POWER AMPLIFIERS

LOW FREQUENCY

Electronics II
Class B

Class B

Although the amplification of a class A amplifier (where the output transistor

drives 100% of the time) can be half, the efficiency of the conversion of the
the power supply from DC to an AC power output is generally poor at
less than 25% and up to 50% with transformer.

However, if the Class A amplifier circuit is modified to operate in the

Class B mode, the advantage is that the conversion efficiency from DC to AC is much
about 78.5%.
Class B

Class B

An amplifier is connected in class B configuration when the biasing

DC leaves the transistor almost off so that the transistor turns on.
when an AC signal is applied to it. That is to say, the transistor will conduct.
current only for one half of the signal cycle.
iC

Im

2 3 4
Now to obtain a full cycle signal it will be necessary to use
two transistors and make each of them conduct during half cycles
opposites, and by having this combined operation, a complete cycle is obtained
exit signal.
Class B

Class B

The device is polarized at the end of the linear response zone, and in
consequence only has the ability to respond to signals with a certain
polarity.

The current flows for approximately half a cycle of the input signal.
driver angle of the transistor of ≈180º.

At these stages, there is no power dissipation when the signal is null, but
requires the use of complementary stages to be able to generate a
bipolar response
Class B

Class B

Because part of the circuit "pushes" the signal up for half

cycle and the other part 'pulls' the signal down during the other half of the cycle, said
The circuit is called a push-pull or out-of-phase circuit.

The power transistors used in the out-of-phase circuit are capable of

provide the desired power to the load, and the operation in class B of these
transistors provide greater efficiency than what is possible with a single
transistor in class A operation.
Class B

Class B

It is composed of two transistors, one npn and the other

pnp, connected in such a way that they cannot drive
at the same time.
When the input voltage is zero, both
transistors are inactive, as it exceeds
the VBE start driving and operate as a follower
emitter.

= − y will be in court.

And it will lead until the transistor it's saturated, now

when the signal is negative by more than 0.5V (0.7V)
start driving and also operate as a follower
emitter

= + y will be in court
Class B

Class B

The collector current is zero when the input signal is zero, therefore the
The transistor does not dissipate power at rest.

Qn enON
Yes: I see > 0

Qp off

Question off
Yes: Vi < 0

Qp enON
Class B

Class B

Transistors are biased with zero current and conduct only when the
input signal is present.

The deadband, approximately between -0.5V and 0.5V (VBE) introduce a

output distortion, called crossover distortion, which
The effect can be clearly observed in the figure.
Class B

Class B

The problem with the configuration is that the output wave has distortion because the
Transistors do not start conducting immediately, as the signal at the base must exceed
the VBE threshold
Class B

Class B

Input Power (dc)

The power supplied to the load by an amplifier is taken from the source of
power supply (or sources of power supply) that provides the input power
of dc.

Where Idcit is the average DC current that is consumed from the sources of
food. The average consumption value of extracted current can
to express oneself as:

Resulting in:
Class B

Class B

Output Power (ac)

The power delivered to the load (referred to as resistance RLit can be calculated
with any of several equations:
Class B

Class B

Efficiency

The efficiency of a class B amplifier can be calculated using the equation

basic:

Using

The equation shows that the higher the peak voltage, the greater the efficiency of
circuit, up to a value VL (p) = VCC, being there the maximum efficiency
Class B

Class B
Example

For a class B amplifier that provides a peak signal of 20 V to a load of

16Ω (speaker) and a power supply of VCC = 30 V, determine the power of
input, output power, and circuit efficiency.

A peak signal of 20 V across a 16Ω load produces a peak load current of:

The value of cd of the current extracted from the current source is then:

and the input power supplied by the supply voltage is:

Class B

Class B
Example

For a class B amplifier that provides a peak signal of 20 V to a load of

16Ω (speaker) and a power supply of VCC = 30 V, determine the power of
input, the output power and the efficiency of the circuit.

The output power delivered to the load is:

for a resulting efficiency of:

Class B

Class B

Power dissipated by the output transistors

This power dissipated (as heat) is the difference between the input power
provided by the power supplies and the output power delivered to
the load.

P2Q= Pi(dc)–Po(ac)

Where, P2Qit is the power dissipated by the two output power transistors.
The power dissipated handled by each transistor is then half of P.2Q.

PQ= P2Q/ 2
Class B

Class B

Maximum Power Considerations

For class B operation, the maximum output power is delivered to the load.
when VL(p) = VCC.

The corresponding peak current is:

Therefore, the maximum value of the average current of the power supply
es:

Using this current to calculate the maximum Input Power, results in

resultado:
Class B

Class B

Maximum Power Considerations

For class B operation, the maximum power dissipated by the transistors of

output does not occur at the maximum power input or output condition. The
maximum power dissipated by the two output transistors occurs when the
The output voltage across the load is:

for a maximum transistor power dissipation of:

The maximum efficiency of a class B amplifier can also be expressed as

continue
Class B

Class B
Example

For a class B amplifier that uses a VCC = 30 V power supply and excites the
Load of 16Ω, determine the maximum input power and the dissipation of the
transistor

The maximum output power is:

The maximum input power extracted

from the voltage source is:

The efficiency of the circuit is therefore:

As expected. The maximum power dissipated by each transistor is:

Under maximum conditions, a pair of transistors, each handling 5.7W, can at least
deliver a load of 28.125 W at 16Ω while extracting 35.81 W from the source.
Class B

Class B
Example

Calculate the efficiency of a class B amplifier for a supply voltage of

VCC= 24 V with peak output voltages of:
•VL(p) = 22
•VL(p) = 6

a)

b)

A voltage close to the maximum [22 V in part (a)] results in an efficiency close to the
maximum, whereas a small voltage excursion [6 V in part (b)] continues
providing an efficiency of around 20%. Signal and power excursions
Similar power would produce a much poorer efficiency in a class A amplifier.
Class B

Class B

There are several possible circuit configurations to achieve Class B operation.

The advantages and disadvantages of several of the most used circuits must be considered.

The input signals to the amplifier could be a single signal, and then the
circuit would provide two different output stages, each operating during the
mid-cycle.

If the input is in the form of two signals of opposite polarity, we could use
two similar stages, with each operating in the alternate cycle due to the signal of
entry.

One way to invert polarity or phase is to use a transformer and for a long time
tiempo se ha preferido el amplificador acoplado por transformador.Se pueden obtener
easily opposite polarity inputs through an operational amplifier with two
opposite outputs, or using some stages of the operational amplifier to obtain
two signals of opposite polarity.

It is also possible to achieve an operation of opposite polarity with a single input and
complementary transistors (npn and pnp, or nMOS and pMOS).
Class B

Class B

transformer coupled amplifier

amplifier with a transistor

amplifier with AmpOpe.

Class B

Class B

The circuit in the figure uses a transformer with a center tap to produce signals.
opposite polarity to the inputs of two transistors and an output transformer for
excite the load in a push-pull operating mode.
Class B

Class B

During the first semicircle of During the second half-cycle of the signal
operation, the transistor is made to input, Q2 leads, while Q1
Q1 drive, as long as the remains off, and the current I2 through
transistor Q2 turns off. The current the transformer produces the second semicycle
I1 through the transformer gives from the load. Then all the signal developed
as a result the first semicircle of through the load varies during the cycle
the signal delivered to the load. complete signal operation.
Class B

Class B

When using complementary transistors (npn and pnp)

we can obtain a complete cycle output at
through a load with the semicircles of
operation of each transistor, as shown in
Figure A.

As long as a single input signal is applied to the

base of both transistors of opposite type,
they will drive during the opposite semicircles of the
entry.

The npn transistor will be biased to conduct.

through the positive semicycle of the signal, with a
semicircle of the signal through the load as it
shown in figure B. During the half-cycle
negative of the signal, the pnp transistor is biased
so that I can drive when the entrance is made
negative, as shown in figure C.
Class B

Class B

A disadvantage of the circuit is that it needs two.

different voltage sources.

Another less obvious with the circuit

complementary is shown in the distortion of
cross at the exit signal (see the figure).

The term cross distortion refers to that

during the crossing of the signal from positive to
negative (or vice versa) there is no linearity in the
exit sign.
Both transistors can be partially
This is derived from the fact that the circuit does not provide
turned off, so that the output voltage does not
an exact switching of a transistor follow the entry regarding the condition of
off and the other on in the condition of zero voltage.
zero voltage.
The biasing of transistors in Class B
improve this operation by polarizing both
transistors for what remain
lit for more than half a cycle.
Class B

Class B

A more practical version of a circuit

push-pull that uses transistors
complementary is shown in the
figure.

The circuit uses transistors of

Darlington complementary connection
to provide a high current of
output and a low output resistance.

Note that the load is excited as the

output from a follower emitter, in such a way
that the resistance of the load is equal to
the low output resistance of the source
of control.
Class B

Class B

Amplifier push-pull almost

complementary

In power amplifier circuits

in practice, it is preferable to use transistors
npn for both high devices
output current.

As the push-pull connection requires

complementary devices, it must
use a high-power pnp transistor.

A practical way to obtain operation

complementary when using the same ones
npn transistors paired at the output, the
provides a circuit almost
complementary, as shown in the
figure.
Class B

Class B

Amplifier push-pull almost

complementary

The push-pull operation is achieved by

complementary transistor medium
(Q1 and Q2) before the transistors
concordant npn output (Q3 and Q4).

Note that the transistors Q1 and Q3

they form a Darlington connection that
output through a transmitter
low impedance follower. The
The resistor R2 can be adjusted to reduce to
connection of the transistors Q2 and Q4 minimum crossover distortion under the condition of
form a feedback pair, whose CD polarization.
similarity provides a control of
low impedance to the load. The single input signal applied to the push stage
pull produce then a complete cycle output
for the load. The push-pull amplifier almost
complementary is the most common way to
power amplifier.
Class B

Class B
Example

For the ideal circuit in the figure, calculate the input power, the power of
output and the power handled by each output transistor, as well as the efficiency
of the circuit with an input of 12 V rms.

The peak input voltage is:

As the voltage that results across the load is ideally the

same as the input signal (the amplifier has, of the same
mode, a unit voltage gain,

To Calculate Powers:
Class B

Class B
Example

For the ideal circuit in the figure, calculate the input power, the power of
output and the power handled by each output transistor, as well as the efficiency
of the circuit with an input of 12 V rms.
Class B

Class B
Example

For the ideal circuit in the figure, calculate the input power, the power of
output and the power handled by each output transistor, as well as the efficiency
from the circuit with an input of 12 V rms.
Class B

Class B

The amplifier connection out of phase with the load can be:

Using two voltage supplies

Using a voltage supply
Class B

Class B

Operation with a single source

If you want to operate the output stage

class B with a single source of
feeding must be adapted
capacitive loading as it
show the figure and for what the
calculations remain valid
we feed with a source equal to
2V
Class B

Class B

Amplifier Stage of symmetry

complementary semicomplementary of
of class B that class B, which uses
uses transistors npn transistors for
in settings both devices
Darlington outputs
Class B

Class B

DISTORTION OF AN AMPLIFIER

A pure sine wave has a single frequency at which the voltage varies from
positive to negative in equal amounts.

Any signal that varies for less than the complete cycle of 360° is
considers that it has distortion.

An ideal amplifier is capable of amplifying a pure sinusoidal signal for

transform it into a larger version, and the resulting waveform is a
pure sinusoidal signal of a single frequency.
Class B

Class B

DISTORTION OF AN AMPLIFIER

When the distortion occurs, the output will not be an exact duplicate (except for
what refers to the magnitude) of the input signal.

Distortion can occur because the characteristic is non-linear, in which case

if non-linear or amplitude distortion occurs. This can happen with
all the operation classes of an amplifier.

Distortion can also occur because of the elements and devices

the circuit responds to the input signal differently in various
frequencies, and this is what is known as frequency distortion.
Class B

Class B

DISTORTION OF AN AMPLIFIER

A technique to describe distorted waveforms except for the periodic ones.

it uses Fourier analysis, a method that describes any waveform
periodic as a function of its fundamental frequency component and
frequency components in integer multiples; these components are called
harmonic components, or simply harmonics.
Class B

Class B

DISTORTION OF AN AMPLIFIER

For example, a signal that is originally 1000 Hz could be transformed later

from the distortion, at a frequency component of 1000 Hz (1 kHz) and components
harmonics of 2 kHz (2 x 1 kHz), 3 kHz (3 x 1 kHz), 4 kHz (4 x 1 kHz), etc.

The original frequency of 1 kHz is called the fundamental frequency; those of integer multiples
they are the harmonics. The component that is at 2 kHz is called, therefore, second
harmonic, the one at 3 kHz is the third harmonic, etc. The fundamental frequency does not
consider it as a harmonic.

Fourier analysis does not allow fractional harmonic frequencies, only multiples.
fundamental integers.
Class B

Class B

HARMONIC DISTORTION

It is considered that a signal suffers from harmonic distortion when there are components
frequency harmonics (not just the fundamental component). If the amplitude
the fundamental frequency is A1 and the amplitude of the n-th component of the
frequency is An, a harmonic distortion can be defined as:
Class B

Class B

HARMONIC DISTORTION

A common specification in high fidelity amplifiers is total harmonic distortion.

high-quality amplifiers, this distortion can be less than 1%, or even less than 0.5% since
20-20,000 Hz.
Class AB

Class AB Amplifier
Class AB

Class AB

Crossover distortion can be eliminated if the transistors are biased.

complementary output with a small current different from zero, the current
flows more or less the same period as the input signal, the approximate angle
The conduction of the transistor is between 180º and 360º.
Class AB

Class AB

The zero-cross distortion can be eliminated by biasing the transistors of

complementary output with a small current different from zero, the current
it flows more or less the same period as the input signal, the approximate angle
The conduction of the transistor is between 180º and 360º.

Class A: The amplifier conducts through the entire cycle of the output signal, that is
360 degrees.
Class B: Each of the amplifiers conducts only half of the cycle, that is, 180 degrees.
degrees of the output signal.
Clase AB: Los amplificadores conducen entre 108 y 360 grados en la salida
Class AB

Class AB

An amplifier can be made.

Class AB from a stage
standard push-pull Class B to
press both transistors of
switching in a conduction
light, even when there is no signal
Present at the entrance.

This small arrangement of

polarization ensures that both
transistors they drive
simultaneously during a
a very small part of the way of
The use of a fixed bias voltage allows for
influx of more than 50%
each transistor conducts for more than half
of the input cycle, but less
of the input cycle
of 100%.
Class AB

Class AB

An amplifier of this class works very

similar to class B, with the difference that for vi
small, both transistors conduct, it is
to say that in class AB there is always dissipation
of the transistors.

When the input voltage is zero, the voltage of

output is also the current
= = = 2

The value of it must be chosen to produce

a current at rest

Is y VT are generally data

Class AB

Class AB
When it becomes positive at a certain amount of voltage on the base of increases
in the same amount and the output becomes positive at a nearly equal value.
= + 2
−

Al aumentar increase the current and how the node equation guarantees
= +

This must be increased, it will be accompanied by

an increase of above the resting value
2
however, as the voltages of the two bases
remains constant at the voltage it will decrease and by
so much also , the relationship between these currents is
they obtain in the following way:

= +
2 = +
2
=
Class AB

Class AB

When the output voltage is close to zero

volts both transistors are conducting,
when the output becomes increasingly positive
the transistor will deliver more current
while decreases and in the opposite way
for positive voltages.

This circuit operates similarly to the class B, only that

eliminate zero crossing distortion and
maintains a power consumption without signal that
it is due to the resting current and is equal to
but generally this current is very
small compared to the peak current and
the calculations of class B are applied equally
way for this circuit.
Class AB

Class AB - Polarization

By means of Resistance of
polarization

When a current passes through

through a resistance, one
develop a voltage drop
through resistance.

So, when placing two or more

series resistors through
a supply voltage,
we can create a network of
voltage dividers that
produce a set of The four resistances R1 to R4 are connected to
fixed voltages to the values that through the power supply voltage Vcc for
that they choose.
provide the required resistive polarization.
Class AB

Class AB - Polarization

The two resistors, R1 and R4, are

they choose to adjust point Q
slightly above the
cut with the correct value of
VBE adjusted a
approximately 0.6V.

the voltage drops through the

resistive red that carries the base
from TR1 to approximately 0.6
V, and that of TR2 to around -
0.6V.

Thus, the total voltage drop to As a problem, a collector current of

through the resistances R2 and transistors are very sensitive to changes in their
R3 is approximately 1.2 volts. base bias voltage and the cutoff point of
the two complementary transistors may not be the
same
Class AB

Class AB - Polarization

One way to overcome the above is to use an adjustable resistor to set the
point Q is correct as shown in the figure.

Transistors TR1 and TR1 are biased through RB1-VR1-RB2, so that

their outputs are balanced and the zero quiescent current flows towards the load.

The input signal applied through the capacitors C1 and C2 overlaps.

to the bias voltages and is applied to the bases of both transistors.
Class AB

Class AB - Polarization

Through diodes

This is generated by passing a current.

through a couple of diodes or transistors
connected like diodes.

In high power amplifiers the

output transistors y they are from
large dimensions, while the diodes
1y 2they don't have to be big,
generating a current = ,
where n is the quotient of the area of the
output transistors.
Class AB

Class AB - Polarization

Through diodes

This is generated by passing a current.

through a pair of diodes or transistors
connected like diodes.

In high-power amplifiers the

output transistors y they are from
large dimensions, while the diodes
1y 2they don't have to be big,
thus generating a current = ,
where n is the quotient of the area of the
output transistors.
Class AB

Class AB - Polarization

Through diodes

The current in the base of is and it

increase to approximately , this IB
current must be supplied by , like this
what it must be bigger in order to
maintain the voltage among the bases of the
output transistors, although it is worth noting that
It varies a little as the current
increase.

This will remain almost constant at a value

close to 0.7V
Class AB

Class AB - Polarization

Through diodes

At this stage of release, the power goes out without

signal, the transistors can heat up this
generates an increase in the current in the
collector that in turn generates more dissipation
thermal is how a phenomenon can occur
known as thermal wrapping, for
give stability to the system the diodes
connect close to the dissipators in order
to provide a compensatory effect since
by increasing its temperature the decreases
y por lo tanto baja generating stability.
Class AB

Class AB: Exercise

Consider a Class AB output stage under the following conditions = 15 , =1 Ω, and the output
sine wave with a maximum amplitude of 10V, let be y equal with = 1 −13 y = 5 let's assume that
The polarization diodes have one third of the junction area of the output devices. Find the
value of that guarantees a minimum of 1mA through the diodes at all times. Determine the
quiescent current and the quiescent current dissipation in the output transistors (i.e., with =
), así mismo, encuentre with = +10V and -10V

The maximum current through it is approximately

10
= 100
=1

in this way the maximum current in the base of it will be approximately

100 meters
= 50
=2

To always maintain a minimum of 1mA, the diodes must be polarized with 3mA.

An emitter area ratio of 3 generates a quiescent current.

3 * 3 = 9through y
Class AB

Class AB
The power dissipation at rest is
= 2V = 215V 9 = 27 W

For a = the current = 951 = .18dA

What makes current flow through the diodes3J - .18 = 2.82A

−1 1
As diodes have a = = 1
2.82 2.82
=2 = 2 25 1 = 1.26V
3
10 -13

With =+10V the current that flows is reduced to 1mA and results in a
1m 1m
=2 = 2 25 1 = 1.21V
3
10 -13

With =-10V it will conduct a very small current, therefore its base current
it will be insignificant and all The provided text does not contain any translatable content.circular around the diodes

=2 = 2 25 1 = 1.26V
3
10 -13
Class AB

Class AB - Polarization

Polarization with the multiplier

If a transistor is supposed to have a very high β

great, one can disregard the current of
base therefore it can be said that the
current that flows through 1y 2it is the same
is equal to:

=
= 1+ 2= 1+ 2

Therefore the circuit multiplies BE1for a

2
factor1+
Class AB

Class AB - Polarization

Polarization with the multiplier

Another circuit that allows this polarization

where a manual adjustment is possible
shown in the figure.

The value of BE1is determined by the

that flows a part through the collector of 1y
another for the resistive arrangement.

C1= −

BE1=
Class AB

Class AB
It is required to redesign the output stage of the previous example using a multiplier.
for the polarization. Use a small signal transistor with dimensions so that 1with =
−14 and I designed for a current in rest =2 .

=10010=

100m
= 50
= 2

To always maintain a minimum of , it must be provided to the

multiplier with a bias current of3A.

At rest = e = and the current flows through the

multiplier, now it must be decided how this current of3Amust
divide by C1e , if one is chosen greater than , the transistor is
will deactivate at the positive peak of therefore it will be chosen

= . and they remain2. Afor C1

Class AB

Class AB
It is required to redesign the output stage of the previous example using a multiplier.
for polarization. Use a small signal transistor with dimensions so that 1with =
−14 and I designed for a current at rest = 2A.

To obtain a resting current of2ΛAin the output transistors,

it must be
(:10 -3 10-3
=2 =22
10 − 3
V n 10 − 3
= . 9V
The following is determined 1y
1.19
1+ = = 0.5 x
= 2.38KΩ
-3
10
To a current of2.ⴜⴍ Q1has
5x10 -3 5.0 x 10-3
BE1= 10 − 4
= 2 10 − 4
= .66V
0.00
1= = 0.5m²
= .32KΩ
= 2.38KΩ - R1= 2.38KΩ - 1.32KΩ= . 6 Ω
Class AB

Class AB - Variation of the configuration

Variation of class AB configuration with compound devices
The figure shows the use of compound devices, Darlington pairs. In
in this case there is an additional voltage drop VBE that must be compensated for
the VBE multiplier
Class AB

Class AB - Variation of the configuration

Short circuit protection

The figure shows the protection of

short circuit, the resistance RE1is
chosen in such a way that if the
current of Q1it's too much
high, the voltage drop VRE1
it will be enough to put Q5in
driving. In this situation a
a large part of the base current
Q1 will be diverted to the collector of Q5,
forcing Q1 to return to a
lowest current.
Class AB

Class AB - Variation of the configuration

Thermal protection

The figure shows the thermal protection for a

certain transistor is used to prevent the
reference temperature is exceeded.

When the temperature rises, the combination of

positive temperature coefficient of the zener diode and
the negative temperature coefficient of VBE1it elevates
the voltage at the emitter of Q1and the base of Q2.

If the circuit is configured correctly, in this

situation Q2. begins operation by absorbing the
polarization current through its collector
turning off the amplifier.
Bibliography

[1] Cuttler,P.(1972). Linear Electronics Circuits, McGraw-Hill.

[2] Savant, Roden, Carpenter (1993). Electronic Design. Addison-Wesley.

[3] Rashid, M. (2000). Circuitos Microelectrónicos, Análisis y Diseño. Thomson.

Cirovic, M, Harter, J. (1987) Electronics Devices, Circuits and Systems

Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall

[5] Dede, E, Espi, J (1983) Design of Electronic Circuits and Systems, Marcombo