Course: Wireless Communication System Module 2 notes BEC703

MODULE 2:
CODE DIVISION FOR MULTIPLE
ACCESS

Introduction to CDMA
CDMA stands for Code Division for Multiple Access and is considered a path-breaking
wireless technology due to its several superior properties. 2G, Cellular standard - cd-
maOne. 3G Cellular standards Wideband CDMA (WCDMA).

In order to understand the concepts in CDMA,

it is critical to understand the concept of multiple
access. This is shown in Figure 5.1. This is because
the radio channel is common for all the users/ de-
vices and the available wireless frequency bands are
limited. Thus, it is necessary to device a mecha-
nism for multiple users to access this common radio
channel, which is termed as a Multiple Access (MA)
technology. Figure 1: Multiple access for wire-
Several multiple-access technologies have been de- less cellular networks
veloped and employed for cellular applications
namely FDMA , TDMA and CDMA.

FDMA: Freuency Division Multiple Access:

1G cellular standards were based on Frequency
Division Multiple Access (FDMA). In FDMA,
different users are allotted different frequency
bands.
Thus, the users are multiplexed in the frequency
Figure 2: Frequency division for
domain and they access the radio channel in
multiple access
their respective frequency bands of bandwidth
B.

TDMA: Time Division Multiple Access: On

the other hand, the second generation or 2G cel-
lular standards are based on digital Time Divi-
sion for Multiple Access (TDMA) in which dif-
ferent users are allocated different time slots of
duration T B for accessing the wireless chan- Figure 3: Frequency division for
nel. multiple access

Dr. S.K.Padaganur EC DEPT, BLDEA CET VIJAYAPUR 1

Course: Wireless Communication System Module 2 notes BEC703

Basic CDMA Mechanism:

CDMA, as the name suggests, is a multiple-access technology based on code division.
In other words, different users are multiplexed using different codes.
Consider a two-user scenario, i.e., two users accessing the radio channel simultaneously.
Let a0 denote the symbol of the user 0, while a1 denotes the transmit symbol correspond-
ing to the user 1. Let the code c0 of the user 0 be given as c0 = [1,1,1,1]. The code c0 is
of length N = 4chips.
The transmitted signal x0 of the user 0 is then given by multiplying the code c0 with the
symbol a0 .
x0 = a0 ∗ [1, 1, 1, 1] = [a0, a0, a0, a0]

Similarly, let the code c1 , given as c1 =[1,-1,-1,1], correspond to the code of the user1.
Hence, the sequence of chips corresponding to the user1 transmission is given as

x1 = a1 ∗ [1, −1, −1, 1] = [a1, −a1, −a1, a1]

The signals x0, x1 corresponding to users 0, 1 respectively are now summed to yield the
net signal x as

X = x1 + x2 = [(a0 + a1), (a0a1), (a0a1), (a0 + a1)]

This sum, or composite, signal is then transmitted on the downlink from which each
of the users 0,1 detect their own signal. This is done as follows. User 0 correlates the
received signal x with his code c0 , i.e., basically multiplies each chip of the received signal
X with the corresponding chip of the code c0 = [1,1,1,1]

(a0+a1) (a0-a1) (a0-a1) (a0+a1)

× 1 1 1 1

(a0+a1)+(a0a1)+(a0a1)+(a0+a1) = 4a0

Thus, the result of the above correlation is 4a0, which is proportional to the trans-
mitted symbol a0. Similarly,at the user2, the received signal x is correlated with the chip
sequence c1= [1,1,1,1] of the user1 as

(a0+a1) (a0-a1) (a0-a1) (a0+a1)

× 1 -1 -1 1

(a0+a1)(a0a1)(a0a1)+(a0+a1) = 4a1
Which yield 4a1, which is proportional to the transmitted symbol a1 of the user1.
Thus, unlike in GSM or FDMA, in which the signals of different users are transmitted
in different timeslots or frequency bands, in CDMA, all the signals of the different users
are contained in the single signal x overall time and frequency.
The key operations in CDMA can be summarized as follows.
1. Multiplying or modulation the symbols of the different users with the corresponding
assigned unique code.

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Course: Wireless Communication System Module 2 notes BEC703

2. Combining or adding the code-modulated signals of all the users to form the composite
signal.
3. Finally, correlation of the composite received signal x at each user with the corre-
sponding code of the user to recover the transmitted symbol.

Fundamentals of CDMA Codes:

Computing the correlation r01 of the user codes c0 , c1 yields
3
X
r01 = c0 (k)c1 (k) = (1 ∗ 1) + (1 ∗ −1) + (1 ∗ 1) + (1 ∗ −1) = 0
k=0

Thus, since the correlation between the codes c0, c1 is zero, the codes are, infact, orthog-
onal. Let the symbol rate for the symbols a0 of the user 0 be 1 kbps.
Hence, the time period T per symbol is T=1/1kbps = 1ms
Hence, corresponding bandwidth required for transmission is B = 1/T = 1KHz
However, now consider the transmission of the symbol a0 multiplied with the correspond-
ing codec0, i.e., a0 ×[1,1,1,1] = [a0,a0,a0,a0].Thus,for each symbol a0, one has to transmit
4chips. Thus, to keep the symbol rate constant at 1Kbps, the time of each chip Tc has
to be set as Tc = 1/4T = 0.25 ms. Thus, the bandwidth required for this system is
BCDM A = 1/TC = 1/0.25ms = 4KHz

Thus, modulating with the code c0 of

length N=4, results in an increase of the
required bandwidth by a factor of N, i.e.,
from1kHz to 4kHz.This is shown schematically
in below Figure. Thus, it basically re-
sults in a spreading of the original signal
bandwidth and, hence, is termed a spreading
code. Also, since the resulting signal occu- Figure 4: Spread Spectrum Com-
pies a large bandwidth, CDMA systems are munication
also termed spread spectrum or wideband sys-
tems.
Also, another interesting question the reader might be interested in the following :
How many such orthogonals exist for a given spreading code length N? The answer is
there are N such orthogonal codes. For instance, consider the case N=4.
The different orthogonal spreading codes are
c0 = 1 1 1 1
c1 = 1 -1 -1 1
c2 = 1 -1 1 -1
c3 = 1 1 -1 -1
The reader can verify that the codes c0, c1, c2, c3 are orthogonal to each other. For
example, consider c1, c2. The correlation r12 between codes c1, c2 is
P3
r12 = k=0 c1 (k)c2 (k) = (1 ∗ 1) + (−1 ∗ −1) + (1 ∗ −1) + (1 ∗ −1) = 0

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Course: Wireless Communication System Module 2 notes BEC703

Spreading Codes based on Pseudo-Noise (PN) Sequences:

Consider the code c2 = [ 1,1, 1,1]. Observe that the code looks like a random sequence
of +1,1,or a pseudo-noise (PN) sequence. One method to generate such long spreading
codes based on PN sequences for a significantly large N is through the employment of a
Linear Feedback Shift Register (LFSR).

Consider the shift register architecture shown in

Figure, where the element D represents delays. The
input on the left is denoted by Xi, and the outputs
of the different delays are Xi1, Xi2, Xi3, Xi4. Let
Xi4 also denote the final output of the system. Also
observe that the xor Xi4Xi3 is feedback as Xi which
is the input to the first shift register. Thus, the Figure 5: Linear Feedback Shift
governing equation of the circuit is.. Register

Xi = Xi−3 ⊕ Xi−4

Consider initializing the system in the state Xi−1 = 1, Xi−2 = 1, Xi−3 = 1, Xi−4 = 1.
Thus, we have the corresponding Xi given as
Xi = Xi−3 ⊕ Xi−4 = 1 ⊕ 1 = 0

This Xi becomes Xi−1 atthenextinstantandsimilarly, Xi−2 , Xi−3 are shifted to the

right as Xi3 , Xi4 respectively. Continuing in this fashion, the entire sequence of state
of the above LFSR is summarized. It can be seen that the LFSR goes through the se-
quence of 15 states 1111, 0111, 0011, 0001, 1000, 0100, 0010, 1001, 1100, 0110,
1011, 0101, 1010, 1101, 1110, before re entering the state 1111. However, the LFSR
can be seen to go through all the possible states except one, which is the 0000 or the
all-zero state. 2D1 = 241 = 15 states. Without entering the all-zero state is termed a
maximum-length shift register circuit or maximum length LFSR. The generated PN se-
quence is termed a maximum-length PN sequence. For instance, for the above LFSR, the
maximum-length PN sequence is the sequence of outputs Xi4 given as

PN Sequence = 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0

We can map the bits 1, 0 to the BPSK symbols 1, +1 to get the modulated PN se-
quence,
PN sequence = -1 -1 -1 -1 +1 +1 +1 -1 +1 +1 -1 -1 +1 -1 +1

Properties of PN Sequences:
1. Balance Property.

2. Run-Length Property.

3. Correlation Property.

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Course: Wireless Communication System Module 2 notes BEC703

Balance Property:
Balance Property: Consider the BPSK-modulated PN sequence as
PN sequence = 1 1 1 1 +1 +1 +1 1 +1 +1 1 1 +1 1 +1
As already described, the PN sequence is of maximal length 2D1 =15 corresponding to
D=4. Counting the number of -1 and +1 chips in the sequence, it can be seen that the
number of 1s is one more than the number of +1s.This is termed the balance property of
the PN sequence.

Run-Length Property:
A run is defined as a string of continuous values.There are a total of 8runs in this PN
sequences. For instance, the first run 1,1,1,1 is a run of length 4. Thus, there is one run
of length 4. Similarly, there is one run +1, +1, +1 of length 3,and two runs of length
2 , viz. 1,1, +1,+1. Finally, it can also be seen that there are 4 runs of length 1, viz.,
two runs of +1 and two runs of1. Thus, there are a total of 2D1 = 8 runs. Out of the
8 runs, it can be seen that 1, i.e., 1/8 of the runs are of length 3, 1/4 of the runs are of
length 2 and 1/2 of the runs are of length 1.This is termed the run-length property of
PN sequences and can be generalized as follows.
Consider a maximal length PN sequence of length 2D1 Out of the total number of runs
in the sequence, 1/2 of the runs are of length1, 1/4 of the runs are of length 2, 1/8 of the
runs are of length 3, and soon. This is again in tunewith the noise like properties of PN
sequences.

Correlation Property:
Let us now look at the correlation properties of this sequence. Consider the correlation
r00 (0), i.e., the correlation of the sequences c0 with itself This correlation is given as
N
X −1 N
X −1
r00 (0) = 1/N c0 (n)c0 (n) = 1/N 1 = 1/N N = 1
i=0 i=0

Now, considera circularly shifted version of the PN sequence, shifted by n=2. Let it be
denoted by c0(n2). This circularly shifted sequence by 2 chips can be readily seen to be
given as
PN sequence = -1+1-1 -1 -1 -1 +1 +1 +1 -1 +1 +1 -1 -1 +1
Let us denotePthe correlation between c0(n) and c0(n2) by r00(2), as
N −1
r00 (2) = 1/N i=0 c0 (n)c0 (n − 2) = 1/N ∗ −1 = −1/N

This autocorrelation property of the PN sequences can be summarized as follows.

−1
N
(
X 1, if n0 = 0
r00 (n0 ) = 1/N =
i=0
−1/N, if Otherwise

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Course: Wireless Communication System Module 2 notes BEC703

Correlation Properties of Random CDMA Spreading

Sequences
CDMA spreading sequences can be chosen as PN sequences, which have noise like prop-
erties. In other words, one can choose a chip sequence ck(i), 0iN1 for the user k such that
P(ck(i)=+1) = P(ck(i)=1) =1/2.Thus, we have,
Eck(i)=1/2*(+1) + 1/2*(1) = 0.
The average or expected
PN −1 value of r00 (k) canPbe seen to be given as
1 N −1
E(r00 (k)) = E N i=0 c0 (k) co (i-k) = 1/N i=0 0 = 0

To computeP
the variance of the autocorrelation r00(k), consider r200 (k) given as
1 N −1 PN −1
E(r200 (k))
= N 2 i=0 i=0 Ec0(i)c0(ik)c0(j)c0(jk)
2
= 1/N N = 1/N

Advantages of CDMA
1. Advantage 1: Jammer Margin

2. Advantage2: Graceful Degradation.

3. Advantage3: Universal Frequency Reuse.

4. Advantage 4: Multipath Diversity and Rake Receiver

Advantage 1: Jammer Margin

An important advantage of CDMA over conven-

tional cellular systems is jammer suppression. A
jammer is basically a malicious user in a commu-
nication network who transmits with a very high
power to cause interference, thus leading to dis-
ruption of communication links. This is shown
schematically in Figure. Jammers are of significant
concern, especially in the context of highly secure
communication systems such as those used for mil-
itary and defense purposes. Figure 6: Disruption by jammer in
In wireless systems, intentional or unintentional wireless communication
jamming (strong interfering signals) can degrade
communication quality. CDMA spreads each user’s signal over a wide bandwidth us-
ing a spreading code. Because of this spreading, the effect of a narrowband jammer
(which only occupies a small part of the spectrum) is greatly reduced after despreading
at the receiver.
Thus, it can be seen that the jamming power Pj is suppressed by a factor of N. Moreover,
as the spreading factor N increases, the jammer suppression increases, minimizing the
impact of the jammer on the communication system. This is termed jammer suppression
in CDMA systems. Jammer suppression is also termed the jammer margin.

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Course: Wireless Communication System Module 2 notes BEC703

Advantage:
• Robustness against narrowband interference/jammers.
• Improved reliability and quality of service in hostile or noisy environments.
• Makes CDMA useful for military communication systems where resistance to jam-
ming is critical.

Advantage 2: Graceful Degradation.

Graceful degradation is another key property of CDMA based wireless networks. It al-
lows for much more efficient interference management, which ultimately leads to universal
frequency reuse and higher spectral efficiency.
In many systems (like TDMA/FDMA), when the number of users increases beyond ca-
pacity, new users are blocked — they cannot access the system at all.
In CDMA, instead of outright blocking, the quality of service degrades gradually as more
users share the channel.

Examples:
1. Voice Call Example:
2. In TDMA: Suppose the system supports 10 users. The 11th caller gets blocked.
3. In CDMA: Even if 12 or 15 users attempt to connect, all calls go through, but voice
quality may become slightly noisy.
4. In short CDMA provides graceful degradation — instead of blocking extra users, it
shares resources, allowing connectivity for all with a slight compromise in quality.

Advantage3: Universal Frequency Reuse

Concept of Frequency Reuse:
In cellular systems, available spectrum is divided
among cells.
In FDMA/TDMA systems, frequencies must be
reused carefully in non-adjacent cells to avoid co-
channel interference.
This requires frequency planning and reduces spec-
tral efficiency.
CDMA Advantages: Figure 7: Intercell interference for
In CDMA, all users in all cells use the same fre- the user 0 on the cell edge
quency band simultaneously.
Separation is achieved using unique spreading codes
rather than different frequency channels.
Interference from neighboring cells is treated as additional noise, which is manageable
due to processing gain.
Thus, CDMA allows universal frequency reuse (reuse factor = 1).

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Course: Wireless Communication System Module 2 notes BEC703

Examples:
In GSM (TDMA/FDMA): if a city has 60 channels, they may be divided across cells
(e.g., cluster size = 7, so each cell gets 9 channels).
In CDMA: the same 60 channels are reused in every cell, giving much higher capacity
and simpler planning.

Multipath Diversity and Rake Receiver

Another important advantage of CDMA is its ability to achieve diversity gain via mul-
tipath scatter components. This is termed multipath diversity and is achieved through
coherent combining of the multipath-signal components employing a rake receiver.

CDMA Uses Multipath as an Advantage

1. CDMA spreads the signal with a wide bandwidth (spread spectrum).

2. The chip rate is much higher than the symbol rate, so multipath components sep-
arated by more than one chip duration can be resolved.

3. Instead of treating multipath as a problem, CDMA exploits it as diversity → dif-

ferent copies of the same signal carry redundant information.

4. A RAKE receiver is designed to capture and combine energy from multiple multi-
path components.
Benefits of Multipath Diversity and Rake receiver

1. Converts multipath fading into a form of diversity gain.

2. Provides better signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).

3. Improves reliability of communication, especially in urban and indoor environments

where multipath is strong.

4. Makes CDMA more robust than TDMA/FDMA in multipath-rich channels

Examples:

• The direct path from base station to mobile may be weak (blocked by a building).

• Reflected signals from buildings arrive with small delays.

• A RAKE receiver collects and combines these reflected signals, allowing the user to
still receive clear service.

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Course: Wireless Communication System Module 2 notes BEC703

Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing

Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM) forms the basis for 4G, i.e., Fourth
Generation wireless communication systems. OFDM is used in 4G wireless cellular stan-
dards such as Long-Term Evolution (LTE) and WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for
Microwave Access). OFDM isa key broadband wireless technology which supports data
rates in excess of 100 Mbps.

Features of OFDM:
1. Orthogonality of Subcarriers with high speed data
2. High Spectral Efficiency: Subcarriers are packed close together without guard
bands.
3. Robustness Against Multipath Fading: Converts a frequency-selective fading chan-
nel into multiple flat-fading subchannels.
4. Use of Cyclic Prefix (CP): A guard interval (cyclic prefix) is added to combat ISI
caused by multipath.
5. Simple Implementation Using FFT/IFFT
6. Scalability
7. Resistance to Narrowband Interference
8. Adaptive Modulation Support
9. Flexibility in Multiple Access

Motivation and Multicarrier Basics

Consider a bandwidth B =2W available for communication, where W is the one-sided
bandwidth, or, in other words, the maximum frequency. For a single carrier communica-
tion system, the symbol time T is given as T=1/B. The symbol rate is given as Rate =
1 1/B = B
Such a system is termed a single-carrier communication system. In such a system, a sin-
gle carrier is employed for the entire baseband bandwidth of B.Therefore, roughly speak-
ing,the symbols are transmitted as symbol X(0) from 0t¡T, symbol X(1) from Tt¡2T, and
so on, i.e.,roughly one symbol transmitted every T=1 B seconds.

Consider now dividing the total bandwidth B into

N sub-bands of bandwidth B/N each as shown in
Figure. Each subcarrier can now be represented
by a subcarrier. Therefore, the subcarriers are
placed at...,B/N,0,B/N as shown in the figure. For
instance, consider the bandwidth B=256kHz with
N=64 subcarriers. The bandwidth per sub-band is
equal to 256/64=4kHz, which is also the frequency
spacing between the subcarriers. Figure 8: Multi-carrier concept

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Course: Wireless Communication System Module 2 notes BEC703

Multicarrier Transmission
Consider now the different modulated signals si(t) corresponding to the N different sub-
carriers. These signals are then superposed at the transmitted to form the composite
signal s(t) given as
X X X
s(t) = si (t) = Xi ej2πfi t = Xi ej2πi(B/N )t
i i i

This composite signal s(t) is then transmitted over the wireless channels. Thus, N dif-
ferent data streams are transmitted over N subcarriers in parallel in this multicarrier
system. At the receivers, the individual data streams have then to be isolated from the
composite signal s(t) into y(t).
Thus,the overall symbol rate in single carrier v/s multicarrier systems is unchanged.

(a) Multicarrier modulation transmitter (b) Multi-carrier modulation receiver

The transmitter and receiver block schematics for this MCM system are shown in figure
a and b respectively.

Difference between Single carrier and Mutlticarrier system.

Example: with a transmission bandwidth of B =1.024MHz notice that this bandwidth
B = 1024MHz, As seen in an earlier is much greater than the coherence bandwidth Bc
which is typically around 250kHz, i.e., Bc = 250kHz. Therefore, since the transmission
bandwidth B > Bc, the single-carrier system experiences frequency-selective fading and
inter-symbol interference. However, consider an OFDM system with employs subcarriers
in the same bandwidth. The bandwidth per subcarrier is be readily seen that the sub-
carrier bandwidth of N =256, Bs = 1024/256 = 4kHz. It can 4 kHz is significantly lower
than the coherence bandwidth of 250 kHz. Thus, since B/N<Bc, each subcarrier expe-
riences flat fading. Hence, there is no inter-symbol interference in the data transmitted
on any of the subcarriers. Thus, the most critical and key benefit of this MCM system is
that through parallel transmission using multiple narrowband subcarriers, it eliminates
the Inter-Symbol interference(ISI), thus avoiding distortion of the received symbols.

Cyclic Prefix in OFDM

It explain the concept of cyclic prefix, which is an important component of an OFDM
system. Consider a frequency-selective channel modelled with channel taps as h(0),
h(1),...h(L-1). Thus, the received symbol expressed as
y(n) = h(0)x(n)+h(1)x(n-1)+..+h(L-1)x(n-L+1).
from which it can be seen that the received symbol y(n) at the time instant n experience

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Course: Wireless Communication System Module 2 notes BEC703

inter symbol interference from the previous L-1 transmitted symbols.

Therefore Cyclic Prefix is a copy of the last part of the OFDM symbol that is prefixed
(added at the beginning) of the transmitted symbol.

Purpose of Cyclic Prefix

1. Combat Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)

• Wireless channels introduce multipath propagation (signal copies arrive de-

layed).
• CP acts as a guard interval so that delayed signals from the previous symbol
don’t interfere with the current one.

2. Preserve Orthogonality between Subcarriers

• Without CP, multipath distortion destroys the orthogonality of OFDM sub-

carriers, leading to Inter-Carrier Interference (ICI).
• By using CP, the channel convolution becomes circular, enabling simple equal-
ization in the frequency domain.

3. Simplifies Receiver Design

• With CP, the received signal after the channel looks like a circular convolution,
which can be efficiently handled with the FFT.

(a) OFDM transmitter schematic with CP (b) OFDM receiver schematic with CP

• Long CP
1) Good protection from multipath delay spread
2) Lower spectral efficiency (reduced throughput)

• Short CP
1) Higher data rate efficiency
2) Poor multipath tolerance → risk of ISI

OFDM EXAMPLE:
we consider a practical WiMAX example to illustrate the impact of the various param-
eters in the design of a complete OFDM system. As already stated in the beginning,
WiMAX, which stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access, is a promi-
nent 4G wireless standard. The total number of subcarriers N=256, with a bandwidth of
15.625 kHz per subcarrier. Therefore, B/N = 15.625 =¿ B = 4MHz

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Course: Wireless Communication System Module 2 notes BEC703

Also, observe that the subcarrier bandwidth is less than the coherence bandwidth, that

is Bs = 15.625kHz << Bc = 250kHz. Therefore, each subcarrier experiences frequency

flat fading. The OFDM symbol time without CP is N/B = 256/(4x106 ) = 64µs
There fore,the duration of the cylic prefix is
Duration of cyclic prefix = 12.5% of symbol time = 64µs x 12.5/100 = 8 µs
Thus,the total transmitted OFDM symbol duration with cyclic prefix is 64µs + 8µs =
72µs. Also,the number of samples in the CP is
Samples in CP = CP duration/Sample time = 8µs ∗ 4 ∗ 106 Hz = 32

Thus, the length of the cyclic pre-

fix Lc=32 samples and the total num-
ber of samples is 256+32=288. This
break-up of the OFDM symbol in-
terms of the regular samples and the
cyclic prefix is shown in Figure. Fi-
nally, the loss in spectral efficiency
is
Loss in spectral efficiency = 32/288 =
8µs/288µs = 11.1%
Figure 11: WiMAX OFDM symbol with
cyclic prefix

MIMO-OFDM:
MIMO-OFDM is a combination of the
Multiple-Input Multiple-Output(MIMO) wireless technology with that of OFDM, to fur-
ther increase the rate in broadband multi-antenna wireless systems. Similar to OFDM,
MIMO-OFDM converts a frequency-selective MIMO channel into multiple parallel flat
fading MIMO channels. Hence,MIMO-OFDM significantly simplifies baseband receive
processing by eliminating the need for a complex MIMO equalizer.

(a) MIMO OFDM transmitter (b) MIMO-OFDM receiver

Advantages:
• Very high data rates → basis of LTE
• Efficient in frequency-selective fading channels.
• Supports multiple users

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 Course: Wireless Communication System Module 2 notes BEC703

OFDM–Peak-to-Average Power Ratio(PAPR)

The Peak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR) is a critical problem in OFDM systems,which
needs to be handled effectively in order to limit the distortion at the receiver.

• In Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM), many subcarriers are

transmitted simultaneously.

• Sometimes all subcarriers align in phase → producing a large peak.

• At most other times, subcarriers add randomly → giving average power.

For example, let the symbol stream x(0), x(1), x(2), ...be given as +a,-a,+a, ...and so
on.The power in each symbol equals a2 . Further, also observe that this is the peak power
at any given instant of time. Therefore,we have
Peak Power = Average Power = E(x(k)2 ) = a2
Peak Power
T hen P AP R = = a2 /a2 = 1 = 0dB.
Average Power

Problems due to High PAPR

• Nonlinear distortion in power amplifiers

• Reduced power efficiency

• Lower battery life in mobile devices.

PAPR in OFDM Example

• If there are N subcarriers

• Average power = N.

• Peak power (when all subcarriers align in phase) = N2

• Hence, maximum OFDM PAPR = N2 /N = N

The average power = a2 /N

T hepeakpower = a2
OFDM PAPR = a2 /a2 /N = N
From the above expression, it can be seen that the peak-to-average power ratio in an
OFDM system is N, which is significantly higher compared to that of the single-carrier
system.

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Course: Wireless Communication System Module 2 notes BEC703

Simple Example:
Case A: Single carrier (just one sine wave)
Peak power = average power.
PAPR=1=0 dB =¿ Very efficient.

Case B: OFDM with 4 subcarriers, If subcarriers add in phase (same peak point): Peak
power = 42 = 16 , Average power = 4
PAPR = 16/4 = 4 =¿ PAPR = 6dB Typical PAPR = 4-6 dB in practice.

Case C: OFDM with 64 subcarriers

Theoretical maximum PAPR: 10log10 (64)=18.06dB
Peak signal can be 64 times stronger than the average.

The impact of PAPR on

the OFDM system hard-
ware can be understood
as follows. Every com-
munication system has a
receiver amplifier, which
serves to amplify the am-
plitude of the receive sig-
nal, in order to boost
its strength. However,
the characteristic of the
amplifier is linear only
for a limited amplitude
range of the signal. Typ- Figure 13: Nonlinear amplifier characteristic
ically, the amplifier oper-
ates around a bias point, as shown in Figure, which is roughly around the average power
of the signal. As long as the signal amplitude is restricted to the dynamic range of the
amplifier around this bias point, for which the amplifier characteristic is linear, there is
no noninear distortion at the output.
However, in the case of OFDM, since the peak power deviates significantly from the
average power, there is a high chance that the signal crosses into the voltage region out-
side the dynamic range of the amplifier, thus resulting in a noninear distortion of the
received signal. This nonlinear effect, arising out of amplifier saturation, leads to loss of
orthogonality of the subcarriers and inter-carrier interference.

Dr. S.K.Padaganur EC DEPT, BLDEA CET VIJAYAPUR 14

Course: Wireless Communication System Module 2 notes BEC703

SC-FDMA
SC-FDMA, which stands for Single-Carrier Frequency Division for Multiple Access, can
be employed to reduce the peak-to-average power ratio in an OFDM system.

(a) SC-FDMA transmitter schematic

(b) SC-FDMA receiver schematic

Key Features of SC-FDMA

1. Single Carrier Property

• Although it uses multi-carrier transmission internally, the signal looks like a

single-carrier transmission in the time domain.
• This leads to lower PAPR compared to OFDMA.

2. Low Peak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR)

• Mobile devices have limited battery and power amplifier efficiency.

• SC-FDMA reduces PAPR compared to OFDMA, which makes uplink trans-
mission more efficient.

3. Multiple Access

• Different users are assigned different subcarriers (just like in OFDMA).

• Ensures orthogonality among users.

Dr. S.K.Padaganur EC DEPT, BLDEA CET VIJAYAPUR 15

Course: Wireless Communication System Module 2 notes BEC703

Example: Consider an OFDM system with total passband bandwidth B = 5MHz

with N = 512 subcarriers. The channel has a maximum delay spread of = 4µ s.
Answer the following questions

1. What is the symbol time of a corresponding single-carrier system?

2. What is the sample time of the OFDM system and the raw symbol time without
the cyclic prefix?

3. What is the minimum number of samples required in the cyclic prefix?

4. What is the loss in efficiency due to the overhead of the cyclic prefix?

5. Determine Coherence Bandwidth Bc

solution:

1. Tsym SC = 1/B = 1/(5 ∗ 106 ) = 0.2 µ s

2. TOF DM = N ∗ Ts = 512 ∗ 0.2µs = 102.4µ s

3. Ncp = Td /Ts = 4µs/0.2µ s = 20

4. η = TOF DM /TOF DM + TCP = 102.4/106.4 = 0.96

Overhead = 1 − η = 1 − 0.96 = 0.037 = 3.7

5. Bc = 1/Td = 1/4µ s = 250Khz

Dr. S.K.Padaganur EC DEPT, BLDEA CET VIJAYAPUR 16