neighbours!

However, in case the user wants to enjoy loud music

without disturbing the people nearby, a headphone can
be used. Headphones are small devices that fit in or on
the car, and give about the same quality and power of the
sound, as the speakers, only to the listener. Most of today’s
headphones feature some noise-cancelling technologie:
so that the listener may listen to only the sound from
the speakers and not anything else from the surrounding
environment.

Users often use headphones to chat with people over

the Internet. With headphones, they are assured that
the conversation is heard only by them, However, in
addition to the headphones, they are also required to
use a separate microphone to talk to the other person
Hence, another device called the headset was developed
to allow users to talk and listen at the same time, using
the same device. Headsets are widely used in call centers
and other telephone-intensive jobs, and for personal use
on the computer to facilitate comfortable simultancou

conversation and typing. Figure 2.22 shows the various

audio devices used with computers,

Although every computer has a built-in speaker, an

external speaker disables this lower-fidelity built-in
speaker. Speakers available in the market have a wide

HB 6

Figure 2.22 Audio devices (a) Speakers (b) Headphones

(c) Headset
range of quality and prices, The normal computer speakers
are small, plastic, and have mediocre sound quality. Other
speakers are available that have equalization features
such as bass and treble controls. Users can also use a lead
to connect their computer's sound output to an existing
stereo system to give much better results than the small,
low-cost computer speakers.

2.2.2 Hard Copy Devices

Hard copy output devices are those that produce a physical

form of output. For example, the content of a file printed
on paper is a form of hard copy output. The features of
hard copy output include

* Acomputer is not needed to sce the output

Editing and incorporating the edits in the hard copy is

difficult

* Hard copy output can be easily distributed to people

who do not have a computer

* Searching for data in a hard copy is a tiring and difficult

job.

* Distribution of hard copy is not only costly but slower

as well
Printers

A printer is a device that takes the text and graphics

information obtained from a computer and prints it on
a paper, Printers are available in the market in various
sizes, speeds, sophistication, and costs, Usually, more
expensive printers are used for higher-resolution colour
printing. The qualities of printers that are of interest to
users include

Colour Colour printouts are needed for presentations,

maps, and other pages where colour is part of the

Impact printers

Dot matrix Daisy wheel

Input and Output Devices 33

information. Colour printers can also be set to print only

in monochrome. These printers are more expensive, so if
the users do not have a specific need for colour and usually
take a lot of printouts, they will find a black-and-white
printer cheaper to operate.
Resolution The resolution of a printer
sharpness of text and images rendered on paper. It is
usually expressed in dots per inch (dpi). Even the least
expensive printer provides sufficient resolution for most

purposes at 600 dpi

means the

Speed Speed means number of pages that are printed in

one minute. The speed of a printer is an important factor
for users who have a large number of pages to print, While
high-speed printers are quite expensive, the inexpensive
printers, on the other hand, can print only about 3-6 sheets
per minute. Colour printing is even slower

Memory Most printers have a small amount of memory

(for example, | MB), which can be expanded by the user.
Having more memory enhances the speed of printing.
Printers can be broadly classified into two groups:
impact and non-impact printers as shown in Figure 2.23.

Impact Printer

These printers print characters by striking an inked ribbon

against the paper. Examples of impact printers include dot
matrix printers, daisy wheel printers, and most types of
line printers
Advantages
* These printers enable the user to produce carbon copies.
* They are cheap.

Disadvantages

+ Impact printers are slow

* They offer poor print quality, especially in the case of

graphics.

* They can be extremely noisy

* They can print only using the standard font

Non-impact printer

Non-impact printers are much quieter than impact printers,

as their printing heads do not strike the paper. They offer
better print quality, faster printing, and the ability to create

Line Inkjet

Figure 2.23 Classification of printers

34 Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C

Prints that contain sophisticated graphics. Non-impact

printers use cither solid or liquid cartridge-based ink,
which is cither sprayed, dripped, or clectrostatically drawn
onto the page. The main types of non-impact printers are

inkjet, laser, and thermal printers.

Advantages

* Non-impact printers produce prints of good quality, and

hence render sophisticated graphics.

re noiseless.

re fast

* They can print text in different fonts.

Disadvantages
+ These printers are expensive
* The ink cartridges used by them are also costly

In this section, we will read about the different types of

the printers.
Dot matrix printer A dot matrix printer (shown in
Figure 2.24) prints characters and images of all types
as a pattern of dots (hence the name). This printer has a
printhead (or hammer) that consists of pins representing
the character or image. The printhead runs back and forth,
or in an up-and-down motion on the page and prints by
striking an ink-soaked cloth ribbon against the paper,
much like the print mechanism of a typewriter

Figure 2.24
Source: burnel1/Shutterstock

Dot matrix printer

From the 1970s to 1990s, dot matrix impact printers

were the most common type of printers used with PCs.

Several dot matrix printer manufacturers implemented

colour printing through a multi-colour ribbon. Colour was
obtained through a multi-pass composite printing process
In cach pass, the printhead struck a different section of the
ribbon (one primary colour), However, because of poor
colour quality and increased operating expense, colour
dot matrix printers could never replace their monochrome
counterparts, Moreover, the black ink section would
gradually contaminate the other three colours (RGB),
thereby changing the consistency of printouts over the life
of the ribbon. The colour dot matrix printer was therefore
suitable only for abstract illustrations and pie charts, but
not for photo-realistic reproduction
The speed of dot matrix printers varies in the range of
50-500 cps (characters per second).

Advantages

* The dot matrix printer can produce carbon copies.

* It offers the lowest printing cost per page.

* It is widely used for bulk printing where the quality of

the print is not of much importance.

+ Itis inexpensive

* When the ink is about to be exhausted, the printout

gradually fades rather than suddenly stopping partway
through a job.

* Itcan use continuous paper rather than individual sheets,

making them useful for data logging.

Disadvantages

+ This type of printer creates a lot of noise when the pins

strike the ribbon against the paper.

* Itcan only print lower resolution graphics, with limited

quality

* Itis very slow

* It has poor print quality

Daisy wheel printer Daisy wheel printers use an impact

printing technology to generate high quality output
comparable to typewriters, and are three times ter
However, today, daisy wheel technology is found only in
some electronic typewriters,

The printhead of a daisy wheel printer is a circular

wheel, about 3 inches in diameter with arms or spokes.
The shape of the printer wheel resembles the petals of
a daisy flower, and hence its name.
embossed at the outer ends of the arms.

To print a character, the wheel is rotated in such a way

that the character to be printed is positioned just in front
of the printer ribbon. The spoke containing the required
character is then hit by a hammer, thereby striking the
ribbon to leave an impression on the paper placed behind
the ribbon. The movement of all these parts is controlled
by a microprocessor in the printer.

The key benefit of using a daisy wheel printer is that

the print quality is high, as the exact shape of the character
hits the ribbon to leave an impression on the paper.

The characters are

Line printer A line printer is a high-speed impact printer

in which one typed line is printed at a time. The speed
of a line printer usually varies from 600 to 1200 lines
per minute, or approximately 10-20 pages per minute.
Because of their high speed, line printers are widely
used in data centers and in industrial environments, Band
printer is a commonly used variant of line printers.

Band printer A band printer (loop printer), is an impact

printer with a printing mechanism that uses a metal loop
or band to produce typed characters, The set of characters
are permanently embossed on the band, and this set cannot
be changed unless the band is replaced. The band itself
revolves around hammers that push the paper against the

ribbon, allowing the desired character to be produced on

the paper.

The main advantage of using a band printer is its

high speed. This type of printer can print 2000 lines per
minute, and is, therefore. perfect for high volume printing
in businesses, schools, and other organizations. Band
printers are normally attached to mainframes and used for
industrial printing.

However, band printers cannot be used for any graphics

printing, as the characters are predetermined and cannot
be changed unless the band is changed. Band printers were
very popular in the 1970s and 1980s; however, today, laser
printers have replaced band printers.

Band printers are often confused with band printing.

Band printing is the process of sending output to a
printer and is not associated with this type of printers.

Inkjet printer Inkjct printers, shown in Figure 2.25, came

in the market in the 1980s, but it was only in the 1990s that
their prices reduced enough to bring the technology to the
high street. Inkjet printers have made rapid technological
advances in recent years. The colour inkjet printers have
succeeded in making colour printing an affordable option
even for home users.

Figure 2.25
Source: lakov Filimonov/Shutterstock

Inkjet printer

The printhead of inkjet printers has several tiny nozzles,

also called jets. As the paper moves past the printhead, the
nozzles spray ink onto it, forming characters and images.
If you observe a printout that has just come out from an
inkjet printer, you will see that the dots are extremely
small (usually between 50 and 60 microns in diameter)
and are positioned very precisely, with resolutions of up to
1440 x 720 dpi. To create a coloured image, the dots can
have different colours combined together.

An inkjet printer can produce from 100 to several

hundred pages (depending on the nature of the hard copy),
betore the ink cartridges must be replaced. There is usually
one black ink cartridge and one colour cartridge containing
ink in primary pigments (cyan, magenta, and yellow).

While inkjet printers are cheaper than laser printers,

they are more expensive to maintain. The cartridges of

Input and Output Devices &

inkjet printers have to be changed more frequently,

the special coated paper required to produce high quality

output is very expensive. Hence, the cost per page of
inkjet printers becomes ten times more than laser printers.
Therefore, inkjet printers are not well suited for high
volume print jobs.

Laser printer A laser printer, shown in Figure 2.26,

is a non-impact printer that works at very high speeds
and produces high-quality text and graphics. It uses
the technology used in photocopier machines. When a
document is sent to the printer, the following steps take
place:

+ A laser beam ‘draws’ the document on a drum (which

is coated with a photo-conductive material) using
electrical charges.

* After the drum is charged, it is rolled in a toner (a dry

powder type of ink).
* The toner sticks to the charged image on the drum,

* The toner is transferred onto a piece of paper and fused

to the paper with heat and pressure.

* After the document is printed, the electrical charge is

removed from the drum and the excess toner is collected.

Figure 2.26 Laser printer

Source: restyler/Shutterstock

While colour laser printers are also available in the

market, users mostly prefer monochrome printers, because
the former is up to ten times more expensive than the latter.

Plotters

A plotter as shown Fig. 2.27 is a printing device that is

usually used to print vector graphics with high print
quality. They are widely used to draw maps, in scientific
applications, and computer-aided engineering (CAE).
Architects use plotters to draw blueprints of the structures
they are working on.

A plotter is basically a printer that interprets commands

from a computer to make line drawings on paper with one
or more automated pens. Since plotters are much more
expensive than printers, they are used only for specialized
applications. There are two different types of plotters,
drum and flatbed.

36 Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C

Figure 2.27 Plotter

Source: Michal Vitek/Shutterstock

Drum plotter A drum plotter is used to draw graphics

on paper that is wrapped around a drum. This type of
plotter is usually used with mainframe and minicomputer
systems, The drum plotter works by rotating the drum
back and forth to produce vertical motion, The pen, which

POINTS TO REMEMBER

* An input device is used to feed data and instructions

into the computer.

© Keyboard is an electro-mechanical device, which is

used to input alphanumeric data into the computer.

A pointing input device enables the users to easily

control the movement of the pointer, It is connected

to the serial or USB port on the system unit.

Mouse is an input device, which enable users to control

the movement of the pointer in graphical user interface

A joystick is a cursor control device widely used in

computer games and CAD/CAM applications.

A stylus is a pen-shaped input device used to enter

information or write on the touchscreen of a phone.

A touchscreen is a display screen that can identify the

occurrence and position of a touch inside the display

region.

A barcode reader is a handheld input device used to

capture and read information stored in a barcode.

A scanner is a device that captures images, printed

text, and handwriting, from different sources such as

photographic prints, posters, and magazines, and

converts them into digital images for editing and

display on computers.
© Audio devices are used to either capture or create
sound, Microphones and CD players are examples of
two widely used audio devices.

is mounted on a carriage, is moved across the width of the

paper. Hence, the vertical movement of the paper and the
horizontal movement of the pen create the required design
under the control of the computer.

Drum plotters can make multicolour drawings by using

pens with different coloured inks. Moreover, drum plotters
support very large plot sizes with paper widths of up to
1 meter,

Flatbed plotter In a flatbed plotter, the paper is spread

on the flat rectangulur surface of the plotter, and the pen
is moved over it. Flatbed plotters are less expensive, and
are used in many small computing systems, The size of
the plot is limited only by the size of the plotter's bed
In this type of plotter, the paper does not move; rather,
plotting is done by moving an arm that moves a pen over
the paper.

In case of a flatbed plotier, pens of different colours

are mounted in the pen-holding mechanism that moves on
te surface. The microprocessor in the plotter selects the
desired pen and controls its movement under the control
of the computer.

The sound card is a hardware unit that converts

analog signals generated through the microphone

into digital data, so that it can be stored in the

computer.

Video input devices are used to capture video from

the outside world into the computer.

* Any device that outputs/gives information from a

computer can be called an output device, Basically,
output devices are electromechanical devices that
accept digital data from the computer and convert
them into human understandable language.

* The monitor is a soft copy output device used to

display video and graphics information generated by

the computer through the video card. It is connected

to either the VGA or the DVI port on the video card

(which is on the motherboard or separately

purchased).

A projector is a device that takes an image from a

video source and projects it on a screen or another

surface,
* Dot matrix printer is an impact printer, which prints
characters and images as a pattern of dots.

* Laser printer is a non-impact printer, which uses a

laser beam to produce an image on a negatively-

charged cylindrical drum.

GLOSSARY

impact printer A printer that works by striking an inked

ribbon against the paper

Input device A device that is used to feed data and

instructions into the computer

Optical character recognition The process of converting

printed materials into text or word processing files that
can be easily edited and stored

Optical device A device that uses light as a source of input

for detecting or recognizing different objects

Optical mark recognition The process of electronically

Input and Output Devices 37

extracting data from marked fields, such as checkboxes

and fill-in fields, on printed forms

Outputdevice Adevice that is used to present information

from the computer to the user

Pointing device A device that enables the users to easily

control the movement of the pointer to select items on
a display screen, to select commands from the command
menu, to draw graphics, etc

Printer Adevice that takes the text and graphics information

obtained from a computer and prints it on paper

EXERCISES

Fill in the Blanks

1, _____ is used to feed data and instructions into the

computer.

2 captures everything on the screen as an

image.

3, The movement of an optical mouse is detected using

ae WAVES,

4, ___ is used to enter information or write on the

touchscreen of a phone.
5. A barcode reader is connected to the computer through

aL port.

6 sttechnology is used for electronically extracting

data from marked fields.

7. ____ converts analog signals generated through a

microphone into digital data

8, ______s capture videos that can be transferred via the

Internet in real-time

9. allow the users to talk and listen at the same

time.

10, The resolution of a printer means

Multiple-choice Questions
1, Which keys are used by applications and operating
systems to perform specific commands?

(a) Typing keys (b) Arrow keys

() Control keys (d) Function keys
2, Select the optical devices from the following options

(a) MICR
(c) Scanner
(b) Barcode reader
(d) All of these

3. Select the printer that uses impact printer technology

from the following options

(a) Daisy wheel (b) Laser

{c) Band (d) Inkjet

4. Select the pointing devices from the following options:

(a) Keyboard (b) Barcode reader

{c) Joystick (d) Touchscreen

5. Which type of screen is used in gaming devices, clocks,
watches, calculators, and telephones?
(a) LCD (b) Plasma
({c) CRT (d) All of these

State True or False

1, Home and End keys move the cursor to the previous and
next page, respectively.

2. Pointing devices can be connected to the USB port of a

computer.

3, The movement of the cordless mouse is detected using

laser technology.

4. OCR is used to verify the legitimacy or originality of

paper documents.

5. The monitor is a soft copy output device.

6. Non-impact printers create characters by striking an

inked ribbon against the paper.

7. A laser printer uses the same technology used in

photocopier machines.

8. A plotter is used to print vector graphics

9. A mouse cannot be used with a laptop computer.

38 ‘Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C

10, Soft copy output devices are those that produce a

physical form of output.

Review Questions

1, How does a keyboard work?

2. Explain the working of different types of mouse.

3, How is OCR technology better than an ordinary image

scanner?
4, How does MICR technology help to detect fraud in
cheque payments?

5, Web cameras can be used to check security in a bank

Comment

6. How are projectors used to display information to a

user?

7. How are headsets better than speakers and headphones?

8. Differentiate between impact and non-impact printers.

9. Can characters of different fonts be printed with a band

printer?

10. Why is a line printer preferred over a dot matrix printer?

if you have an image to be printed, which out of the two
will you use and why?

11
12
13.
14
15.
16.
17,

18.
19.

20,

21

22

Under which situation, will you prefer to use an inkjet

printer over a laser printer?

How is a plotter different from a printer?

Explain the variants of plotters.

What are input devices? Discuss the different types of

input devices in detail.

Give a detailed note on different output devices.

How is a touchpad better than a trackball?

Which pointing input device would you prefer to use,

mouse or trackball? Justify your answer.

List the applications of touchscreen

What are optical input devices? Where are they used

and for what purpose?
Differentiate between a soft copy and a hard copy
output

Which factors will you consider while purchasing a

monitor for your personal computer? After considering
the factors, which monitor will you buy?

What is a data projector? How is it different from a

computer screen?