MANUFACTURING

TECHNOLOGY - II
 What is Manufacturing?

➢ Derived from the Latin word- manufactus

➢ manus = hand, factus = made
➢ Practical definition: process of converting or processing raw materials into usable products
Manufacturing technology refers to the methods, tools, and processes used to transform raw
materials into finished goods.
Difference between Manufacturing and Production

Manufacturing
• Manufacturing is the process of converting raw materials into products.
• This includes tangible goods such as automobiles, food, electronics, clothing, and more.

Production
• Production is the process of manufacturing or creating goods or services.
• Production is the act of making something or producing something.
• It is an economic term that refers to the process of manufacturing goods and services in order to
generate profit.
Steel Manufacturing Process
 Unit-1: Theory of Metal Cutting

•Mechanics of metal cutting: Orthogonal and oblique cutting, Chip formation, Types of chips, Chip
control.
•Merchants theory of cutting forces at tool point, Limitations and modifications of Merchants
theory, Plowing forces and the ‘Size effect’.
•Heat generation in metal cutting, Cutting fluids and their physical action.
•Tool wear, Tool life and Machinability.
•Nomenclature of cutting tools and Cutting tool materials.
•Economics of machining.
•Analysis of milling and grinding processes.
 METAL CUTTING

▪ Metal cutting or Machining involves the removal of some material from the workpiece in order
to produce a specific geometry at a definite degree of accuracy and surface quality.
▪ Machining processes are performed on metal cutting machines, using various types of cutting
tools.
 Purpose of machining

➢ Most of the engineering components, such as gears, bearings, clutches, tools, screws and nuts, etc.,
need dimensional and form accuracy and good surface finish for serving their purposes.
➢ Processes like casting, forging, etc., generally cannot provide the desired accuracy and finish.
➢ For that such preformed parts, called blanks, need semi-finishing and finishing, and it is done by
machining and grinding.
➢ Grinding is also basically a machining process.
➢ Machining to high accuracy and finish essentially enables a product:
• Fulfil its functional requirements.
• Improve its performance.
• Prolong its service.
 Factors affecting metal cutting

1.Properties of Work material

2.Properties & geometry of cutting tool
3.Interaction between the tool and the work
 Types of metal cutting processes
• The metal cutting process is mainly classified into two types.
• They are-1. Orthogonal cutting process (Two-dimensional cutting)
2. Oblique cutting process (Three-dimensional cutting)
 Orthogonal Cutting Oblique Cutting
The cutting angle of the tool makes an acute
The cutting angle of tool make right angle (90
angle (less than 90 degrees)to the direction of
degrees) to the direction of motion
motion
The flow of chip is perpendicular to cutting The flow of chip is not perpendicular to
edge. cutting edge.
The tool has lesser cutting life The tool has higher cutting life

The shear force per unit area is high which The shear force per unit area is low which
increases the heat per unit area. decrease heat per unit area.

In this cutting, the chip flows over the tool. In this cutting, chip flow along the sideways.

In orthogonal cutting, surface finish is poor. In oblique cutting surface finish is good.

Two mutually perpendicular cutting force act Three mutually perpendicular forces are
on the workpiece involved .
1. Cutting angle of the tool
•Orthogonal Cutting: The cutting edge of the tool is at a right angle (90°) to the direction of tool travel.
• This means the cutting edge fully engages the material at once.
•Oblique Cutting: The cutting edge is set at an acute angle (< 90°) to the direction of motion.
• This results in a slicing action rather than a straight penetration.
Effect: Oblique cutting produces a smoother cutting action with less sudden impact, reducing tool wear.

2. Flow of chips
Orthogonal Cutting: Chips flow perpendicular to the cutting edge.
This is a straight chip flow, making it easier to model but producing more concentrated forces.
Oblique Cutting: Chips flow at an angle, not perpendicular to the cutting edge.
The chip flows sideways, distributing cutting forces more evenly.
Effect: Oblique cutting reduces stress concentration, improving tool life.

3. Tool life
Orthogonal Cutting: Lesser tool life because the entire cutting edge is in contact at once, causing higher
wear.
Oblique Cutting: Higher tool life since the load is distributed along the angled cutting edge.
4. Shear force & heat
•Orthogonal Cutting: Higher shear force per unit area, leading to more friction and higher heat generation in a
concentrated region.
•Oblique Cutting: Lower shear force per unit area, so heat generation is less intense and more spread out.

5. Chip flow direction

Orthogonal Cutting: Chips flow over the tool face directly toward the top.
Oblique Cutting: Chips flow sideways, away from the cutting zone.
Effect: Sideways flow reduces clogging and helps in better chip evacuation.

6. Surface finish
Orthogonal Cutting: Produces a poorer surface finish because cutting is more abrupt and causes more vibration.
Oblique Cutting: Produces a better surface finish due to the slicing action and smoother engagement.

7. Cutting forces
•Orthogonal Cutting: Involves two mutually perpendicular forces (cutting force and thrust force).
•Oblique Cutting: Involves three mutually perpendicular forces (cutting force, thrust force, and radial force).
Effect: The extra force component in oblique cutting improves stability and distributes stress.
 Types of cutting tool

❖ Cutting tools perform the main machining operation.

❖ It is a body having teeth or cutting edges.
Generally, there are three types of cutting tools-
❖ Single point: The cutting tool, which has only one cutting edge
e.g., turning tools, shaping, planning and slotting tools and boring tools.
❖ Double (two) point: The cutting tool, which has two cutting edges
e.g., drills.
❖ Multipoint (more than two):
The cutting tool which has more than one cutting edge
e.g., milling cutters, broaching tools, hobs, gear shaping cutters, etc.
Single-point cutting tool
A cutting tool that removes material from a workpiece with a single cutting edge. Used mainly
in turning, shaping, and planning operations.
Geometry of single-point cutting tools
•Shank
The shank is the main body of the tool that is gripped by the tool holder or clamped directly in a
tool post.
•Flank
The flank is the surface below and adjacent to the cutting edge. It provides clearance between the
tool and the finished surface of the workpiece.
•Face
The face is the top surface of the tool along which the chip flows or slides during the cutting
process.
•Base
The base is the supporting surface of the tool that rests in the tool holder or on the tool post. It
provides stability during machining.
•Heel
The heel is the curved portion at the bottom of the tool, formed at the intersection of the flank and
base.
•Nose
The nose is the point where the side cutting edge and end cutting edge meet. It plays a key role in
determining surface finish and tool life.
•Nose Radius
The nose radius is the rounded tip at the intersection of the cutting edges. A larger nose radius
improves surface finish and reduces stress concentration, but may cause chatter. A sharp nose, while
precise, is more prone to wear and may leave grooves on the workpiece.
•Cutting Edge
The cutting edge is the part of the tool that actually removes material from the workpiece. It
includes:
➢ Side cutting edge (major cutting edge)
➢ End cutting edge (minor cutting edge)
•Tool Angles
Tool angles are critical for efficient cutting. Properly designed angles help in reducing tool
breakage, minimising heat generation, and enhancing cutting performance.
 TOOL ANGLES IN
SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL
Back Rake Angle
✓ It is the angle between the face of the tool and the base of the shank/holder, and is usually measured in a
plane perpendicular to the base and parallel to the edge length of the tool.
✓ It affects the ability of the tool to shear the work material and form the chip.
✓ In turning, a positive back rake angle takes the chips away from the machined surface, whereas a
negative back rake angle directs the chips onto the machined surface.

Side Rake Angle

✓ It is the angle between the face of the tool and the base of the shank or holder, usually measured in a
plane perpendicular to the base and parallel to the width.
✓ An increase in the side rake angle reduces the chip thickness in turning.

End Relief Angle

✓ It is the angle between the portion of the end flank immediately below the end cutting edge and a line
drawn through this cutting edge perpendicular to the base.
✓ It is usually measured in a plane perpendicular to the end flank.
✓ The end relief angle prevents friction on the flank of the tool.
Side Relief Angle
✓ It is the angle between the portion of the side flank immediately below the side cutting edge and a line drawn
through this cutting edge to the base.
✓ It is measured in a plane perpendicular to the side flank.

End Cutting Edge Angle (ECEA)

✓ The end cutting edge angle is the amount that the end cutting edge slopes away from the nose of the tool, so
that it will clear the finished surface on the workpiece when cutting with the side cutting edge.
✓ It prevents the trailing end of the cutting edge of the tool from rubbing against the workpiece.
✓ A larger end cutting edge angle weakens the tool.
✓ It is usually kept between 8° - 15°.

Side Cutting Edge Angle (SCEA)

✓ It is the angle which prevents interference as the tool enters the work material.
✓ Normally 15° – 30°.
✓ The larger this angle, the greater the component of force tending to separate the work and the tool (It may
reduce chatter)
✓ At its increased value, it will have more of its length in action for a given depth of cut.
✓ At its increased value, it produces a thinner and wider chip that will distribute the cutting heat (increased tool
life).
✓ SCEA has no influence on cutting force (𝐹𝑐) or cutting power.
Lip Angle
✓ Lip angle (or wedge angle or knife angle or cutting angle) depends on the rake and clearance angles
provided on the tool and determines the strength of the cutting edge.
✓ Larger lip angle permits machining of harder metals, allows heavier depth of cut, better heat dissipation,
and increases tool life.

Nose Radius
✓ It is the curvature of the tool tip.
✓ It strengthens the tool nose by reducing the stress concentration.
✓ Surface finish (roughness) h=f2/8R (R=radius)
✓ But too large a nose radius will induce chatter.
✓ By a large radius, increased cutting force and cutting power will also increase.
✓ It increases the tool life.
❖ The rake angle is the angle between the tool’s rake face and a
plane perpendicular to the workpiece. It affects chip
formation, cutting forces, heat generation, and surface
quality.
❖ Can be positive, negative, or zero.

Zero Rake Angle

❑ The tool geometry is simple, with no inclination of the rake

face, making it straightforward for engineers to design.
❑ Since no precise rake angle machining is required,
production is faster and cost-effective.
❑ Regrinding the cutting edge is simpler because the rake face
remains flat, maintaining uniformity after sharpening.
❑ Tool geometry is less complex, making the study of cutting
mechanics, wear, and performance easier.
Positive Rake Angle Tools Negative Rake Angle Tools

❑ Provides a sharp cutting edge with a smaller ❑ Less sharp cutting edge but larger lip angle for the
lip angle. same clearance angle.
❑ Enables smoother and more precise cutting ❑ Stronger tool tip with higher resistance to sudden
operations. failure.
❑ Smaller lip angle lowers tool tip strength, ❑ Large lip angle provides a strong tool tip, which is
making it prone to sudden breakage or more resilient to catastrophic failure.
failure. ❑ Can handle higher chip loads, allowing greater
❑ Cannot sustain high chip loads; requires low feed and depth of cut.
feed and depth of cut. ❑ Cutting force and power requirements are higher.
❑ Cutting force and power requirements are ❑ Ideal for machining hard and brittle materials
lower.
❑ Best suited for machining soft and ductile
materials.
Single Point Cutting Tool Advantages
✓ Versatility: Single-point cutting tools can be used on a wide range of materials, including metal, wood,
and plastic.
✓ Precision: It can produce very precise cuts, making them ideal for applications where accuracy is critical.
✓ Reduced Tool Wear: Because only a single point is in contact with the workpiece, there is less wear and
tear on the cutting tool, reducing the need for frequent replacement.
✓ Ease of Sharpening: They are relatively easy to sharpen, allowing for quick and efficient maintenance.
✓ Lower Cost: Compared to other cutting tools, single-point cutting tools are often more affordable, making
them a cost-effective choice for many applications.
✓ Improved Surface Finish: It can produce a smooth surface finish on the workpiece, reducing the need for
additional finishing processes.
✓ Reduced Cutting Forces: Single-point cutting tools typically require less cutting force than other cutting
tools, resulting in less stress on the workpiece and the cutting tool itself.
✓ Increased Productivity: They can often cut more quickly than other cutting tools, reducing production
time and increasing productivity.
Single Point Cutting Tool Disadvantages
❖ Shorter tool life.
❖ Low metal removal rate.
❖ Low productivity.

Single Point Cutting Tool Application

Uses of tool on Lathe Machine:

o Turning – Reduces the diameter of a rotating workpiece.
o Facing – Makes the end surface flat.
o Boring – Enlarges an existing hole.
o Parting – Cuts off a portion of the workpiece.
o Threading – Forms screw threads.
o Grooving – Creates narrow grooves.
o Chamfering – Bevels sharp edges.
o Knurling – Produces a patterned surface (done with a special tool, not cutting).
MECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING
 DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT IN METAL CUTTING

Three Zones of Heat Generation:

1.Primary Deformation Zone
1. Region where crystal structures break due to plastic deformation.
2. 70-80% of the total energy is consumed here.
3. Most heat is generated due to the shearing action.
2.Secondary Deformation Zone
1. Occurs at the chip-tool interface (between chip and rake face).
2. 20–25% of energy is consumed to overcome drag/friction.
3. 100% of this energy is converted into heat.
3.Work-Tool Contact Zone
1. Heat generated due to the burnishing (rubbing) action.
2. As the tool wears, friction increases, causing more heat generation.

Heat Distribution:
• Out of the total heat generated:75-80% goes into the chip
• Remaining effects tool and workpiece
Factors Affecting Heat Generation:

1.Rake angle of the tool

2.Cutting speed
3.Work material characteristics
4.Friction on the rake face
 MECHANICS OF CHIP FORMATION

Plastic Deformation along Shear Plane

•In this setup, the workpiece remains stationary and the tool advances into the
workpiece towards the left.
•As the tool advances, the metal is compressed very severely, which generates
shear stress in the material.
•This shear stress is maximum along a specific plane known as the shear
plane.
•If the workpiece material is ductile, the metal flows plastically along the shear
plane.
•This plastic flow forms a chip, which moves upward along the face of the
cutting tool.
•The tool will cut or shear off the metal provided:
• The tool is harder than the work material.
• The tool is properly shaped so that its cutting edge is effective.
• There is relative movement between the tool and the workpiece to
enable cutting action.
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF
CHIPS IN METAL CUTTING

• The sheared material that flows along with the cutting tool surface in the form of small pieces during metal
cutting is called a chip.
• Chip actually has two surfaces, such as a shiny surface (which has contact with the rake surface of the tool)
and another is a rough surface (which has no contact with any solid body).
• The basic types of chips produced in orthogonal cutting are-
❖ Continuous chip
❖ Discontinuous chip
❖ Continuous chip with built-up edge
❖ Serrated chip
Definition: Ribbon-like chips with uniform thickness along their length.
•Formation Conditions:
• Cutting ductile materials (e.g., low carbon steel, copper, brass, aluminium alloys).
• High cutting velocity and pressure at the tool cutting edge.
• Sharp cutting edge and low friction at the tool-chip interface.
•Advantages:
• Good surface finish.
• Smooth cutting action.
• Increased tool life.
• Reduced power consumption.
•Drawbacks:
• In soft metals at low speed and low rake angles, surface distortion may occur.
•Chip Control:
• Chip breakers are used to prevent long chips from tangling (common in turning).
•Definition: Chips are formed as short, segmented pieces loosely attached to each other.
•Formation Conditions:
• Machining brittle materials (e.g., cast iron, bronze, high carbon steel).
• Low cutting velocity.
• High friction at the tool-chip interface.
• Large feed and depth of cut.
•Formation Mechanism:
• Brittle materials lack ductility, leading to fracture during deformation.
• Periodic ruptures occur in chip flow.
• Cutting forces fluctuate frequently.
•Effects:
•Poor stiffness in the tool or work holding → Vibration, dimensional errors, and tool damage.
•Advantages:
• Short length → Easy handling and disposal.
•Definition: Temporary welding of chip material to the tool’s rake surface near the tool tip
due to high friction.
• Acts as a secondary cutting edge.
• Unstable; parts break off during machining.
•Formation Mechanism:
• High friction at the tool–chip interface.
• Chip continuously rubs against the rake face.
•Effects:
• Poor surface finish (BUE fragments stick to chip & machined surface).
• Reduces tool wear and increases tool life (acts as a protective layer).
•Prevention Methods:
• Use a sharp tool.
• Increase cutting speed.
• Reduce chip thickness.
• Increase rake angle.
• Apply a suitable cutting fluid.
•Other Names:
• Saw-tooth chips
• Non-homogeneous chips
•Appearance:
• Serrated chips look like tiny saw teeth- thick, thin, thick, thin- instead of being smooth.
• They usually form when cutting tough metals at high speed.
• When cutting very fast, the tool makes the metal very hot in small spots.
• Some parts of the metal soften from the heat, while others stay harder.
• This causes the chip to break into segments instead of curling smoothly.
• Semi-continuous due to cyclic chip formation.
•Formation Conditions:
• Machining difficult-to-machine materials:
• Titanium alloys
• Nickel-based superalloys
• Austenitic stainless steel
• High cutting velocities.
 CHIP BREAKERS

•Long, continuous chips are undesirable.

•If the above-mentioned chips are not broken means it will adversely affect the machining in the following
ways,
➢ Spoiling cutting-edge
➢ Raising temperature
➢ Poor surface finish
➢ Hazardous to the machine operator.
• Two ways are employed to overcome all the above drawbacks.
• The first one is the proper selection of cutting conditions, and the second one is that chip breakers are
used to break the chips.

Proper selection of cutting conditions

• Since the cutting speed influences to a great extent the productivity of machining and surface finish,
working at low speeds may not be desirable.
• If the cutting speed is to be kept high, changing the feed and depth of cut is a reasonable solution for chip
control.
CHIP BREAKERS

• A chip breaker is a metal piece fixed to the rake surface of the tool to bend and break chips.
• There are two types of chip breakers
1. External type, an inclined obstruction clamped to the tool face
2. Integral type, a groove ground into the tool face or bulges formed onto the tool
face

•Chips become harder during formation, making them easier to break.

•Chip breakers break the produced chips into small, manageable pieces by modifying tool geometry to
control chip flow.

Common Types of Chip Breakers:

1.Groove Type
2. Step Type
3.Secondary Rake Type
4.Clamp Type
(a) Schematic illustration of the action of a chip breaker. Note
that the chip breaker decreases the radius of curvature of the
chip and eventually breaks it. (b) A chip breaker is clamped on
the rake face of a cutting tool. (c) Grooves in cutting tools act as
chip breakers. Most cutting tools used now are inserts with
built-in chip breaker features.
Overall effects of chip breaking

Favourable effects:

• Safety of the operator(s) from the hot, sharp, continuous chip flowing out at high speed.
• Convenience of collection and disposal of chips.
• A chance of damage to the finished surface by entangling or rubbing with the chip is eliminated.
• More effective cutting fluid action due to shorter and varying chip tool contact length.

Unfavourable effects:

• Chances of harmful vibration due to frequent chip breaking and hitting at the heel or flank of the tool
bit.
• More heat and stress concentration near the sharp cutting edge, and hence the chances of its rapid
• failure.
• Surface finish may deteriorate.
Geometry of chip Formation:

tc : Chip thickness
tu :Uncut chip thickness
V f : Chip Sliding Velocity
Vs : Shear Velocity
Vc : Cutting Velocity
 : Shear Angle
ABC & ABD
tu
AB =
sin
φ
tc tc
also, AB = =
sin(90 − ( −  )) cos( −  )
90-ф+α = 90-(ф-α)
tu sin 
=
tc cos( −  )
Fig Schematic of the Geometry of chip formation
 SHEAR ANGLE AND CHIPTHICKNESS RATIO EVALUATION
tu
rc = : Chip thickness Ratio / Cutting Ratio (less than 1) Substitute the value of tu /tc
tc from earlier slide and simplify to get:
Chip reduction 1 coscos + sinsin
coefficient =
(greater than 1) rc sin
1 = rccotcos + rcsin
rccos = (1− rcsin ) tan 
φ
 rc cos 
 tan  =   90-ф+α
 1− rc sin  = 90-(ф-α)

Volume Constancy Condition in Metal Cutting

• The principle of volume constancy states that:

• Volume of uncut chip=Volume of cut chip
• This condition arises because, during machining, plastic deformation occurs without any significant change in
material density.
• Hence, the volume of material before cutting (uncut chip) must equal the volume of material after cutting (chip formed).
 SHEAR ANGLE AND CHIPTHICKNESS RATIO EVALUATION

Lc = Chip length
Mathematically, for orthogonal cutting: Lu = Uncut chip length
b = Chip width
Lutub = Lctcb
(2-D Cutting)
 Lctc = Lutu
tu = Lc
or, rc =
tc Lu

4
 MERCHANT’S CIRCLE DIAGRAM
(MCD)

• The Merchant’s Circle Diagram is a graphical representation used in metal cutting (orthogonal cutting) to
analyse the various forces acting during the cutting process.
• It helps to understand the relationship between cutting force, thrust force, shear force, and frictional forces
at the tool-chip interface.
• The Merchant Circle diagram was developed by M. Eugene Merchant.
• He developed it based on his research into the mechanics of metal cutting, particularly the chip formation
process, and through discussions with Hans Ernst.
Forces on an Isolated Chip

When the chip is considered as a separate body:

•R = Resultant force between tool and chip (at tool–chip interface).
•R′ = Resultant force between workpiece and chip (along shear plane).
•For equilibrium, these must be equal and opposite:
•R=R′

Forces resolved:
Along shear plane:
Shear force (Fs​)
Normal to shear plane (Fn)
Along tool face:
Frictional force (F)
Normal to tool face (N)
In cutting directions:
Cutting force (Fc​) along tool velocity.
Thrust force (Ft​) perpendicular to cutting direction.
Assumptions

(i) The tool is perfectly sharp and has no contact along the clearance face.
(ii) The surface, where shear is occurring, is a plane.
(iii) The cutting edge is a straight line extending perpendicular to the direction of motion, and
generates a plane surface as the work moves past it.
(iv) The chip does not flow to either side or no side spread.
(v) Uncut chip thickness is constant.
(vi) The width of the tool is greater than the width of the work.
(vii) A continuous chip is produced without any BUE.
(viii) Work moves with a uniform velocity.
(ix) The stresses on the shear plane are uniformly distributed.
 FORCE CIRCLE DIAGRAM

• Properties of similar triangles -ΔFHD and Δ AGH.

• Apply Exterior angle theorems in Δ AFB

ΔDFB= DFA-AFB
Δ FDE=90°-DFB
Δ FAM=90°
Δ DAC= 90°- β
Δ FAD = (β - α)
Δ GAD = φ + (β - α)

79
 Force Analysis

Forces in Orthogonal
Cutting:
• Friction force, F
• Force normal to Friction force, N
• Cutting Force, FC
• Thrust force, Ft
• ShearForce, FS
•ForceNormal to shear force, Fn
•Resultant force, R FREEBODYDIAGRAM
•ɸ = Shear plane angle
•tanβ= F/N​ =μ → → →
R = F+ N
→ → → → → →
R = F S + F N = F c + Ft = R '

56
 FORCEANALYSIS

F= AB+BC
F = Ft cos + Fc sin
N= BF-EF
N = Fc cos − Ft sin

Coefficient of Friction ( )
F Ft cos + Fc sin
 = tan  = =
N Fc cos − Ft sin

 = Friction Angle DIVIDE R.H.S. BY Cos α

Ft + Fc tan
= also,  = tan−1 ()
Fc − Ft tan 
57
 Foce Analysis

FS = AM-GM (GM=FL)
FS = Fc cos − Ft sin
FN = DL+LG (LG=FM)
FN = Ft cos + Fc sin

also, FC= R cos( −  )

Δ FAD = (β - α)
Δ GAD = φ + (β - α)
FS = R cos( +  −  )

FC cos( −  )
 =
FS cos( +  −  )

tub  tu 
ShearPlaneArea ( AS ) =  = b
sin  sin  58
 Force Analysis
Let  be the strength of work material
tub
FS = AS = 
sin

 tub  cos( −  )   tub   1 

FC =  sin   cos( +  −  )  and, R =  sin    cos( +  −  ) 
      

tu b sin( −  )
Ft = R sin( −  ) = 
sin cos( +  −  )

Ft
= tan( −  )
Fc
59
 Foce Analysis

FS
Mean Shear Stress (t chip ) =
AS
(On Chip)
(Fc cos − Ft sin) sin 
=
b tu

FN
Mean Normal Stress ( chip ) =
AS
(On Chip)

(Ft cos + Fc sin) sin 

=
b tu

Shear Strain (γ)= tan(ɸ-α) + cot ɸ

60
 VELOCITY ANALYSIS

• Vc : Cutting velocity of tool relative to workpiece

• V f : Chip flow velocity

• Vs : Shear velocity

• Using sine Rule:

Vc V Vs
= f =
sin(90 − ( −  )) sin  sin(90 −  )

Vc V V Vc sin 
= f = s and V f = = Vc  rc
cos( −  ) sin  cos cos( −  )

Vc cos V cos
Vs =  s =
cos( −  ) Vc cos( −  )
11
POWER

Cutting Power = FC.VC

Shear Power = FS.VS
Friction power = F.Vf
Cutting Power = Shear Power + Friction Power

FC.VC = FS.VS + F.Vf

Specific cutting power = cutting power/material removal rate (MRR) = FC.VC / MRR

Where MRR = w.tu.VC mm³/min

= FC.VC / w.tu.VC = Fc / w.tu

Specific Cutting Power = Fc / w.tu

 Shear angle relationship

Helpful to predict the position of the shear plane (angle φ)

Relationship between-
• Shear Plane Angle (φ)
• Rake Angle (α)
• Friction Angle(β)

Several Theories

Earnst-Merchant(Minimum Energy Criterion):

The shear plane is located where the least energy is required for shear.

Assumptions:-
• Orthogonal Cutting.
• Shear strength of Metal along the shear plane is not affected by Normal stress.
• Continuous chip without BUE.
ERNEST AND MERCHANT THEORY

Next
slide

t1=tu
MERCHANT SECOND OR MODIFIED THEORY

Next
slide
Next
slide
LEE AND SHAFFER (SLIP LINE FIELD THEORY)

The theory of Lee and Shaffer was the result of an attempt to apply the plasticity theory to orthogonal metal cutting.

The assumptions are:

1.The work material ahead of the tool behaves as an ideal plastic mass.
2.There exists a shear plane which separates the chip and the workpiece.
3.No hardening in the chip occurs

Based on the following assumptions, the relationship obtained is

ϕ+β−α=45∘

Limiting conditions for MCD

•MCD is valid/applicable for orthogonal cutting only

•Ratio of F/N gives apparent (not actual) coefficient of friction at rake face
•Valid for single shear plane theory.
PLOWING/PLOUGHING FORCE

•Defined as the measured force just prior to chip formation (i.e., at no chip formation)
•Also called zero-feed force

•Importance of Plowing Force :

•Tool wear monitoring

•Material flow stress calculation
•Chip formation mechanisms
•Machined surface integrity
 Schematic illustration of the effect of tool sharpness (or tool edge radius) on cutting mechanics.

Ideal vs Real Tool

▪ An ideal sharp tool would have a perfectly sharp cutting edge (theoretically a point).
▪ A real tool always has some edge radius (r) - i.e., the tool tip is slightly rounded or blunt.
Graph
▪ The graph shows cutting velocity (u) or deformation rate vs. undeformed chip thickness (tu).
▪ When the undeformed chip thickness (tu) is larger than r:
▪ The tool cuts effectively, producing chips.
▪ When tu ≈ r or smaller than r:
▪ Cutting action becomes ineffective.
▪ Instead of shearing the material, the tool starts to push/plow the surface, causing rubbing and material
deformation without proper chip formation.
Cutting Zone with Chip Formation

▪ tu: Undeformed chip thickness.

▪ r: Tool edge radius.
▪ If tu > r, material is sheared and a chip is formed normally.
▪ If tu < r, the rounded tool edge causes a plowing effect:
▪ The tool compresses and rubs the surface instead of cutting.
▪ Results in poor surface finish, higher cutting forces, and tool wear.

Key Takeaways

•A sharp tool is ideal for cutting, but in practice, every tool has some edge radius.
•When chip thickness is less than tool edge radius, cutting efficiency drops, and plowing dominates.
•This is important in micro-machining, finishing operations, and precision cutting, where undeformed chip
thickness can be very small.
Numericals
Single Point cutting Tool Nomenclature Systems

American Standards Association (ASA)

•Order: Back rake angle – Side rake angle – End relief angle – Side relief angle – End cutting edge angle – Side cutting
edge angle – Nose radius.

•Representation:

Orthogonal Rake System (ORS)

•Order: Angle of inclination – Normal rake angle – Side relief angle – End relief angle – End cutting edge angle –
Approach angle – Nose radius.

•Representation:
Tool signature 0-7-6-8-15-16-0.8

1. Back rake angle (0°)

2. Side rake angle (7°)

3. End relief angle (6°)

4. Side relief angle (8°)

5. End cutting edge angle (15°)

6. Side cutting edge angle (16°)

7. Nose radius (0.8 mm)

Surface Roughness

λ = Principal cutting edge angle (approach angle)

Let:
f=feed
Cs=SCEA=Side Cutting Edge Angle
Ce=ECEA=End Cutting Edge Angle
R=Nose radius

Formulas:

1.Peak-to-valley height:

2.Maximum height based on angles:

3.Centre line average value (Surface Roughness, Ra):

 CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS

• The selection of a cutting tool material for a specific application is among the most important factors to consider in
machining operations
• A cutting tool is subjected to (a) high temperatures, (b) high forces and contact stresses, and (c) rubbing along the tool-
chip interface and along the machined surface.

Consequently, cutting-tool material must possess the following characteristics:

❖ Hot hardness, so that the hardness, strength, and wear resistance of the tool can be maintained at the temperatures
encountered in machining. Hot hardness ensures that the tool does not undergo any deformation, thus retaining its
shape and sharpness.
❖ Toughness and impact strength, so that forces on the tool encountered repeatedly in interrupted cutting operations or
forces due to vibration and chatter during machining do not chip or fracture the tool.
❖ Thermal shock resistance, to withstand the rapid temperature cycling, as encountered in interrupted cutting.
❖ Wear resistance, so that an acceptable tool life is maintained before tool replacement is necessary.
❖ Chemical stability and inertness, with respect to the workpiece material, are required to avoid or minimise any
adverse reactions, adhesion, and tool-chip diffusion that would contribute to tool wear.
Tool materials may not have all of the desired properties for a particular machining operation

85
86
87
Tool Materials (also used for dies and moulds in casting, forming, and shaping metallic and non-metallic materials)**:
1. High-speed steels
2. Cast-cobalt alloys
3. Carbides
4. Coated tools
5. Alumina-based ceramics
6. Cubic boron nitride
7. Silicon-nitride-based ceramics
8. Diamond
9. Whisker-reinforced materials and nanomaterials

**Kindly refer to standard theory books for more comprehensive content

88
High Speed Steel (HSS):
•Developed in the early 1900s to allow higher machining speeds.
•Good hardness, wear resistance, toughness, and low cost.
•Commonly used for tools with complex geometries (drills, reamers, taps, gear cutters).
•Lower hardness than carbide tools.

•Applications (due to toughness):

•High positive rake-angle tools (small included angles).
•Interrupted cutting operations.
•Tools prone to vibration or chatter.
•Complex-geometry tools.

Types:
•M-series (Molybdenum-based, ~10% Mo):
• With Cr, V, W, Co.
• Higher abrasion resistance, less distortion in heat treatment, and cheaper.
• ~95% of all HSS tools.
•T-series (Tungsten-based, 12–18% W):
• With Cr, V, Co.

89
•Forms & Treatments:
• Available as wrought, cast, powder-metallurgy (sintered).
• May be coated (for improved life & performance).
• May undergo surface treatments: case hardening, steam treatment (bluing) → reduces built-up edge, improves
wear resistance.
•Major Alloying Elements & Roles:
• Chromium (Cr): Toughness, wear resistance, high-temperature strength.
• Vanadium (V): Toughness, abrasion resistance, hot hardness.
• Tungsten (W) & Cobalt (Co): Strength, hot hardness.
• Molybdenum (Mo): Wear resistance, toughness, high-temperature strength & hardness.

Cast-cobalt Alloys (Stellite Tools)

•Introduced: 1915.
•Composition: 38–53% Cobalt (Co), 30–33% Chromium (Cr), 10–20% Tungsten (W).
•Properties:
• High hardness: 58–64 HRC.
• Good wear resistance.
• Maintains hardness at elevated temperatures.
•Limitations:
• Lower toughness than High-Speed Steels (HSS).
• Sensitive to impact → unsuitable for interrupted cutting.
•Form: Cast and ground into simple tool shapes.
•Common Name: Stellite tools.
Carbides (General)
•Reason for development: Earlier tool materials like high-speed steels and cast alloys lacked sufficient hot hardness
and strength at higher cutting speeds.
•Introduction: Cemented (sintered) carbides introduced in the 1930s.
•Key properties:
• High strength
• High elastic modulus
• High thermal conductivity
• High hardness over a wide range of temperatures
•Importance: Most versatile and cost-effective tool materials for high-speed machining.
•Types:
• Tungsten carbide (WC)
• Titanium carbide (TiC)
•Terminology: Tools made only of these carbides (without coatings) are called uncoated carbides.
Carbides – Cemented – Sintered Carbide (Tungsten):

• Tungsten carbide (WC) consists of tungsten-carbide particles bonded together in a cobalt matrix
• As the cobalt content increases, the strength, hardness, and wear resistance of WC decrease
• Toughness increases because of cobalt’s high toughness

Carbides – Cemented – Sintered Carbide (Titanium):

• Consists of a nickel–molybdenum matrix
• Has higher wear resistance than tungsten carbide, but is not as tough
• Suitable for machining hard materials and for cutting at speeds higher than tungsten carbide
Carbides – Cemented – Sintered Carbide (Insert):

• High-speed steel tools are shaped for applications such as drill bits and milling, and gear cutters
• Inserts are individual cutting tools with several cutting points
• Clamping is the preferred method of securing an insert, and the insert has been indexed (rotated in its holder) to make
another cutting point available
• Available in a variety of shapes: square, triangle, diamond and round with multiple cutting edges.
• Square insert → 8 edges
• Triangular insert → 6 edges
• Mounting: Clamped on toolholders with locking mechanisms.
• Indexing: When one edge wears, rotate to use another.

Chip-breaker features on inserts for the purposes of:

1. Controlling chip flow during machining
2. Eliminating long chips
3. Reducing vibration and heat generated
HSS tool for lathe Tungsten Carbide tools
Coated Tools

• Modern alloys and engineered materials (like superalloys, hardened steels, and composites) are hard, tough, abrasive,
and chemically reactive, which can quickly wear out cutting tools.

• To tackle this, cutting tools are coated with special materials

Coatings have unique properties:

1. Lower friction
2. Higher adhesion
3. Higher resistance to wear and cracking
4. Acting as a diffusion barrier
5. Higher hot hardness and impact resistance

Common coating materials are:

1. Titanium nitride
2. Titanium carbide
3. Titanium carbonitride
4. Aluminium oxide
95
Titanium-nitride Coatings
• Have low friction coefficients, high hardness, resistance to high temperature and good adhesion to the substrate
• Improve the life of high-speed steel tools and improve the lives of carbide tools, drill bits, and cutters
• Perform well at higher cutting speeds and feeds

96
Titanium-carbide Coatings
• Coatings have high flank-wear resistance in machining
abrasive materials
Ceramic Coatings
• Coatings have low thermal conductivity, resistance to high temperature, flank and crater wear
Multiphase Coatings
• Desirable properties of the coatings can be combined and optimized with the use of multiphase coatings
• Coatings also available in alternating multiphase layers

97
Cutting Fluids

Cutting fluids are used in machining operations for the following purposes:
❖ Reduce friction and wear, thus improving the tool life and surface finish of the workpiece.
❖ Cool the cutting zone, thus improving tool life and reducing the temperature and thermal distortion of the
workpiece.
❖ Reduce cutting forces and energy consumption.
❖ Flush away the chips from the cutting zone, preventing the chips from interfering with the cutting operation,
particularly in drilling and tapping.
❖ Protect the machined surface from environmental corrosion.
The effectiveness of cutting fluids depends on:

•Type of machining operation

•Delivery method to the cutting zone (flooding, mist, jet, or through the tool/spindle)
•Water: best coolant, but no lubrication, causes corrosion.
•Sulfurized/chlorinated oils: good lubricants, reduce friction but low cooling capacity.
•High-speed machining: cutting fluids are less effective because of very high cutting-zone temperatures.
•Cryogenic cooling (liquid nitrogen, CO₂): alternative for difficult-to-cut materials.
•In some cases, cutting fluids may be detrimental:
•Interfere with the tool–chip contact.
•Cause thermal shock to tools (especially ceramics, carbides, cermets).
Effects of Cutting Fluids on Machining
A machining operation is being carried out with a cutting fluid that is an effective lubricant.

Describe the changes in the cutting operation mechanics if the fluid supply is interrupted.

Since the cutting fluid is a good lubricant, the following chain of events will take place after the fluid is shut off:

•Cutting fluid off → friction ↑.

•Friction ↑ → shear angle ↓.
•Shear angle ↓ → shear strain ↑.
•Shear strain ↑ → chip thicker.
•High friction + adhesion → BUE forms.

As a result of these changes, the following events will occur:

1.The shear energy in the primary zone will increase.

2.The frictional energy in the secondary zone will increase.
3.The total energy will increase.
4. The temperature in the cutting zone will rise, causing greater tool wear.
5. Surface finish of the workpiece will begin to deteriorate, and dimensional accuracy may be difficult to maintain,
because of the increased temperature and thermal expansion of the workpiece during machining.
 Types of Cutting Fluids

Four general types of cutting fluids are commonly used in machining operations**:

1.Oils include mineral, animal, vegetable, compounded, and, more recently, synthetic oils. They are
typically used for low-speed operations where the temperature rise is not significant.

2.Emulsions, also called soluble oils, are a mixture of oil, water, and additives. They are generally used for
high-speed machining operations where the temperature rise is significant. The presence of water makes
emulsions highly effective coolants, and the presence of oil reduces or eliminates the tendency of water to
cause oxidation of workpiece surfaces.

3.Semi-synthetics are chemical emulsions containing some mineral oil diluted in water, and additives that
reduce the size of the oil particles, thus making them more effective.

4.Synthetics are chemicals with additives, diluted in water; they contain no oil.
Because of the complex interactions among the cutting fluid, workpiece materials, temperature, and
processing variables, the selection and application of fluids cannot be generalised.

**Kindly refer to standard theory books for more comprehensive content

Methods of Cutting-fluid Application
There are four basic methods of cutting fluid applications in machining:

1.Flooding-
• This is the most common method and indicating good and poor flooding practices.
• Fluid flow rates typically range from 10 L/min for single-point tools to 225 L/min per cutter for multiple-tooth
cutters, as in milling.
• In some operations, such as drilling and milling, fluid pressures in the range from 700 to 14,000 kPa are used to flush
away the chips produced to prevent them from interfering with the operation.

2. Mist-
• This type of cooling supplies fluid to inaccessible areas in a manner similar to using an aerosol can and provides
better visibility of the workpiece being machined.
• This method is particularly effective with water-based fluids and at air pressures ranging from 70 to 600 kPa.
• However, it has limited cooling capacity and requires venting to prevent the inhalation of airborne fluid particles by
the operator and other personnel nearby.

3. High-pressure systems-
• Heat generation in machining can be a significant factor.
• Particularly effective is the use of high-pressure refrigerated coolant systems to increase the rate of heat removal.
• High pressures are also used to deliver the cutting fluid via specially designed nozzles; they aim a powerful jet of
fluid to the cutting zone, particularly into the clearance or relief face of the tool.
• The pressures are usually in the range from 5.5 to 35 MPa, and also act as a chip breaker in situations where the
chips produced would otherwise be long and continuous, interfering with the cutting operation.
• Proper cycling and continuous filtering of the fluid are essential to maintain workpiece surface quality.

4. Through the cutting-tool system-

For a more effective application, narrow passages can be produced in cutting tools and in toolholders, through
which cutting fluids can be supplied under high pressure.
Effects of Cutting Fluids.
The selection of a cutting fluid should also include considerations such as its effects on:
•Workpiece material
•Machine tool components
•Health considerations
•The environment

In selecting an appropriate cutting fluid, one should consider the following factors:

1.Fluids containing sulfur should not be used with nickel-based alloys

2.Fluids containing chlorine should not be used with titanium, because of increased corrosion
3.Machined parts should be cleaned, when necessary, to remove any fluid residue.
4.Cutting fluids may adversely affect the machine tool components; their compatibility with various metallic and
nonmetallic materials in the machine also must be considered.
TOOL WEAR

Tool Wear is a term that describes the gradual failure of a cutting tool due to its regular operation.

❖ Cutting tools are ground with specific angles to perform machining operations efficiently under different
materials, cutting speeds, depths of cut, and feed rates.
❖ During operation, the tool undergoes gradual wear, which alters these ground angles and eventually reduces its
effectiveness.
❖ If the tool life is too short, frequent regrinding and replacement are required, which not only increases
machining time but also raises the overall production cost.
❖ Although tool wear is inevitable, it can be significantly minimised by adopting proper operating conditions,
thereby ensuring economical machining and better tool performance.

Objectives of Tool Wear

• To study the wear mechanism and types of wear

• Understand the factors affecting tool life and Taylor’s tool life equation
• To study the machinability and machinability index
• To know about the economics of the machining process and the factors
affecting it
Conditions of Cutting Tool

a) high localised stresses at the tip of the tool

b) high temperatures, especially along the rake face
c) sliding of the chip along the rake face
d) sliding of the tool along the newly cut workpiece surface

These condition leads to tool wear: The rate of tool wear depends on several factors,
including:
➢ Tool wear is a major consideration in all machining operations.
➢ It adversely affects: ➢ Tool material
➢ Tool life ➢ Workpiece material
➢ Quality of the machined surface ➢ Tool geometry
➢ Dimensional accuracy ➢ Process parameters (speed, feed, depth of cut)
➢ Overall economics of cutting operations ➢ Cutting fluids
➢ Tool wear is a gradual process. ➢ Characteristics of the machine tool
MODES OF TOOL WEAR

There are three possible ways a cutting tool can fail in machining:

• Fracture Failure: This mode of failure occurs when the cutting force at the tool point becomes excessive, causing it
to fail suddenly by brittle fracture (Mechanical Chipping)

• Temperature Failure: This failure occurs when the cutting temperature is too high for the tool material, causing the
material at the tool point to soften, which leads to plastic deformation and loss of the sharp edge

• Gradual Wear: Gradual wearing of the cutting edge causes loss of tool shape, reduction in cutting efficiency, and an
acceleration of wearing as the tool becomes heavily worn, and finally, tool failure in a manner similar to a temperature
failure
1. Flank Wear
2. Crater Wear
3. Plastic Deformation
4. Notch Wear
5. Thermal Cracking
6. Mechanical Fatigue Cracking
7. Chipping
8. Fracture
9. Built-Up Edge (BUE)
Preferred Mode: Gradual Wear

•Fracture and temperature failures are premature failures

•Gradual wear is preferred because it leads to the longest possible use of the tool
•Gradual wear occurs at two locations on a tool:
• Crater wear – occurs on the top rake face
• Flank wear – occurs on the flank (side of the tool)

Crater Wear
• Occurs on the rake face of the tool.
• Appears as a cavity formed due to continuous sliding of the chip over the tool surface.
• Caused by high stresses and elevated temperatures at the tool–chip interface.
• The severity of crater wear is measured by depth or area of the cavity.
Flank Wear
• Occurs on the relief (flank) face of the tool.
• Caused by the rubbing of the tool against the machined surface.
• Results mainly from adhesive wear and abrasive wear mechanisms.
• High temperatures further degrade tool material properties, accelerating wear.
 Thermal Cracking-
Location: Across the cutting edge of the tool. Chipping or Broken-
Cause: Repeated heating/cooling cycles (thermal shock). Location: Cutting edge.
Cause: Sudden mechanical/thermal shocks, inclusions in
the workpiece.

Plastic Deformation- BUE-

Location: Tool tip (cutting edge). Location: On the rake face, near the cutting edge.
Cause: High cutting temperature + mechanical load → Cause: Adhesion of workpiece material at low to medium
softening of tool material → deformation. cutting speeds.
 Tool Wear Mechanism

•Abrasion
o Caused by hard particles in the work material, scratching and gouging the tool surface.
o Leads to the removal of small tool particles.
o Occurs in both flank wear and crater wear.
o Considered a major cause of flank wear.
•Adhesion
o Happens when two metals are in contact under high pressure and temperature.
o Causes welding/adhesion between the tool rake face and the flowing chip.
o As the chip moves, tiny tool particles are torn away, leading to attrition wear.
•Diffusion
o An atomic exchange process at the close contact boundary between tool and chip.
o Atoms from the tool (responsible for hardness) diffuse into the chip material.
o Tool surface becomes weaker, softer, and more prone to abrasion and adhesion.
o A principal mechanism of crater wear.
•Oxidation / Corrosion
o A chemical reaction between the hot tool surface and oxygen at elevated cutting temperatures.
o Leads to the formation of an oxide layer on the tool surface (e.g., oxidation of carbide).
o During machining, this oxide layer is worn away by abrasion, and a new layer forms repeatedly.
o Accelerates overall wear, especially at high cutting speeds.
 Adhesion
Abrasion

Diffusion
TOOL LIFE

• Tool life refers to the total time a cutting tool can be effectively and reliably used for machining operations before it
requires re-grinding or replacement.
• It is a critical factor in metal cutting, as it directly influences productivity, machining quality, and overall cost.
• Since tool grinding and replacement involve significant expenses, it is essential to utilise the tool to its maximum
potential before it becomes unserviceable.
• The life of a cutting tool is influenced by several parameters, including tool material, workpiece material, cutting
conditions, tool geometry, cutting fluids, and machine tool characteristics.

Parameters affecting Tool Wear

•Cutting Speed
❖ Has the greatest influence on tool life.
❖ Higher cutting speed → higher cutting temperature.
❖ Heat is more concentrated on the tool than the workpiece.
❖ Tool hardness decreases while the relative hardness of the workpiece increases → accelerating abrasive wear.
❖ Type of predominant wear depends on cutting speed:
❖ Low/medium speeds → Flank wear dominant.
❖ High speeds → Crater wear dominant.
•Feed and Depth of Cut
• Both parameters influence tool life.
• With fine feed, the contact area of the chip over the tool face is larger than with coarse feed for the same
material removal rate.
• Increased feed and depth of cut raise cutting forces and tool wear rate.
•Tool Geometry
• Strongly affects tool life.
• Large rake angle → reduces tool cross-section, making the tool weaker.
• Less material available to absorb heat → faster wear.
• Optimised geometry ensures better strength, heat dissipation, and longer life.
•Tool Material
•The physical and chemical properties of the tool material directly influence tool life.
•Affects the strength, wear resistance, and stability of the cutting edge under high temperature and stress
conditions.
•Cutting Fluid
•Lowers the friction at the tool–chip interface.
•Helps in cooling the cutting zone, reducing tool temperature.
•Overall effect: increases tool life by minimizing wear and heat damage.
•Workpiece Material
•Harder materials → require greater cutting forces → higher tool wear → shorter tool life.
•Ductile materials → deform easily, need lower cutting forces → reduced tool wear → longer tool life.
•Nature of Cutting
•Continuous cutting → tool edge remains steadily engaged, leading to longer tool life.
•Intermittent cutting → cutting edge experiences repeated impacts and thermal cycling.
•Result: tool fails faster due to shock loading and fatigue.
•Best practice: aim for continuous cutting conditions wherever possible to enhance tool life.
Tool Wear v/s Cutting Time
Tool Wear Progression with Cutting Time

•As machining continues, different wear mechanisms (abrasion, adhesion, diffusion, oxidation) cause a gradual increase
in tool wear.
•The typical tool wear vs. cutting time curve (usually shown for flank wear, but similar for crater wear) can be divided
into three distinct regions:
1.Break-in Period
1. Occurs at the start of cutting (first few minutes).
2. The sharp cutting-edge wears rapidly due to initial contact stresses.
3. Tool stabilises after this stage.
2.Steady-State Wear Region
1. Wear progresses at a fairly uniform and predictable rate.
2. Often approximated as a linear relationship between wear and cutting time.
3. Represents the most efficient and useful stage of tool life.
3.Failure Region
1. Wear level reaches a critical point where wear rate accelerates sharply.
2. High cutting temperatures and edge weakening occur.
3. Machining efficiency decreases significantly.
4. If cutting continues, tool ultimately fails due to temperature-induced failure.

This progression (Break-in → Steady-state → Failure) is universal for both flank and crater wear.
 Tayler’s Tool Life Equation

•Among all machining parameters (feed, depth of cut, work material, coolant, etc.), cutting speed has the greatest influence
on tool life.
•F. W. Taylor, an American engineer, developed a standard test to establish the relationship between cutting speed and the
time a tool remains useful.
•Tests were conducted with various tool–workpiece material combinations, and flank wear (VB) of the tool was measured as
the criterion for tool life.
•Practical wear limits were defined as:
• 0.75 mm VB for solid and brazed-tip tools.
• 1.25 mm VB for ceramic tools.
•For each test, the time required to reach the wear limit was measured at different cutting speeds.
•Results showed a logarithmic relationship between cutting speed (V) and tool life (T).

•From this relationship, Taylor proposed an empirical tool life equation:

VTn=C
Where:
•V = Cutting speed (m/min or ft/min)
•T = Tool life (minutes)
•n, C = Constants depending on feed, depth of cut, work material, tool material, and tool life criterion.
Value of Index ‘n’ in Taylor’s Tool Life Equation

•The value of the exponent ‘n’ in Taylor’s tool life equation depends on the tool–workpiece material combination.
•Standard machining handbooks provide tables listing typical ranges of ‘n’ for different material combinations.
•General trend:
• As the refractoriness (hot hardness and heat resistance) of the tool material increases, the value of ‘n’ also
increases.
•Meaning: More refractory tool materials (e.g., carbides, ceramics, CBN, diamond) maintain hardness at higher
temperatures, allowing longer tool life at higher cutting speeds.
Sl. No. Tool Material Value of ‘n’
1 HSS Tool 0.10 – 0.18 Clear trend: ‘n’ increases with tool material
refractoriness (hot hardness & heat resistance).
Uncoated Tungsten Carbide
2 0.20 – 0.25 ➢ HSS → lowest refractoriness, lowest n.
(WC)
➢ Ceramics → high refractoriness, highest n.
TiC or TiN Coated WC
3 ≈ 0.30
Tools

4 Al₂O₃ Coated WC Tools ≈ 0.40

5 Ceramic Tools 0.40 – 0.70

For turning, Taylor’s tool life equation can be extended to include the effects of depth of cut (d) in mm and
feed rate (f) in mm/rev:

Since x and y must be determined experimentally for each cutting condition, we have-

To obtain a constant tool life:

1. The cutting speed must be decreased
2. Depending on the exponents
Effect of Cutting Parameters on Tool Life

Cutting Speed and Tool Life

•Cutting speed: Refers to the relative surface speed between

the tool and the workpiece.
•Tool life is inversely proportional to cutting speed:
• Higher cutting speed → higher wear rate.
• The same wear criterion is reached in less time.
• Result: tool life decreases as cutting speed increases.
•The relationship between cutting speed (V) and tool life (T) is
expressed by Taylor’s Tool Life Equation:
VTn=C
Where:
•V = Cutting speed (m/min or ft/min)
•T = Tool life (minutes)
•n = Tool life exponent (depends on tool–workpiece
combination)
•C = Machining constant (depends on tool material, workpiece
material, and conditions)
•Feed
•Defined as the amount of material removed per revolution or per pass of the tool over the workpiece.
•Increasing feed rate → raises cutting temperature and flank wear, thereby reducing tool life.
•Compared to cutting speed, the effect of feed on tool life is less significant.
•Selection of feed is generally influenced by the depth of cut and machining requirements.

•Depth of Cut
•Refers to the depth to which the cutting edge of the tool penetrates the workpiece.
• A very small depth of cut may cause excessive friction, especially when cutting hardened surface layers.
•Increasing depth of cut → usually results in longer tool life compared to increasing feed rate.
•For practical machining, it is generally better to use a heavier depth of cut with a moderate feed.
•Deeper cuts are more advantageous than higher feed rates when longer tool life is desired.

Tool life criterion in production:

The criterion of the Taylor equation is not practical in a factory environment. The following are some alternatives that
are more convenient to use in production:

1. Changes in the sound emitted by the operation

2. Degradation of the surface finish on the work
3. Changes in the chip’s shape
4. Complete failure of cutting edge (not recommended usually)
Machinability

➢ Machinability refers to the ease with which a material can be machined to produce a satisfactory surface finish,
with long tool life, lower cutting forces, reduced power consumption, and minimal cost.
➢ Good machinability is associated with:
➢ Smooth surface finish
➢ Longer tool life
➢ Lower cutting forces and power requirements
➢ Cost-effective machining
➢ Example:
➢ Low-alloy carbon steel → relatively easy to machine → better machinability.
➢ Austenitic stainless steel → harder to machine (due to high toughness, work hardening, and low thermal
conductivity) → poorer machinability.

➢ Factors on which Machinability Depends

•Physical Properties of Work Material

▪ Higher tensile strength and hardness → more difficult to cut.
▪ Softer materials → generally easier to machine.
•Chemical Composition of Work Material
▪ Higher carbon content in steel → decreases machinability.
▪ Alloying elements like chromium, nickel, molybdenum, vanadium → reduce machinability due to
increased strength and toughness.
▪ Additions of lead (Pb) and sulphur (S) → improve machinability by promoting chip breakage and
lubrication.

•Microstructure of Work Material

▪ Heat treatment and variations in crystal structure can significantly affect machinability.
▪ Example: hardened martensitic structures are harder to machine than annealed ferritic structures.

•Cutting Conditions
▪ Tool geometry, cutting speed, feed, depth of cut, and cutting fluid strongly influence machinability.
▪ Proper selection of cutting parameters improves surface finish, tool life, and efficiency.

•Rigidity of Tool and Work Holding Devices

▪ Poor rigidity leads to vibrations, causing intermittent cutting instead of smooth, continuous cutting.
▪ This reduces tool life, surface finish quality, and machining accuracy.
Machinability Index (or Machinability Rating)

•The Machinability Index is a factor used to quantify and compare the machinability of different materials.
•It is expressed as a percentage and defined as:

MI (%)=(Vi/Vs) x 100
•Vi​ = Cutting speed of the material under investigation for 20 min tool life
•Vs​ = Cutting speed of the standard steel for 20 min tool life

Reference Standard (AISI system)

•The American Iron & Steel Institute (AISI) developed machinability ratings by conducting turning tests
at 180 surface feet per minute (sfpm).
•The B1112 steel (160 Brinell hardness) was arbitrarily assigned a machinability rating of 100%.

Interpretation
•Machinability rating = 100% → Equal machinability to standard B1112 steel.
•Machinability rating < 100% → More difficult to machine than B1112 steel.
•Machinability rating > 100% → Easier to machine than B1112 steel.
Economics of the Machining Process
Goal: Produce parts of desired shape, size, and finish at low cost and in minimum time.

Key Influencing Parameters: Speed, feed, depth of cut, tool material, cutting fluid, etc. → make exact economic analysis
complex.

Mass Production:
➢ Often involves one or two operations on a single machine.
➢ Preliminary analysis can give basic insights into important economic aspects.

Benefits of Analysis:
➢ Helps in selecting optimum cutting conditions.
➢ Allocate labour and machines to perform at an optimum level.
➢ Achieves the economic goal of maximum return with minimum investment.

Why is the Economics of Machining Necessary?

•Minimizes Cost: Selects optimum speed, feed, and depth to lower cost per part and avoid tool wear/idle time.
•Maximizes Production: Balances tool life with material removal rate to reduce cycle time.
•Ensures Profitability: Focuses on profit margin, not just cost or speed.
•Efficient Resource Use: Optimizes machines, labour, tools, and energy.
•Competitive Advantage: Produces faster, cheaper, and better-quality parts.
Effect of variation in cutting speed on various cost factors
Objective in Machining

•The main goal is to minimize cost per component and/or maximize production rate.
•To achieve this, we need an optimum cutting speed (V₀), not too high and not too low.

Effect of Cutting Speed

▪ If you reduce cutting speed:

▪ Tool life increases (good).
▪ But, machining takes more time (material removal rate ↓).
▪ Therefore, machining cost per component increases.
▪ If you increase cutting speed:
▪ Metal removal rate increases (cycle time ↓, good).
▪ But tool life decreases (bad) → more frequent tool changing, regrinding, downtime.
▪ So tool cost and non-productive cost increase.

▪ Therefore, both too low and too high cutting speeds are uneconomical. Balance is needed.
Cost Components in the Graph

From graph:
•Machining Cost Curve (decreases with speed):
Faster cutting reduces cycle time → machining cost per component decreases.
•Tooling Cost Curve (increases with speed):
At higher speed, tool wears out quickly → frequent tool changes & regrinds → cost per component increases.
•Non-productive Cost:
(setup, idle times, handling) remains mostly constant.
•Total Cost Curve:
= Machining Cost + Tool Cost + Non-productive Cost.
It forms a U-shape, first decreasing, then increasing.

Optimum Point (P or V₀)

Point P on the total cost curve shows the minimum cost per component.
Corresponding cutting speed V₀ is the optimum cutting speed for economical production.

o At low speeds → machining cost dominates (time-consuming).

o At high speeds → tool cost dominates (frequent changes).
o At optimum speed → balance is achieved, giving minimum cost per piece.
 REFERENCE BOOKS

1. Kalpakjian, S. and Schmid. S.- Manufacturing Engineering & Technology. 7th Edition, Pearson
2. Fundamentals of Machining & Machine Tools – Geoffrey Boothroyd & Winston A. Knight,
Marcel & Dekker Publications.
3. Fundamentals of Metal Cutting & Machine Tools – B.L. Juneja, G.S. Sekhon & Nitin Seth, New
Age International Publications.
4. Manufacturing Technology – P.N. Rao, Tata McGraw-Hill Publications.
5. Production Engineering Sciences – P.C. Pandey & C.K. Singh, Standard Publications.
6. Engineering Metrology – R.K. Jain, Khanna Publications.
7. Engineering Metrology – I.C. Gupta.