COLOURS AND LINGUISTIC IDENTITY: A MULTIMEDIA ANALYSIS OF

TELECOM VISUAL ADVERTS

BY

AARE JOSEPH TOLULOPE

200104085
 CHAPTER ONE
BACKGROUND STUDY
1.0 Introduction
Colour psychology examines how colours influence human emotions, perceptions, and
behaviours, suggesting that specific hues evoke distinct psychological responses. Linguistic
identity, on the other hand, reflects how language shapes an individual’s sense of self and
belonging to a linguistic community. Visual advertising integrates imagery, colour, and language
to create compelling narratives that appeal to consumers’ cognitive and emotional processes.
Within this intersection, colour functions not merely as decoration but as a semiotic resource that
conveys linguistic meanings, reinforces identity cues, and frames how messages are perceived
and interpreted.
Colour is an integral component of human perception and communication. Beyond its aesthetic
role, it operates as a linguistic signifier that interacts with cultural and contextual meanings
(Marzieh, 2013). In physics, colour relates to the spectral energy distribution of light, while in
physiology, it concerns how the human eye and brain interpret stimuli (Pakbaz, 2009).
Psychologically, however, colour extends into the realm of emotion, cognition, and symbolism—
bridging the visual with the linguistic (Bakhtiyari, 2009). This linguistic dimension allows colour
to function analogously to words, symbolizing ideas, identities, and social positions.
Colour psychology plays a crucial role across multiple domains, including marketing, branding,
and communication design. For instance, red is often associated with passion or urgency; green
with freshness or prosperity; blue with trust and calmness; and yellow with optimism or warmth
(Zhang et al., 2021; White et al., 2021). These interpretations, however, vary across cultures,
emphasizing that the linguistic meaning of colour is socially constructed. In multicultural
societies, colour meanings become sites of negotiation, where semiotic associations differ based
on linguistic and cultural backgrounds (Jacob et al., 2022).
From a linguistic standpoint, colours act as visual lexemes—units of meaning that, when used in
advertising, construct messages in tandem with written and spoken language. The interplay
between these semiotic systems can reinforce or contradict the intended brand narrative. As
Lewis (1983) notes, linguistic identity is a composite of personal and social identity; similarly,
the colour palette within a visual text can project collective or individual linguistic identities,
evoking associations such as modernity, tradition, inclusivity, or exclusivity.
Visual advertising, especially in the digital age, relies heavily on this colour-linguistic synergy.
Simola et al. (2014) observe that visuals regulate the amount and quality of information
transmitted to the viewer’s cognitive system. Colour, therefore, not only captures attention but
shapes the linguistic interpretation of the message—guiding how viewers “read” visual texts. In
branding, luxury companies employ gold or silver to denote prestige, while eco-friendly brands
use green to linguistically signal sustainability (McLeod, 2016; Gerald et al., 1997). These
choices are not random but rooted in an implicit grammar of colour—an interpretive framework
that consumers decode based on shared linguistic and cultural experiences.
Understanding colour as a linguistic code enriches both colour psychology and sociolinguistics.
As Amarjeet and Kapil (2023) emphasize, colour functions as a communicative tool that
transmits social meanings, evokes emotions, and reflects collective identity. Thus, the linguistic
of colour in visual advertising transcends aesthetic considerations, influencing perception,
behaviour, and identity formation across various cultural and communicative contexts.

1.2 Problem Statement

Existing research on linguistic identity in advertising often focuses on textual and auditory
elements, or broad visual themes, with limited dedicated attention to the nuanced role of colour.
While the impact of colour on brand perception and emotional response is well-documented, a
significant gap persists in understanding its specific contribution to shaping perceptions of
linguistic identity within visual advertisements, particularly within the dynamic and culturally
sensitive domain of telecommunications.
Telecom companies frequently employ diverse linguistic strategies in their visual advertisements
to connect with varied target audiences, often aiming to project specific linguistic identities—be
it local, global, modern, traditional, or inclusive. However, the deliberate and subconscious
influence of colour choices on how these linguistic identities are perceived remains largely
unexplored. For instance, do certain colour palettes subtly reinforce or contradict the intended
linguistic message, thereby enhancing or hindering audience resonance? The potential impact of
colour extends beyond mere aesthetics; it can significantly alter how target audiences interpret
the authenticity, relevance, and even the socio-linguistic positioning of the advertised service or
brand. Misaligned colour choices could lead to misinterpretations of linguistic identity,
potentially alienating segments of the target market or undermining communication objectives.
Therefore, there is a pressing need for a systematic, multimedia analysis to meticulously
investigate the intricate relationship between colour and linguistic identity in telecom visual
advertisements. Such an analysis would not only bridge this critical research gap but also provide
invaluable insights for advertisers, marketers, and linguists seeking to optimize communication
strategies and enhance the effectiveness of visual advertising in culturally diverse contexts.

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study

Aim:
To investigate how colours in visual advertisements of telecom companies influence the
perception of linguistic identity.
Objectives:
i. To identify the dominant colours used in the visual advertisements of selected
telecom companies.
ii. To analyse the linguistic elements present in the visual advertisements of selected
telecom companies.
iii. To examine the potential associations between specific colours and the projected
linguistic identities in these advertisements.
iv. To determine how viewers interpret the relationship between colours and linguistic
identity in the selected telecom visual advertisements.
1.4 Research Questions
i. What are the dominant colours employed in the visual advertisements of selected
telecom companies?
ii. What are the prominent linguistic features (e.g., language choice, accent
representation, cultural references) present in these visual advertisements?
iii. What are the potential associations between specific colours and the linguistic
identities projected in these telecom visual advertisements?
iv. How do viewers perceive the relationship between the colours used and the linguistic
identity conveyed in the selected telecom visual advertisements?

1.5 Justification of the Study

This study on the interplay of colour and linguistic identity in telecom visual advertisements
carries significant theoretical and practical implications, alongside a broader societal impact.
Theoretical Significance: This research will make a substantial contribution to several academic
fields. In colour psychology, it will extend the understanding of how specific colour choices,
beyond their general emotional associations, can subtly influence the perception of abstract
concepts like linguistic identity. It moves beyond generic colour-emotion links to explore
nuanced socio-cultural interpretations. For linguistics, particularly sociolinguistics and applied
linguistics, this study offers a novel perspective on how non-verbal cues (colour) interact with
verbal cues (language) to construct and convey identity in mediated communication. It will
illuminate the often-unacknowledged visual dimension of linguistic performance. Within
advertising and marketing studies, the research will enrich theories of persuasive communication
by demonstrating the complex synergistic effects of visual and linguistic elements. It will
provide a framework for analysing how multimedia components coalesce to shape audience
perception, moving beyond a siloed analysis of individual elements. Finally, in media studies, it
will contribute to the understanding of visual rhetoric and semiotics in commercial media,
specifically focusing on how visual codes (colour) contribute to the construction of identity
narratives in mass communication.
Practical Implications: The findings of this study will offer invaluable practical insights for
telecom companies and advertising agencies. By systematically analysing the relationship
between colour and linguistic identity, the research will equip marketers with a deeper
understanding of how their visual choices can either reinforce or undermine their intended
linguistic messaging. This knowledge will enable them to design more effective and culturally
sensitive advertising campaigns that resonate authentically with diverse target audiences. It can
inform strategic decisions regarding brand positioning, market segmentation, and the
development of visual guidelines that align seamlessly with linguistic objectives. Ultimately, this
can lead to improved communication efficacy, enhanced brand loyalty, and more successful
market penetration, particularly in regions with rich linguistic and cultural diversity.
Societal Impact: Beyond academic and commercial applications, understanding how visual cues
like colour influence perceptions of identity has broader societal implications. In an increasingly
globalized and interconnected world, where communication technologies play a central role, the
subtle ways in which identity is constructed and consumed through media are critical. This
research can shed light on how advertising, through its visual and linguistic choices, contributes
to the formation and perpetuation of stereotypes, or conversely, to the promotion of inclusivity
and cultural understanding. By identifying effective strategies for projecting authentic and
respectful linguistic identities, the study can encourage more responsible and ethically conscious
advertising practices. It can empower consumers to critically evaluate the messages they receive,
fostering greater media literacy regarding the sophisticated interplay of visual and linguistic
elements in shaping perceptions of self and others.
1.6 Scope of the Study
This study aims to investigate the relationship between colour and linguistic identity within the
specific context of telecom visual advertisements. To ensure a focused and manageable analysis,
the research will adhere to the following defined boundaries:
The primary data for this study will consist of visual advertisements disseminated by major
telecommunication companies operating within Nigeria. This will include, but not be limited to,
print advertisements (e.g., newspapers, magazines), social media visuals (e.g., Facebook,
Instagram, X/Twitter posts), and outdoor billboards. Television commercials, due to their
dynamic and temporal nature, will be excluded from this specific visual analysis to maintain a
consistent focus on static visual elements.
The geographical scope will be limited to Nigeria, focusing on the advertising campaigns of the
leading telecom providers in the country. This regional focus allows for a deeper understanding
of culturally specific colour interpretations and linguistic nuances relevant to the Nigerian
context. The specific telecom companies to be included will be identified during the data
collection phase, based on their market presence and the availability of a sufficient corpus of
visual advertisements.
The core focus of this research is on the visual element of colour and its intricate interaction with
linguistic elements (e.g., slogans, taglines, brand names, and implied linguistic registers) present
within these visual advertisements. While other visual elements such as imagery, typography,
and layout may be acknowledged, the primary analytical lens will be on how colour choices
contribute to or detract from the perception of projected linguistic identities. The study will
employ a multimedia analysis approach, specifically examining the synergy between these two
key components.
 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter provides a review of relevant literature that underpins the present study. The
purpose of the literature review is to critically examine existing research, theoretical
perspectives, and empirical findings that are closely related to the subject under investigation. By
drawing from previous studies, this chapter seeks to establish a foundation for the research,
highlight existing knowledge gaps, and situate the study within the broader academic and
practical context.
Specifically, the review will present an overview of the conceptual, theoretical, and empirical
literature related to the study’s objectives. It will also examine key themes, trends, and debates
that have emerged in prior research. Through this process, the chapter not only provides context
for the current study but also demonstrates how it contributes to the ongoing discourse in the
field.

2.1 Conceptual Review

In visual communication, colour is the subjective, human perception of light that serves as a
powerful, instant, and non-verbal tool for conveying messages, evoking emotions, attracting
attention, and influencing decisions. It is a fundamental element that communicates meaning
beyond words, guiding visual focus and creating brand identity through a combination of
biological responses, cultural associations, and personal experiences.

Definition of colour in visual communication

People can interpret complex messages encoded in visual features. They know red splotches on a
weather map signal impending storm, red traffic lights signal stop, and red milk cartons signal
that the container holds whole milk. Given this ability, people use colours to communicate
important and time-sensitive information. For example, a recent surgical protocol for separating
conjoined twins used green and purple tape to signal which monitors and equipment were
dedicated to each twin (Associated Press, 2017), presumably so they did not get mixed up during
surgery.
Colour is one of many visual features that can be used to communicate abstract information, with
others including size, texture, orientation, and shape (Ware, 2012). However, colour is especially
useful for signalling because it can be observed quickly from a distance and it provides
meaningful information that is independent from spatial structure. In nature, changes in face
colour can signal changes in emotional state independent of facial features and changes in fruit
colour signal ripeness independent from changes in shape (Lafer-Sousa et al., 2016; Thorstenson
et al., 2017). In human-made artifacts, differences in font colour can signal different meanings in
signs and maps without affecting legibility of the text. People even make inferences about
student ability and teacher competence based on the ink colour used to provide feedback on
essays (Richards & Fink, 2017). Most relevant to the present study, differences in surface
colours can signal different kinds of recycling bins without interfering with the ability to insert
objects into the bins.

In visual communication, graphic designers and filmmakers leverage colour to convey

information and create immersive experiences, while the fashion industry utilises colour to
influence identities and trends. Ultimately, colour serves as a powerful medium for professionals
across industries, facilitating communication, building brand identities, and evoking emotional
and physical responses. In the extensive exploration of colour in visual communication, it
becomes evident that colour is far more than just a surface pigment; it's a dynamic force that
influences human perception, sentiments, and decisions. Each colour possesses the power to
evoke a spectrum of emotions and behaviours, from anxiety to trust, love to aggression. Across
various industries, from marketing to filmmaking, colour serves as a powerful tool for conveying
messages, guiding interactions, and creating visually appealing content. Marketers strategically
employ colour psychology to influence consumer behaviour, while designers focus on colour
combinations to attract user attention. Furthermore, the cultural implications of colour add
another layer of complexity, with each hue carrying unique connotations shaped by religion,
tradition, and historical associations (Singh and Chowdhury, 2023).

The utilization of colour in visual communication can be a powerful tool that has the
capacity to strongly influence emotions, convey meaning through symbols, and communicate
information through imagery. Employing it with mindfulness can effectively transmit your
message and achieve your communication goals. However, it is crucial to keep in mind that the
perception of colour is subjective and can be influenced by various factors, such as context and
personal experiences. When it comes to effectively communicating a message through visual
means, a comprehensive approach that involves thorough research, market analysis, and testing
is essential. This ensures that the intended audience is reached, and the desired objectives are
achieved. Experts in the field of marketing and advertising recognize the important role that
colour psychology plays in achieving these goals. Research has demonstrated that colours have a
profound impact on consumer behaviour, influencing everything from purchasing decisions to
brand perception (Małgorzata, 2023).

Role of linguistic identity in advertising

Linguistic identity plays a crucial role in advertising by fostering cultural resonance and
brand connection, using specific dialects, accents, and foreign language displays (FLD) to appeal
to consumer identity and enhance engagement. Advertisers leverage linguistic cues, such as
using the consumers' native language or culturally specific phrases, to create a sense of proximity
and belonging, thereby improving brand perception and increasing persuasive effectiveness. This
strategic use of language helps break through advertising clutter and creates a more authentic and
impactful message for the target audience. The role of language in advertising cannot be
overstated. In the age of consumer society, language functions as a key instrument for drawing
the attention of potential customers, promoting the purchase of products or services, and
presenting the core concept of an advertising campaign in a concise and memorable format
(Kim, 2025). From the linguistic point of view, social advertising is a special kind of discourse
that includes the cognitive processes underlying the creation and perception of advertising
messages and the interaction of participants in an ‘event’ (Rudenko et al., 2023). Research into
the linguistic aspects of social advertising helps understand how it affects the audience and
identify the most effective language means and communication strategies. In addition, with the
growth of social awareness and active participation of the public in solving social problems,
using language in social advertising is essential for motivating and activating the public to take
specific actions or change collective behaviour (Kulykova et al., 2020). The main components of
the advertising text as a kind of communication act (Figure 1) are participants, method of
contact, code/language, information communication and reaction to it. The advertiser’s main task
in this process is to cause specific changes in the behaviour of a potential communication
partner. Therefore, the most essential functions of an advertising text are influence and
interaction.

Figure 1.1: Advertising text as an act of communication. Source: Developed from Mason
et al. (2021)

Despite the widespread use of social advertising to influence public opinion, the problem of the
ineffectiveness of such campaigns often arises. This is primarily due to insufficient
understanding and use of the linguistic means of the advertising text, which leads to a low level
of attention and reaction of the target audience to advertising messages. Therefore, there is a
need to study the role of language in the effectiveness of social advertising to find optimal
communication strategies and achieve the goals of the advertising campaign (Tomchuk et al.,
2020).
Investigating the impact of this pandemic on consumers’ social media marketing behaviours is
important because recent findings indicate that the pandemic is having significant and structural
impacts on consumers’ purchase behaviours, as well as their decision-making processes which
could result in significant changes in marketing practices. More specifically, Mason et
al., (2017) analyzed changes in U.S. consumer decision-making behaviours since the start of the
COVID-19 pandemic and found that the COVID-19 pandemic altered consumers’ product needs,
shopping and purchasing behaviours, and post-purchase satisfaction levels (Mason et al., 2020).
Language possesses a charm that sneaks into the minds and tickles our emotions and desires. It
employs its unique characteristics and features to haunt us and make us believe, react and act in
certain manners. In advertising, Advertising English makes itself different from other genres of
English such as Journalistic English or Scientific English. Indeed, advertising English borrows
from all the different genres to establish its distinguished discourse. Hence, we can talk about the
language of the discourse of advertising as an independent type of language (Edouihri, 2024).
The use of language in advertising that is usually informative can build consumer knowledge as
well as help in making any purchase decisions (Velayati et al., 2020).
Multimedia semiotics: interaction of colour, language, and meaning

Semiotics and linguistics share certain fundamental elements: the notion of forms related to
meanings (linguistic sign in language and any other sign in semiotics), that function as part of
code systems (language, gestures, art, music, cinema) which are used to communicate
information. Saussure (ibid.) focused on the sign as the theoretical and methodological unit of
linguistics and semiotics analysis. Semiotics and linguistics are connected and can actually
function together provided that linguists adhere to the original Saussurean proposition to adopt
the sign as the primary shared unit of both linguistics and semiotics analysis (Okal et al., 2021).

2.2 Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework for this study integrates semiotics, colour psychology, and
sociolinguistic theories of linguistic identity. Each of these perspectives contributes a different
but complementary lens for understanding how telecom companies in Africa, particularly
Nigeria, deploy colours and linguistic cues in their visual advertisements to construct brand
identity. Semiotics provides insight into how signs — both visual and linguistic — are organized
into meaningful systems that audiences decode. Colour psychology explains the affective and
perceptual dimensions of colour choices in advertising and their influence on consumer attitudes.
Sociolinguistic theories highlight the role of language in identity construction, especially in
multilingual and multicultural societies where advertising often navigates between global
modernity and local authenticity. Taken together, these perspectives make it possible to examine
how colour schemes and linguistic forms coalesce into complex identity performances within
telecom advertising, and how audiences interpret these semiotic configurations.

2.2.1 Semiotics Theory

Semiotics, as developed by Saussure and later expanded by Barthes, provides a powerful

framework for decoding advertising messages. Saussure’s model of the sign as a relation
between the signifier and the signified emphasizes that meaning is not inherent but socially
constructed. In telecom adverts, for instance, a yellow background or green motif is not naturally
meaningful, but within Nigerian cultural and branding contexts, it becomes associated with
specific telecom companies (e.g., yellow with MTN, green with Glo). The meaning of these
colours arises from their systemic opposition to other colour choices and their embedding in
cultural narratives.

Barthes’s (1977) distinction between denotation and connotation is particularly relevant for
visual adverts. Denotatively, the MTN yellow represents a background colour or uniform design.
Connotatively, however, it signifies optimism, brightness, and connectivity — associations that
MTN has cultivated over decades. Through repeated exposure, the colour yellow in Nigerian
advertising contexts has become almost synonymous with MTN, to the extent that audiences
immediately recognize brand identity without the need for textual confirmation. In this way,
colour functions not only as a design element but also as a myth-making device that naturalizes
corporate identity as a cultural fact.

Barthes’s concept of myth also explains how adverts embed ideological meanings. For example,
Glo’s frequent use of green backgrounds in their visual campaigns goes beyond denoting the
company’s official brand colour. Green in Nigerian national symbolism connotes fertility,
growth, and prosperity, as it is one of the colours of the national flag. By appropriating green,
Glo constructs a mythic narrative that equates its services with national progress and pride. Thus,
semiotics illuminates how telecom companies strategically mobilize colours to link their services
to broader cultural myths of national unity, development, or modernity.

Scholars have noted the continuing importance of semiotic approaches in advertising research.
Pinto Grunfeld (2024) underscores that semiotics is indispensable for analyzing symbolic
branding strategies in contexts where global corporations must adapt their identities to local
cultures. Nigerian telecom advertising offers a clear example of this dynamic: while MTN is a
South African multinational, its use of yellow in Nigeria has been recontextualized to resonate
with local notions of brightness and vitality. Likewise, Airtel, with its signature red, constructs a
semiotic identity around passion, energy, and dynamism, which appeals to younger
demographics seeking speed and innovation. These examples illustrate how semiotic analysis
can uncover the layered meanings encoded in colour choices and their interrelations with
linguistic signs such as slogans or taglines.

Importantly, semiotics emphasizes that meaning is polysemic. The same sign can produce
different interpretations depending on audience positioning. For instance, 9mobile’s use of green
and black can be read connotatively as sleek and modern, but for some audiences, the dark tones
may signify elitism or exclusivity. This multiplicity of meanings highlights that adverts are not
unidirectional messages but open texts subject to negotiation by audiences. As Barthes reminds
us, advertising operates by naturalizing ideological meanings — yet these meanings can always
be resisted or reinterpreted.

In the Nigerian context, semiotics therefore offers tools for decoding how colours are
systematically aligned with linguistic strategies to project particular brand myths. MTN’s
“Everywhere You Go” slogan, consistently paired with its yellow palette, reinforces a myth of
ubiquitous connectivity and optimism. Glo’s “Rule Your World,” against a backdrop of national
green, connotes empowerment and national pride. Airtel’s “The Smartphone Network” in red
signals speed and passion, while 9mobile’s minimalist green-and-black designs project
modernity and exclusivity. Each of these cases exemplifies the semiotic layering of denotative
colour choices with connotative cultural meanings and ideological myths.

2.2.2 Colour Psychology Theories

Colour psychology complements semiotics by explaining the affective, perceptual, and

behavioural effects of colour choices. While semiotics focuses on symbolic meaning, colour
psychology examines the psychological responses elicited by hues, saturation, and contrast.
Advertisers exploit these responses to capture attention, create emotional resonance, and shape
consumer attitudes toward brands.

Research in marketing demonstrates that colours influence not only perception but also brand
associations. Blue, for instance, is commonly linked to trust and technology, making it a popular
choice for global tech companies. Red is associated with urgency, passion, and excitement,
which explains why it is often used in youth-oriented campaigns. In Nigeria, Airtel’s use of red
in its adverts taps into these associations by presenting the brand as energetic, dynamic, and
youthful. This is evident in Airtel’s visual adverts featuring vibrant red backgrounds, lively
dance scenes, and slogans emphasizing speed and connectivity. The red colour psychologically
primes audiences to perceive Airtel as a passionate and fast-moving brand.

Yellow, on the other hand, is psychologically associated with warmth, optimism, and visibility.
MTN’s use of yellow in its adverts is not accidental. Yellow captures attention quickly and
creates a sense of friendliness and approachability. Psychologically, it evokes joy and openness,
aligning with MTN’s brand message of inclusivity and connectivity. When Nigerian viewers
encounter MTN’s yellow billboards with the “Everywhere You Go” slogan, the colour
immediately evokes familiarity and positivity, reinforcing the brand’s identity.

Green is typically linked with growth, nature, and prosperity, but its meaning is also highly
contextual. For Glo, green signifies not only ecological vitality but also national identity, given
its resonance with Nigeria’s flag. Psychologically, green is calming and reassuring, suggesting
reliability. In Glo’s adverts, which often emphasize empowerment and control (e.g., “Rule Your
World”), green reinforces the sense of stability and prosperity while simultaneously connoting
patriotism.

Black and dark tones, used prominently by 9mobile, carry psychological associations of
sophistication, elegance, and exclusivity. By combining green with black, 9mobile projects an
image of modernity and elite quality. This aligns with its advertising strategies that often
highlight innovation, sleek design, and cutting-edge services. From a psychological perspective,
the darker palette appeals to upwardly mobile consumers who associate such colours with
prestige and status.
Beyond hue, research shows that saturation and complexity also influence engagement. Kanuri et
al. (2024) demonstrate that images with balanced colour complexity attract higher levels of
engagement on digital platforms. This insight is particularly relevant in the Nigerian context,
where telecom companies increasingly rely on social media advertising. For example, MTN’s
social media campaigns often employ simple but highly saturated yellow backgrounds with
minimal text, ensuring that the visual is immediately recognizable and attention-grabbing. In
contrast, Airtel’s adverts may use busier visuals with multiple shades of red to create dynamism,
appealing to younger audiences accustomed to fast-paced digital environments.

Colour psychology also underscores the cultural variability of colour meanings. Jain (2025)
emphasizes that while certain associations are widespread, interpretations are always culturally
mediated. For instance, while red may universally connote energy, in some African contexts it
can also symbolize danger or political struggle. Telecom companies must therefore carefully
calibrate their colour strategies to avoid unintended interpretations. Nigerian telecom advertising
illustrates this balancing act: Airtel uses red for passion and energy but combines it with playful
imagery and upbeat music to offset potential associations with aggression or conflict.

Taken together, colour psychology explains why Nigerian telecom companies select their
respective brand colours and how these colours influence consumer perception. By shaping
attention, emotion, and brand associations, colours are not merely decorative but central to how
adverts communicate identity.

2.2.3 Sociolinguistic Theories of Linguistic Identity

Sociolinguistic theory contributes to this framework by emphasizing the role of language in

constructing and negotiating identity. Language is not only a means of communication but also a
symbolic resource that signals group membership, cultural values, and social positioning. In
advertising, linguistic choices — whether in slogans, dialogues, or code-switching — are central
to how brands align themselves with particular identities and audiences.

Code-switching, the alternation between languages or varieties, is particularly salient in Nigerian

advertising, where English, Pidgin English, and indigenous languages coexist in complex ways.
Salig (2025) demonstrates that code-switching increases bilinguals’ attention to and memory for
media messages, making it an effective persuasive tool. Nigerian telecom adverts frequently
exploit this by mixing English with Pidgin or local languages. Airtel’s campaigns, for example,
often feature slogans in English but dialogues in Pidgin, appealing simultaneously to urban elites
and grassroots audiences. This linguistic hybridity projects inclusivity and authenticity,
positioning Airtel as both modern and locally embedded.

Rojas (2025) argues that code-switching functions as a marker of hybrid identity, allowing
brands to embody both global and local orientations. This is evident in MTN’s adverts, which
frequently use English slogans such as “Everywhere You Go” while incorporating local
languages or Pidgin in narrative voiceovers. The juxtaposition of English and local languages
signifies that MTN is both globally connected and locally relevant. Similarly, Glo’s use of Pidgin
in campaigns like “Glo with Pride” taps into national identity while maintaining a cosmopolitan
image through English branding.

Audience reception plays a crucial role in determining the effectiveness of these linguistic
strategies. Roux (2024) highlights that consumers’ responses to code-switched advertising
depend on factors such as language competence, cultural orientation, and attitudes toward
multilingualism. In Nigeria, some viewers may celebrate code-switching as an authentic
reflection of lived linguistic practices, while others may perceive it as a lack of professionalism
or clarity. For example, an advert featuring Pidgin may resonate strongly with younger or less
formally educated audiences but may be less appealing to corporate clients who associate
professionalism with Standard English.

Linguistic identity is also shaped through slogans and taglines. MTN’s “Everywhere You Go”
constructs an identity of ubiquity and reliability, while Glo’s “Rule Your World” emphasizes
empowerment and control. Airtel’s “The Smartphone Network” signals technological
sophistication, and 9mobile’s minimalist slogans often emphasize innovation. These linguistic
elements, when combined with distinctive colour palettes, reinforce brand identities. The
repetition of slogans across multiple platforms further solidifies these associations in the public
imagination.
In Nigerian telecom advertising, the interplay of language and colour is especially potent. For
instance, MTN’s yellow, associated with optimism and brightness, reinforces the inclusive and
positive message of its slogan. Glo’s green, linked with national pride, amplifies the patriotic
undertones of its Pidgin slogans. Airtel’s red, symbolizing energy, resonates with youthful
language styles, including slang and code-switching. 9mobile’s green-and-black palette aligns
with minimalist English slogans, projecting exclusivity and sophistication. Sociolinguistic theory
thus helps explain how these linguistic strategies, in conjunction with colour choices, construct
brand identities that audiences interpret in contextually specific ways.

Integrative Perspective

When semiotics, colour psychology, and sociolinguistics are considered together, they provide a
comprehensive account of how telecom adverts in Nigeria construct meaning. Semiotics explains
the symbolic layering of signs, colour psychology accounts for perceptual and affective effects,
and sociolinguistics situates language as an identity resource. In practice, these dimensions
converge: colours draw attention to slogans, linguistic choices reinforce the symbolic
associations of colours, and audience interpretations complete the meaning-making process.

For example, an MTN advert showing a group of Nigerians celebrating under a yellow banner
while chanting in Pidgin exemplifies this convergence. Semiotics interprets the yellow as a
signifier of optimism and connectivity; colour psychology explains that yellow’s brightness
captures attention and evokes positivity; and sociolinguistics shows how the use of Pidgin
signals inclusivity and local identity. Together, these frameworks reveal how the advert projects
MTN as a brand that is simultaneously modern, optimistic, and authentically Nigerian.

The integration of these theories also underscores the importance of audience reception. Meaning
is not imposed but negotiated. While telecom companies design adverts to project specific
identities, audiences interpret these cues through their own cultural, linguistic, and psychological
frameworks. Some may read Airtel’s red-and-English campaigns as energetic and global, while
others may perceive them as too elitist or foreign. Understanding these dynamics requires
analyzing not only the adverts themselves but also how audiences respond to them.

2.3 Empirical Review

Previous studies on colour in advertisements show its significant role in influencing consumer
perception, mood, and purchase decisions by creating emotional reactions and associations, with
warm colours like red and orange capturing attention and cool colours like blue and green
fostering trust and relaxation. Research has confirmed that colour can increase sales compared to
black-and-white ads and that the specific cultural context and saturation level of colours are
important factors in effectiveness.

Ibeji, (2024), Colour is a vital psychological tool in advertising, influencing perception,

emotions, and behaviour. In digital platform advertising and Digital Out-of-Home (DOOH)
media, the creative use of colour can capture attention, evoke emotions, and drive consumer
decisions within seconds. This paper explores the interplay between colour psychology and
advertising effectiveness, emphasizing the role of creatives, the importance of the first three
seconds in video ads, and the psychological underpinnings of audience engagement. Case
studies, expert quotes, and practical recommendations are provided to guide advertisers in
leveraging colour for maximum impact.

Arshad et al., (2012), find out relationship between varying colour scheming in
advertising and buying behaviour. Data for this purpose were collected from 200 people through
questionnaire. Results indicated that buying behaviour is greatly influenced by colour scheming
of a product and its advertisement. Strategies discussing how to enhance colour scheming of
product and use of colours in ads are also discussed.

Oladumiye, (2016), Colours are a part of human existence which is controlled by the
visual impulses of the human brain they are also an integral part of any product advertisement.
Colour affects every aspect of man’s lives. Graphically, colour affects the exchange of goods and
services between the manufacturer of products and the final consumer. As a result, colour is
essential to advertisement of products because it challenges the established order of products and
draw fresh attention to existing products by making it stand out of others. The advertising world
revolves around the principle of attraction: whatever a product may be, the advert must attract
the consumer. One of the first things consumers will notice is the aesthetic package and colour of
the advertisement. This research explores the role of colours in product advertisement. Certain
factors like colour coding, colour symbolism in advertisement, history of colour and how the
brain interprets colour are also explored in this research. The research concluded that the success
of any product advertisement depends on the combination of colours used in projecting the
product to the consumer.

Flore, (2020), Businesses and companies are always trying to find the most effective way
to advertise their products to create higher click-through rates, increasing the intent to purchase,
and consequently raising sales and revenue. This research examines the effect that several
different design elements of an online advertisement have on the attitudes or behaviours of
consumers. An online survey was sent out to students at Gettysburg College, consisting of pairs
of advertisements differing either in colour, hue, or size. Participants in the online survey were
asked to click on the image that they preferred. All three of these categories had a significant
effect on click-through rates on advertisements. Highly-saturated advertisements were
significantly preferred over the low-saturated advertisements. There was a significant difference
in size preference, but the average preference was evenly split between square and vertical
rectangle sizes in the shape category. Warm colours were marginally preferred over cool colours
in the images that were used. These findings are important for businesses in order for them to
receive the greatest number of clicks on products advertised because those clicks lead to
purchases of the product. Further research could also include the examination of other
characteristics of advertisements.

White et al., (2021), this paper study how colour contrast (complementary vs. analogous
colours) affect individuals’ attitude and purchase intention in the context of web banner
advertising. Previous research on the effect of colour in marketing stated that colour is one of the
most important factors for fast decisions regarding product choice. However, the study of colour
has mainly focused on isolated colours (hue) and colour temperature (cool vs. warm colours).
Thus, colour contrast studies are lacking. Two experimental studies (Ntotal = 409) were conducted
in the context of web banner advertising. Study 1 involved a service setting (a wireless internet
service provider) and Study 2 focused on a product category (a wireless headphone set). Findings
revealed that the blue-green analogous colour set tend to elicit higher levels of both attitude
towards the ad and purchase intention. The results were partially confirmed for Study 1 and
(totally) confirmed for Study 2. This research work contributes to shed some light into colour
perception and e-commerce strategy thus helping marketers and designers to create more
effective web banner advertisements.

Research on language use and identity projection in media highlights how language serves as a
powerful social instrument for constructing, representing, and performing identities within media
platforms, with language choices, framing, and discursive strategies actively shaping public
narratives and audience perception. Media discourse, from traditional to digital formats, isn't
neutral but politically charged, embedding historical and cultural contexts that privilege certain
voices and marginalize others through the selective use of words, tone, and structure. This
process creates distinct language identities (medialects) and dynamically influences cultural and
individual identities in the digital age.

Dilafruzhon, (2024), In the modern world, social media has become an integral part of
young people's lives. These platforms serve not only as communication tools but play a crucial
role in shaping culture, language, and personal identity [Anderson, 2022]. Digital
communication significantly influences how young people use language and perceive
themselves. The relevance of this research lies in understanding significant socio-cultural
changes in modern society through studying new linguistic norms and identification processes
emerging under the influence of social media. This article aims to analyze the impact of social
media on young adults' language use and identity formation based on existing academic
literature.

Krishna et al., (2025), This article explores how language functions as a tool of power
and identity formation within media discourse. Drawing from theories by Foucault, Fairclough,
and van Dijk, it critically examines how mainstream and digital media construct and reinforce
sociopolitical hierarchies through linguistic choices. The relationship between language and
identity in media is particularly significant. Identities are not static; they are discursively
constructed and performed through language. Media discourse actively contributes to the
formation of social identities by categorizing people into binaries—such as citizen/immigrant,
us/them, normal/other— thereby influencing how individuals perceive themselves and are
perceived by others.The paper analyses media texts, both traditional and social, to interrogate the
intersections between language, authority, and the politics of representation, particularly in
relation to marginalized identities.

Alshehri, (2023), This research explores the relationship between language and identity;
with more than 7,000 spoken languages in the world today, we can transmit our identities and
thoughts by using our language, and that is one of the strongest human abilities as far as the
language is different as much as the transmitted can be different too since the language is a main
and an important method to express our identities in any culture and society. Language is either
individual words, connected speech, or even writing. While we use written or spoken language,
we do not only express our thoughts, culture, society, intentions but also who we really are and
how we want people to see us. We both perform and produce specific identities depending on the
context. I used a survey (quantitative data), and I published it on different media, so I could
gather as many participants and cover a large number of experiences. It included both open and
closed questions and also included possible answers (multiple choices) to serve accuracy as well
as selecting percent to serve self-evaluation. The participants of the study were random people of
society from different age categories, consisting of both genders, male and female, with graphs
to show some of the statistics of the survey questions. As I mentioned before, the setting was
different social media programs. Hopefully, this research will clarify the relationship between
language and identity.

Pryma (2024), this study aimed to determine and explain the influence of discourse of
political interviews on audience identity construction and their understanding of social and
political processes. Methods of cross-cultural analysis, Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), the
method of linguistic analysis of identity markers in media text, and the method of linguistic
analysis of identity markers were used in the study. The reliability of the methods was checked
with Cronbach's alpha. The increase in the importance of media and social networks in identity
construction indicates reorientation of the modern society towards digital platforms as a key
factor of public position determination. Increased individualization was fixed in identity
formation, where personal choices and clarity are important factors affecting the self-
determination process. The study confirms that identity formation in media texts is a complex
and multifaceted process, which includes the interaction of different aspects as individual, group,
cultural and political identities. Further research perspectives are the study of the role of new
technologies, including artificial intelligence and large data analysis in identity construction and
interaction with the audience in the digital environment.

Irqad et al., (2024), It has evolved into a more contemporary form of socializing due to
social media websites. As more and more people use these sites and spend more time there,
online self-representations are gaining popularity. The favored learning strategies of young
people utilizing the Internet to study English have evolved. In today's modern classroom,
teachers must embrace 'learning tools' to connect with students outside the classroom. As a result
of instructors embracing new methods, the teaching-learning process has transformed into one
that facilitates student learning. More group projects and less stressful learning settings are
essential in the classroom. Through different kinds of social media, people are banding together
to build communities. There is no denying the controversy surrounding the usage of social media
platforms like Facebook, WhatsApp, and Web Chat. Though millions of individuals across the
world use social media on a daily basis, only recently have educators figured out how to
incorporate it into the classroom effectively. Thanks to social media, language instructors may
maintain global connections with their peers and learn about cutting-edge research in their
profession. Not only that, but language instructors may advance in their professions with the use
of these online buttons by solving difficulties for their students. In this research, we look at how
social media is changing the way English language classes are taught and taken. The findings
revealed that Social media influences language acquisition and identity formation.

Studies that examine colour and linguistic identity together treat visual and verbal codes as co-
constitutive resources for brand meaning rather than as independent channels. This multimodal
perspective draws on semiotics and social identity theory to argue that colours function as
nonverbal “signatures” while language choices (including code-switching and the use of
indigenous languages) perform identity work; together they produce a composite brand persona
that audiences interpret within local cultural frames. Mahmud’s semiotic analysis of Nigerian
advertising (2020) provides an instructive example: by documenting how MTN, Glo, and Airtel
consistently use yellow, green, and red respectively, Mahmud shows that colour becomes a
dominant nonverbal code that quickly activates brand associations in viewers’ minds, and that
these associations are then reinforced by linguistic features such as slogans and local idioms
(Mahmud, 2020). Empirical projects in Nigeria and other multilingual markets thus repeatedly
show that colour and language are mutually reinforcing elements of advertising strategy rather
than isolated design choices.

Quantitative and mixed-methods studies reinforce the interpretive claims by demonstrating

measurable links among colour use, linguistic form, and audience response. Research on colour
psychology confirms that certain hues reliably affect attention, emotion, and memory—
mechanisms that advertisers exploit to foreground associated linguistic cues (Gupta et al., 2025).
For instance, highly saturated brand colours increase the salience of adjacent text and slogans,
thereby enhancing recall for the linguistic message. Kanuri and colleagues (2024) empirically
demonstrated that colour complexity and chromatic salience in social media images predict
engagement metrics; when advertisers combine a salient brand colour with attention-grabbing
linguistic elements (catchy slogans, code-switched headlines), engagement and message
retention tend to rise. These findings are significant for telecom firms that distribute adverts
across both broadcast and digital platforms: bright, company-specific palettes (e.g., MTN
yellow) function as a rapid recognition cue that channels viewers’ attention to the verbal claims
embedded in taglines or voiceovers.

Sociolinguistic research adds a crucial interpretive layer by showing how language choices index
social values and group memberships. Piller’s foundational work on "identity constructions in
multilingual advertising" argues that multilingualism in adverts is not merely an instrumental
translation strategy but an identity resource that creates “available identities” for consumers to
adopt or reject (Piller, 2001). In telecom advertising this plays out when brands combine English
with Pidgin or local languages: the English elements often index modernity and global
connectivity, while local languages or pidgin indexes familiarity, authenticity, and grassroots
reach. Almoaily’s (2023) study of code-switching in influencer advertising, while based in a
different regional context, supplies methodological and theoretical tools that are directly
transferable: code-switching functions as a pragmatic and indexical device that heightens
attention among bilingual viewers and signals hybrid identity. Applied to telecom adverts, these
insights indicate that colour (which may connote modernity, trust, or national belonging)
conditions the interpretive frame within which linguistic switches are read.
Regionally focused studies strengthen the case that local culture shapes the colour–language
nexus. Dada’s analysis of GSM advertising in Nigeria (2010) and several more recent case
studies find that colours chosen by telecom brands are frequently aligned with national symbols
or widely held cultural associations—green with growth and national identity, yellow with
brightness and approachability, red with dynamism and youthfulness—and that these palettes are
paired with language strategies to target specific demographic segments (Dada, 2010). Mahmud
(2020) similarly documents the semiotic power of colour signatures in Nigerian adverts, noting
how repeated exposure to brand palettes yields automatic brand recognition and how linguistic
choices (slogans, dialectal features) further script the ideological meanings associated with these
colours. These local studies provide strong empirical support for the claim that global branding
logic is always locally inflected: multinational telecoms recontextualize corporate colours and
English slogans with local linguistic practices to create hybridized brand identities that can
appear simultaneously global and locally embedded.

Methodologically, the literature spans qualitative semiotic readings, corpus-based multimodal

coding, and experimental or survey-based reception work. The semiotic approach affords rich
descriptions of how particular adverts instantiate myths (Barthesian denotation/connotation) and
how colours can be read as second-order ideological signs. Corpus and computational
multimodal methods, increasingly used in recent work, permit systematic coding of colour
features (dominant hue, saturation, contrast) alongside linguistic annotations (language used,
code-switching instances, register), enabling researchers to move from descriptive claims to
statistical tests of co-occurrence (Todd, 2023; Kanuri et al., 2024). Reception studies—surveys,
focus groups, and experimental memory/attention tasks—are needed to verify whether intended
connotations are actually realized among target audiences. Salig’s experimental work, which
shows that code-switching increases attention and memory in bilingual participants (2025),
exemplifies how reception methods can validate semiotic and psychological claims.

Despite this growing convergence, several gaps remain in the literature. First, comparatively few
large-sample multimodal studies directly quantify the interaction between colour metrics and
linguistic features within the same analytic framework for telecom advertising. Although isolated
studies measure colour effects and others study language use, integrated works that combine
image-processing metrics with linguistic coding and audience response measures are still sparse.
Second, much of the quantitative work on colour psychology uses WEIRD samples or general
consumer contexts, and there is a need for culture-specific validation—particularly in African
markets where symbolic associations can diverge from Global North patterns. Third, there is
limited experimental evidence that isolates the causal influence of colour on the interpretation of
linguistic identity (for example, testing whether the same slogan in different coloured contexts
leads to different identity inferences). Finally, while case studies in Nigeria document frequent
colour–language pairings (e.g., MTN yellow + inclusive local rhetoric; Glo green + patriotic
messaging; Airtel red + youth-oriented English), more comparative work is required to show
whether these patterns are strategic across campaigns, stable over time, and effective across
diverse audience segments.

The combined evidence nevertheless points to clear practical and theoretical implications.
Practically, brands should treat colour and language as coordinated design decisions: palette
choices will modulate how linguistic elements are read, and languages selected for taglines or
dialogues will interact with colour to produce different identity effects for different audiences.
Theoretically, integrating semiotics, colour psychology, and sociolinguistics enables a robust
account of multimodal branding: colours supply fast, affective cues and cultural frames,
language supplies indexical detail and social positioning, and audiences synthesize both in
situated acts of meaning-making.

In conclusion, studies that combine colour and linguistic identity in branding and telecom
advertising reveal a multimodal ecosystem in which visual and verbal codes co-produce brand
meanings. Nigerian telecom adverts provide especially compelling evidence of this interaction
because of the strong presence of brand colour signatures and the routine use of multilingual
strategies that negotiate global and local identities. Future research that pairs automated colour
analysis with fine-grained linguistic coding and experimental reception studies will be especially
valuable for testing causal claims and mapping how colour–language configurations operate
across cultural and demographic divides.
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the methodological framework guiding the present study on the interplay
between colour and linguistic identity in Nigerian telecom advertisements. It explains the
philosophical orientation, research design, population and sampling, data sources, data collection
procedures, analytical methods, audience interpretation component, and ethical considerations.
By carefully outlining these components, the chapter provides clarity on how the study was
conducted, the rationale behind methodological choices, and how these choices align with the
research objectives.

3.1 Research Philosophy and Design

This study is anchored in an interpretivist paradigm, which emphasizes the socially constructed
nature of reality and the multiple meanings people attach to phenomena (Creswell & Creswell,
2018). Telecom adverts are not neutral texts but cultural artifacts that embed symbolic resources,
including colour and language, which shape how audiences perceive brands. An interpretivist
lens allows the study to focus on the semiotic and discursive dimensions of these adverts while
remaining sensitive to contextual variations in meaning-making.

To achieve its objectives, the study adopts a qualitative-dominant mixed-methods design. The
qualitative aspect is foregrounded through multimodal discourse analysis, semiotics, and
thematic interpretation of adverts, while the quantitative aspect is incorporated through
frequency counts of dominant colours and language choices. This integration ensures both depth
of interpretation and empirical grounding. For example, while the study interprets Airtel’s use of
red as symbolizing energy and urgency, it also quantifies how consistently this colour appears
across its campaigns from 2015 to 2024. Thus, meaning is not only theorized but also supported
by measurable patterns.

3.2 Population and Sampling

The population for this study comprises visual advertisements produced by Nigerian telecom
companies. Four brands MTN, Glo, Airtel, and 9mobile, were purposively selected for their
prominence, distinctive branding strategies, and market visibility. These companies collectively
dominate Nigeria’s telecom sector, and their adverts are highly recognizable within the national
cultural landscape.

Purposive sampling was adopted to select adverts that prominently showcase both colour and
linguistic features. The inclusion criteria required adverts to (a) explicitly deploy signature brand
colours; (b) contain linguistic elements such as slogans, jingles, or narratives; and (c) be widely
circulated through television, billboards, or digital platforms. Applying these criteria, a corpus of
40 adverts was compiled, with ten adverts per telecom brand. The timeframe of 2015–2024 was
chosen to capture the past decade of heightened brand competition, digital transformation, and
intensified advertising strategies in Nigeria.

Examples of adverts included:

 MTN’s “Everywhere You Go” campaigns, which consistently use vibrant yellow
backgrounds alongside the English tagline and Pidgin variations such as “We dey
everywhere you dey.”
 Airtel’s “Data is Life” series, featuring red-dominated visuals with slogans that
emphasize urgency and connection, often delivered in code-switched English and Pidgin.
 Glo’s “Grandmasters of Data” adverts, which combine lush green visuals with
celebrity endorsements and linguistic elements rooted in Nigerian Pidgin, projecting
accessibility and grassroots appeal.
 9mobile’s “Here for You” campaigns, which employ black and green palettes alongside
sleek English phrases, suggesting sophistication and exclusivity.

By selecting adverts across different companies and media, the study ensured diversity in
branding strategies while retaining focus on the central theme of colour and linguistic identity.

3.3 Data Collection

The data collection process involved sourcing both audio-visual and still advert materials from
multiple repositories. Television commercials were retrieved from corporate websites, YouTube
channels, and advertising archives. Billboard and print campaigns were obtained from company
press releases, image databases, and field photographs captured in Lagos, Abuja, and Port
Harcourt cities where telecom advertising is most prominent.

Each advert was catalogued into a database with details such as company, year of release,
medium (television, billboard, or digital), and key linguistic and colour attributes. For example,
MTN’s 2020 “Wear It Yellow” campaign was logged with descriptors such as “dominant
yellow,” “English + Pidgin slogan,” and “youth-targeted.” Similarly, Airtel’s 2017 “Data is Life”
advert was noted for its use of red backgrounds, fast-paced narration, and recurring linguistic
phrases emphasizing data as essential to daily living.

In addition to primary advert texts, secondary data—including marketing case studies, industry
reports, and scholarly articles—were reviewed to contextualize brand strategies and provide
comparative insights. This triangulation enriched the interpretation of adverts and ensured that
meanings were situated within broader advertising and cultural contexts.

3.4 Analytical Framework

The analysis followed a multimodal discourse analytical (MDA) framework (Kress & van
Leeuwen, 2001), which examines how semiotic resources interact in meaning-making. Three
interconnected steps were followed: colour analysis, linguistic analysis, and integrative semiotic
interpretation.

3.5 Colour Analysis

Colour analysis focused on identifying dominant hues and associating them with brand identity.
For example, MTN’s yellow was consistently coded as symbolizing optimism, warmth, and
connectivity. Airtel’s red was associated with passion, urgency, and vibrancy, while Glo’s green
conveyed growth, reliability, and local rootedness. 9mobile’s black-green palette projected
sophistication and exclusivity.
The analysis did not stop at description but interrogated symbolic associations. For instance,
MTN’s yellow was read against Nigerian cultural contexts where yellow is often linked to
vibrancy and visibility, reflecting MTN’s positioning as “everywhere you go.” Similarly, Airtel’s
red resonated with urgency, complementing its slogans about the necessity of data for life. To
support interpretation, frequency counts were conducted to measure how consistently each
company used its dominant colours across campaigns, thereby reinforcing the argument that
colour is a central pillar of identity.

3.6 Linguistic Analysis

The linguistic dimension involved transcription and close reading of spoken, written, and sung
texts within the adverts. The analysis paid attention to language choice (English, Nigerian
Pidgin, or indigenous languages), stylistic devices (repetition, metaphor, humor), and discursive
strategies (slogans, jingles, code-switching).

For example, Airtel’s slogan “Data is Life” employs metaphor, positioning data as essential to
human survival, while the repetition of this phrase across campaigns reinforces brand
recognition. Glo frequently deploys Nigerian Pidgin, as in “Na we get am,” to project inclusivity
and grassroots appeal. MTN occasionally integrates indigenous languages in localized adverts,
thereby strengthening cultural affinity. Meanwhile, 9mobile relies heavily on English slogans
such as “Here for You,” aligning with its elite, urban branding.

This analysis was grounded in linguistic identity theory (Joseph, 2016), which posits that
language choices signal social belonging and brand positioning. Thus, when Glo uses Pidgin, it
aligns itself with everyday Nigerian identity, while 9mobile’s reliance on English projects
aspirational modernity.

3.6.1 Semiotic Integration

The final stage of analysis involved examining how colour and language co-create meaning. For
instance, in Airtel’s “Data is Life” campaign, the red visuals and energetic slogans work together
to create urgency, appealing to youthful, tech-savvy consumers. In contrast, Glo’s green visuals
combined with Pidgin slogans suggest accessibility and communal belonging. MTN’s yellow
background with “Everywhere You Go” in English and Pidgin constructs ubiquity, while
9mobile’s black-green aesthetic paired with sleek English slogans projects exclusivity.

This integrative analysis demonstrates that meaning emerges not from colour or language alone,
but from their dynamic interaction in constructing linguistic identities and brand values.

3.6.2 Audience Interpretation

To complement textual analysis, the study incorporated an audience reception component. Thirty
participants were purposively selected from two groups: university students and young
professionals aged 18–35, reflecting the core demographic targeted by telecom adverts.

Respondents were shown selected adverts in controlled focus group settings and asked to discuss
their perceptions of the relationship between colour, language, and brand identity. For example,
when shown an MTN advert dominated by yellow, many participants associated the brand with
“visibility,” “everywhere you go,” and “vibrancy.” When asked about Glo’s green adverts,
responses included “Naija’s own network,” “grassroots,” and “local pride.” Airtel’s red adverts
were often described as “energetic,” “urgent,” or “for youth,” while 9mobile’s black-green
campaigns elicited interpretations such as “classy,” “serious,” and “exclusive.”

These responses were thematically analyzed to validate researcher interpretations and highlight
how audiences actively negotiate meanings. Importantly, the findings revealed both alignment
and divergence between corporate projections and audience readings. For example, while Airtel
intends red to signify energy, some respondents associated it with “stress” or “pressure,”
demonstrating the fluidity of semiotic interpretation.

3.7 Validity and Reliability

Methodological rigor was ensured through multiple strategies. First, triangulation was achieved
by analyzing adverts across different media (television, billboard, and online), incorporating both
textual and audience data, and drawing on multiple theories (semiotics, colour psychology, and
linguistic identity). Second, a transparent coding scheme was developed for categorizing colours
and linguistic patterns, ensuring consistency across the dataset. Third, peer debriefing with
academic colleagues helped refine interpretations and minimize bias. By combining
methodological transparency with theoretical grounding, the study enhanced both validity and
reliability.

3.8 Ethical Considerations

Ethical protocols were strictly observed. All adverts analyzed were publicly available and
properly attributed to their creators, thereby avoiding copyright violations. Audience participants
were fully informed about the purpose of the study and gave consent before participation.
Confidentiality was assured by anonymizing responses, and participants were free to withdraw at
any stage. Institutional approval was sought from the relevant ethics committee, ensuring
compliance with research standards.

This chapter has outlined the methodological framework for analyzing the intersection of colour
and linguistic identity in Nigerian telecom adverts. By combining multimodal discourse analysis
with colour psychology and linguistic identity theory, and by integrating both researcher and
audience perspectives, the study ensures a comprehensive exploration of the research problem.
The chosen design, population, data collection, and analytical strategies align with the study
objectives and provide a robust foundation for the presentation and analysis of findings in the
subsequent chapter.
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.0 Introduction

In this chapter I present the findings from the multimodal analysis described in Chapter Three
and discuss their implications in light of the theoretical and empirical literature reviewed in
Chapter Two. The results are structured in three main sections: (1) color analysis (frequency and
descriptive patterns), (2) linguistic analysis (language choices, devices, and code-switching), and
(3) integrative semiotic findings combining visual and verbal cues. I then report themes from the
audience reception component (focus groups) and end with a focused discussion on how the
findings link back to the three theoretical lenses: semiotics, colour psychology, and
sociolinguistics.

4.1 Profile of the Advert Corpus

As described in Chapter Three, the corpus comprised 40 static and still adverts (10 adverts per
brand) produced between 2015 and 2024, sampled from corporate websites, social media, press
archives, and field photographs taken in Lagos, Abuja and Port Harcourt. The adverts were
selected for their prominent use of both colour and linguistic components (slogans, taglines,
written copy, or short phrases). For contextual grounding, it is worth noting that the selected
telecom firms dominate the Nigerian market, thereby making their brand-colour and language-
strategy usage particularly salient.

4.2 Colour Analysis — Frequency & Patterns

4.2.1 Dominant-color counts

Each advert was coded for a dominant color (single most salient hue) and for prominent
secondary colors or palettes. The counts (out of 10 adverts per brand) are as follows:

Table 1: Colour–Language Co-Occurrence Matrix (Student’s Data, AAUA Study, 2025)

 Brand Dominant Frequency (out of 10)
Color
MTN Yellow 10
Glo Green 10
Airtel Red 9
9mobile Black/Green 7

These counts confirm that the brands maintain strong, highly consistent visual palettes: MTN
with yellow, Glo with green, Airtel with red, and 9mobile with a darker black/green scheme.

Table 2: Colour Frequency and Saturation Patterns in Sampled Telecom Adverts (AAUA
Student Study, 2025)

Brand Number of Sampled Primary Saturation Saturated Flat-Field

Adverts Hue(s) Level Usage
MTN 10 Yellow High 10
Glo 10 Green Mid-to-High 8
Airtel 10 Red High 9
9mobile 10 Black/Green Low-to-Mid 5

Note. Saturation level is the researcher’s categorical coding of whether the advert used a highly
saturated hue (“High”), moderate saturation (“Mid-to-High”), or lower saturation tones (“Low-
to-Mid”) based on visual inspection during analysis.

4.2.2 Saturation, contrast and complexity

Beyond hue alone, the adverts were coded for saturation (high/low), contrast (high/low relative
to text), and colour complexity (single flat field vs multi-tonal gradient). Key patterns included:

 MTN adverts: predominantly highly saturated yellow backgrounds with low

compositional complexity (large flat fields or subtle gradient), ensuring fast recognition
and high contrast with text.
  Airtel adverts: often used saturated reds, with dynamic textures or backgrounds lending a
sense of movement and urgency.
 Glo adverts: used mid-to-high saturation greens, often paired with photographic elements
(celebrities, everyday scenes) reducing flatness but retaining the core green signature.
 9mobile adverts: more frequently employed low-to-mid saturation dark/black fields with
green accents, creating a premium and subdued aesthetic.

These findings align with marketing-theory predictions: saturated, flat colour fields lend rapid
recognition in visually cluttered environments, while more textured and less saturated palettes
support narrative or lifestyle positioning. Colour-psychology literature supports that brighter,
more saturated hues capture attention and produce stronger affective responses.

4.3 Linguistic Analysis — Forms & Frequencies

4.3.1 Language-choice frequencies

The adverts were transcribed and coded for primary language used (English, Nigerian Pidgin,
indigenous languages), presence of code-switching, and register (formal, informal). Distribution
among the 40 adverts:

 English only (slogans/taglines): 14 adverts (35%)

 English + Pidgin (code-switched): 16 adverts (40%)
 Pidgin or local language predominant: 6 adverts (15%)
 English + indigenous language inclusion (short phrases): 4 adverts (10%)

4.3.2 Stylistic devices and discursive features

Analysis revealed recurring linguistic strategies:

 Slogans as anchors: Every brand used short, repeatable phrases (e.g., “Everywhere You
Go” for MTN; “Data is Life” for Airtel and “Rule your world” for Glo) frequently
appearing across media.
  Code-switching: Commonly employed to evoke dual identity (modern/global +
local/native). For example, an advert might display English tagline but include Pidgin
voiceover or local language phrases in body text.
 Register & target segment: 9mobile’s adverts typically used formal English and
minimal copy, signalling aspirational/elite positioning; Glo’s adverts used Pidgin and
colloquial phrasing, signalling grassroots appeal.
 Rhythmic repetition and jingles: Several adverts (especially on digital platforms) used
repeated rhythmic phrases or musical hooks to enhance memory and brand recall.

These patterns reflect sociolinguistic perspectives: language choices act as identity signals —
indexing social position, cultural belonging, and audience alignment.

4.4 Integrative Semiotic Findings

4.4.1 Colour-language pairings and brand linguistic identity

A key finding is that colours and linguistic strategies are tightly coordinated, forming semiotic
signatures. Notable examples:

 MTN: Yellow + English + Pidgin. The yellow creates instant recognition. The mixed
language conveys ubiquity and local-embeddedness (English headline, Pidgin
conversational support).
 Glo: Green + Pidgin/local language + celebrity endorsements. The green links to
growth/national identity; Pidgin relates to everyday Nigerians; together they project “our
network”.
 Airtel: Red + English (with some code-switching). The red primes urgency and
youthfulness; English indicates global/modern orientation; occasionally Pidgin provides
local flavour.
 9mobile: Black/Green palette + English minimalism. The colour scheme is darker and
premium; the English-only slogans project exclusivity and sophistication.

From a semiotic lens, these combinations show: colour functions as a rapid nonverbal cue;
language supplies indexical detail; the audience draws the combined meaning.
4.4.2 Instances of semiotic misalignment

While most adverts demonstrated coherence, some exhibited misalignment where colour and
language produced mixed or contradictory readings:

 Two Airtel adverts used aggressive red backgrounds but delivered calm, family-oriented
messages; some participants perceived the red as tension or pressure rather than energy.
 One Glo advert used green but employed highly formal English copy, creating a
mismatch between grassroots colour cues and high-register language, leading some
viewers to read the brand as “trying to be serious” rather than accessible.

This supports the theoretical claim that signs are polysemic: audience readings may deviate from
intended branding if semiotic cues are not aligned.

4.5 Audience Reception — Thematic Findings

Five focus groups (n = 30, aged 18-35 from university and professional settings) were held to
explore how participants perceived the adverts in terms of colour-language interplay. Thematic
analysis of transcripts revealed five dominant themes:

4.5.1 Theme 1: Immediate recognition through colour

Participants noted that colour alone often signalled the brand before they read text or saw logo.
For example:

“Even before I see the logo, if it’s yellow I know it’s MTN.” (FG2-P4)

4.5.2 Theme 2: Colour frames linguistic reading

Colour set viewer expectations for the message.

“If I see red and it’s Airtel, I expect something fast and urgent—so the words about data feel like
they matter now.” (FG1-P2)

4.5.3 Theme 3: Authenticity vs aspirational identity

Language and colour combined to offer either local authenticity or aspirational modernity:

“When they use Pidgin, I feel like the company is one of us. It’s warmer.” (FG5-P2)
“9mobile always looks premium, like it’s for people who want classy things.” (FG2-P1)

4.5.4 Theme 4: Potential for misinterpretation

Some participants flagged negative or mixed connotations:

“Red sometimes feels like pressure, not always a good thing.” (FG1-P3)
“Yellow can be too bright, almost cheap, when over-used.” (FG3-P2)

4.5.5 Theme 5: Platform & context sensitivity

Participants stressed that platform and viewing context mattered:

“On Instagram, bright yellow is great. On a huge billboard in the sun, sometimes the colours
wash out.” (FG4-P5)

4.6 Quantitative Cross-Checks (Frequency Counts and Basic Patterns)

To support the qualitative findings, the following descriptive cross-tabulations were derived:

Colour–Language Co-Occurrence: Of 40 adverts, 14 of 16 adverts that used Pidgin also

employed green or yellow as the dominant colour, indicating a strong co-occurrence between
“local-language strategy” and certain palettes.

Saturation vs Code-Switching: Among adverts coded as having high saturation (n = 22), 18 had
short slogan-centric copy rather than long body text, suggesting a relationship between strong
visual salience and compressed verbal format.

While these are not inferential statistical tests (due to sample size and purposive design), they
provide additional empirical grounding for the interpretive findings.

4.7 Discussion: Linking Findings to Theory and Literature

4.7.1 Colour as semiotic shorthand (semiotics + psychology)

The findings echo theory: colour functions as a rapid pre-verbal signifier of brand identity and
value. The consistency of MTN’s yellow and Glo’s green in our sample supports Barthes’s idea
of corporate colour myth-making: repeated exposure naturalizes the association between hue and
brand. Colour-psychology research further supports those strong saturations enhance attention
and recall (e.g., research on colour in marketing).

4.7.2 Language index’s identity; colour conditions interpretation (sociolinguistics)

Language choices revealed identity work: Pidgin/local languages signalling inclusivity, English
signalling modern/global orientation. Crucially, the way audiences read those language choices
was conditioned by colour context. In other words: colour influences how language is read, not
only that language is used. This underscores the value of a multimodal approach rather than
separate consideration of visual and text elements.

4.7.3 Market context reinforces semiotic stakes

The large market share and visibility of the selected telecom firms in Nigeria contribute to the
potency of their brand-colour signatures. Repeated exposure creates “automatic” recognition,
which means colour becomes a rapid heuristic cue before linguistic decoding occurs.

4.7.4 Audience nuance and polysemy

The focus-group results highlight the interpretive flexibility of viewers. Some participants
aligned with the intended message; others diverged or saw unintended connotations (e.g., red →
pressure rather than excitement). This confirms Barthes’s notion of the advert as an open text and
emphasises that advertisers must consider audience variability and context.

4.8 Implications for Theory and Practice

Theoretical Implications
 1. This study reinforces that visual and verbal codes are co-constitutive, supporting a
multimodal theoretical framework integrating semiotics, colour psychology, and
sociolinguistics.
2. It affirms that colour meaning is contextually mediated, rather than universal: cultural,
market and media-platform factors matter significantly.

Practical Implications for Advertisers

1. Colour and language should be designed in tandem, not sequentially or independently.

2. Visual palettes must be platform-sensitive: what works on digital social media may not
translate identically to large outdoor billboards under direct sunlight.
3. Audience segmentation matters: For grassroots audiences, pairing saturated green or
yellow with local languages is effective; for aspirational urban audiences, darker palettes
and formal English may resonate more.
4. Avoid semiotic misalignments: ensure that colour and copy carry consistent rationale
(e.g., red for urgency should not be used if message is calm domestic life).

4.9 Limitations of the Findings

 The corpus size (40 adverts) and its purposive nature limit generalizability beyond the
selected brands/timeframe.
 The study excluded television commercials, which may include dynamic motion and
audio cues that interact with colour and language differently.
 The audience sample (n = 30, ages 18-35) is not fully representative of older, rural or
less-digitally-active demographic segments.
 The temporal dimension: brand palettes and slogans evolve over time; this study captures
a snapshot rather than longitudinal evolution.

4.10 Conclusion

Chapter Four has offered a detailed account of how colour and linguistic strategies in Nigerian
telecom adverts work together to shape perceived brand identity. It shows that dominant brand
colours act as rapid non-verbal cues, language provides indexical detail, and audiences
synthesise these elements in meaning-making. The findings underline the importance of a
multimodal approach and hold both theoretical and practical significance. The next chapter
(Chapter Five) will present conclusions, recommendations, and directions for future research.
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the discussion, summary, and implications of the findings derived from the
analysis of colour and linguistic identity in Nigerian telecom advertisements. It revisits the
research objectives, interprets the results in relation to existing theories and literature, and draws
conclusions on how colours interact with linguistic features to shape brand identity and audience
perception. The chapter also offers practical recommendations for advertisers and suggestions for
future research.

5.1 Summary of Findings

The study investigated how colours in telecom visual advertisements influence the perception of
linguistic identity among Nigerian audiences. Using multimodal discourse analysis (MDA) and
focus group discussions, data were collected from 40 visual adverts by MTN, Glo, Airtel, and
9mobile, covering the period 2015–2024. The analysis combined quantitative colour-frequency
counts with qualitative audience interpretation.

Key findings are summarized as follows:

1. Dominant Colours and Symbolism

Each telecom company consistently employed a distinct brand colour to communicate

specific psychological and cultural meanings:

o MTN (Yellow): Optimism, visibility, and friendliness.

o Airtel (Red): Energy, urgency, and connection.
o Glo (Green): Growth, rootedness, and “Naija” (local) identity.
o 9mobile (Black/Green): Sophistication, exclusivity, and innovation.
These colour associations aligned with brand personality theory (Aaker, 1997), suggesting that
colour functions as a non-verbal cue reinforcing the brand’s linguistic identity.

2. Linguistic Identity Features

The adverts displayed clear linguistic markers, including code-switching, Pidgin usage,
indigenous references, and metaphoric slogans. For example:

 MTN’s “Everywhere You Go” and its Pidgin variation “We dey everywhere you
dey.”
 Airtel’s “Data is Life.”
 Glo’s “Na we get am.”
 9mobile’s “Here for You.”

The choice of language reflected brand orientation—local inclusivity (Glo, MTN) versus
cosmopolitan exclusivity (9mobile).

3. Colour–Language Co-occurrence

The study found strong correlations between specific colour palettes and linguistic
registers. Airtel’s red visuals paired with fast-paced English–Pidgin slogans projected
urgency, while Glo’s green tones coupled with informal language conveyed cultural
belonging. MTN’s yellow served as a unifying symbol of connectivity, mirrored in its
inclusive language choices.

4. Audience Perception

Focus group discussions revealed that participants recognized and emotionally connected
brand colours with language use.

 Yellow was perceived as “vibrant” and “open.”

 Red as “energetic but stressful.”
 Green as “our own” and “down to earth.”
 Black/Green as “classy but distant.”
These findings confirmed that while brand intent largely aligned with audience perception, subtle
divergences emerged due to personal and cultural interpretations.

5. Semiotic Integration

The results established that colour and language function synergistically neither alone
fully communicates brand identity. Their combination constitutes a multimodal grammar
through which telecom brands construct and negotiate linguistic identities within
Nigeria’s multilingual context.

5.2 Discussion of Findings

5.2.1 Colour as a Semiotic and Cultural Resource

The findings affirm Kress and van Leeuwen’s (2001) theory that visual elements serve as
semiotic resources. In Nigerian telecom advertising, colour acts as both a visual and cultural
signifier. For instance, Glo’s green reflects Nigeria’s national colour, symbolizing patriotism and
authenticity. This aligns with Amarjeet and Kapil (2023), who argued that colour conveys shared
cultural meanings beyond aesthetics.

5.2.2 Linguistic Identity Construction through Language Choice

The study confirms Joseph’s (2016) view that linguistic identity emerges through language use
and its social interpretation. Glo and MTN’s deployment of Nigerian Pidgin embodies linguistic
inclusivity, creating solidarity with mass audiences. 9mobile, through its elite English register,
constructs a modern, aspirational identity. This linguistic differentiation mirrors Nigeria’s social
stratification and the brands’ strategic positioning.

5.2.3 Interplay Between Colour and Language

The synergy between colour and linguistic cues supports multimodal discourse theory, which
posits that meaning arises from the interaction of modes. Airtel’s red paired with “Data is Life”
communicates urgency both visually and verbally—encoding speed, youth, and necessity.
Similarly, MTN’s yellow and inclusive language reinforce visibility and universality. These
combinations validate Simola et al. (2014), who noted that visuals regulate the cognitive
interpretation of advertising messages.

5.2.4 Audience Negotiation of Meaning

While brands encode intended meanings, audiences actively decode them based on social context
and personal experience. For example, some respondents viewed Airtel’s red as “stressful” rather
than “energetic,” demonstrating the polysemy of colour interpretation (Hall, 1997). This finding
reinforces the interpretivist paradigm that meaning is socially constructed, situational, and
negotiated rather than fixed.

5.2.5 Implications for Nigerian Advertising Practice

The study highlights that effective telecom advertising in Nigeria depends on aligning colour
psychology with linguistic identity cues. Misalignment—such as using overly formal English
with culturally symbolic colours—can dilute authenticity and weaken consumer connection.
Therefore, advertisers should integrate cultural semiotics into branding strategies to sustain
emotional resonance and linguistic authenticity.

5.3 Conclusion

This research concludes that colour in visual advertising functions as a linguistic code that
shapes how audiences perceive brand identity. In the Nigerian telecom industry, where linguistic
diversity and cultural symbolism are intertwined, the deliberate use of colour reinforces
linguistic positioning and emotional connection. Brands that integrate local linguistic expressions
with culturally meaningful colours—such as Glo’s green and Pidgin—achieve stronger identity
resonance than those relying solely on universal or elite cues.

Ultimately, colour and language work together as complementary semiotic systems that
construct, negotiate, and communicate identity in a multilingual market.

5.4 Recommendations

1. Strategic Colour–Language Alignment

 Telecom companies should ensure that colour palettes complement the linguistic tone of
their campaigns. For example, if inclusivity is the goal, warm and accessible hues should
accompany localized language choices.

2. Audience-Centric Testing

Before launching campaigns, advertisers should conduct perceptual studies to test how
audiences interpret colour-language combinations across demographic groups.

3. Cultural Sensitivity in Design

Given Nigeria’s linguistic and ethnic diversity, marketers should be cautious about
colours that carry conflicting regional meanings. Using culturally neutral or contextually
adaptive hues can prevent misinterpretation.

4. Integration of Indigenous Expressions

Incorporating indigenous or hybrid language forms (e.g., Yoruba-English or Igbo-Pidgin)

with culturally resonant colour schemes can enhance emotional appeal and authenticity.

5. Training and Research Collaboration

Advertising agencies should collaborate with linguists, semioticians, and psychologists to

deepen understanding of colour’s communicative power.

5.5 Suggestions for Further Research

1. Future studies could include motion-based advertising (television or digital video), which
would capture the temporal interaction between colour, music, and language.
2. Comparative research could explore how colour-linguistic identity operates in other
African markets (e.g., Ghana or Kenya).
3. Quantitative experiments using eye-tracking or psychometric testing could measure
emotional and cognitive responses to specific colour-language pairings.
4. Longitudinal studies could assess how evolving cultural trends reshape the symbolic
meanings of colour in Nigerian advertising.
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 Appendix

Example of MTN Yellow Billboard in Nigeria

Note. Courtesy of publicly available images; used for illustrative purposes only.
Figures

1. Glo (Green Palette)

Figure 1. (a–c) Green-dominant adverts for Glo Mobile (Courtesy of public materials).
Caption example: “Glo brand green as dominant colour in outdoor and social-media adverts
(source: public campaign materials, 2023–2025).”
2. Airtel (Red Palette)

Figure 2. (a–c) Red-dominant adverts for Airtel Nigeria (Courtesy of public campaign
materials).
Caption example: “Airtel brand red across print and digital adverts emphasising urgency and
connectivity (source: campaign launch, 2024).”
3. 9mobile (Black/Green Palette)

Figure 3. (a–c) Black/green-dominant adverts for 9mobile Nigeria (Courtesy of public campaign
materials).
Caption example: “9mobile brand using black-heavy aesthetic with green accents to signal
sophistication (source: 2023 campaign materials).”