Textile Testing

The Authors
——————
D. Gopalakrishnan is M.Tech (Textile Chemistry), M.Sc (Costume
Design & Fashion) and MBA (Technology Management) qualified Textile
Technologist. He currently pursues his PhD in Department of Fashion
Technology, PSG College Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu under Anna
University, Chennai, INDIA. He has presented many papers & posters
in 26 national & 12 International conferences in all over India and also
has 48 technical articles published in national, international journals &
Textile magazines to his credit. He has delivered special lectures in various
programmes conducted by other colleges/universities. He has published five books and six book
chapters. He filed one patent to his credit.
Prof. P. Vinayagamurthi is the head of Department of Costume
Design and Fashion at Sri Jayendra Saraswathy Maha Vidhyalaya College
of arts and science, Coimbatore. He has spent over 24 years in industrial
and his experience includes garment pattern development and Industrial
engineering. He also has 12 years of experience in Academic. He currently
pursues his PhD in Textile Technology at Bharathiar University, Coimbatore.
He has published 5 articles in National and 2 in International Journals to
his credit and has presented 5 papers in National and 2 in International
Conferences. He has delivered special lectures and conducted various
Faculty development programmes. He has organized and conducted international conference
and many workshops. He contributed 4 books and 3 book chapters to his credit.
Dr. P. Kandhavadivu is the Professor and Head of the Department
of Fashion Technology, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil
Nadu, INDIA. She has published around 35 technical research papers in
International and 12 research papers in National journals and presented 24
technical papers in National and International level Technical Conferences.
She filed one patent to her credit. She has published 3 books 5 book
chapters. She has completed one project sponsored by TIFAC-CORE –DST
and a UGC major research project. She is currently guiding three PhD scholars and also Member in
Board of Studies of various institutions. Her area of specialization includes Pattern Engineering,
Draping Techniques, Leather Garment Manufacturing, Clothing Comfort and Hospital textiles.
Textile Testing

by
D. Gopalakrishnan
P. Vinayagamurthi
P. Kandhavadivu

2020
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Astral International Pvt. Ltd.

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© 2020 AUTHOR
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 Foreword

Textile testing is checking the quality and suitability of raw material and
selection of material. It is an important part for textile production, distribution,
and consumption. Though it is an expensive business but essential too. In every
department of textile industry quality maintained of each material. Because one
material’s quality depend on another’s quality. For example, if qualified fiber is
inputted then output will be good yarn. The term quality refers the excellence of a
product. When we say the quality of a product is good. We mean that the product
is good for the purpose for which it has been made. Quality refers to ways of
ensuring the quality of a service or product. Actually quality control is a system
for verifying and maintaining a desired level of quality in an existing product or
service by careful planning, use of proper equipment, continued inspection, and
corrective action as required.
I think that the authors can be confident that there will be many grateful readers
who will have gained a broader perspective of the disciplines of textile and textile
products as a result of their efforts. I assured that this book provides a valuable
window on testing of textile materials and covers the necessary components from
material and methods of textile testing curriculum.
This book is a good step in that direction. For you, I hope reading it will be
as well.
R. Seenivasagam
General Manager
New Minerva Mill (NTC) Hassan
Hassan - Periyapatna Rd,
Singapatna, Karnataka – 573 128
 Preface

When the people put on clothing, they want it to feel good against their skin.
Textile companies and consumer agencies conduct many kinds of analyses to make
sure our clothes and the fabrics we use in our homes won't harm, be comfortable
and will stay colorful for a long time. Textile testing is the term for a whole series
of tests that examine the physical, mechanical and chemical properties of textiles.
This book can be read on two different levels. First, it may be read by ordinary
people with a limited, if any, textile/fashion sector background. Throughout, the
book has been written with this audience in mind. The second group of readers will
be represented by professionals from the textile industry, academia, and research
agencies, as well as entrepreneurial groups. We do hope that the information and
knowledge presented will become a good understanding and realization of the
textile testing.
The book comprises five chapters. Chapter 1 is a general introduction to the
textile testing and sampling techniques used in the textile industry. Also covers
moisture measurements in raw materials. Chapter 2 presents the measurement
of fibre parameters and explains, step by step tests are possible for textile fibres/
raw materials. Chapter 3 introduces the concept of a yarn testing provides an
explanation of yarn numbering, count, twist, evenness, hairiness and crimp of
the yarn. Chapter 4 introduces a fabric testing that focused on GSM, thickness,
strength, abrasion resistance, pilling, drape, crease resistance/recovery, air/
water permeability and shrinkage of the fabrics. Chapter 5 compiles the known
 viii

procedures for preparation, test procedure and comments on evaluating the colour
fastness of textile materials.
We hope this book is widely read.
D. Gopalakrishnan
Prof. P. Vinayagamurthi
Dr. P. Kandhavadivu
 Contents

Foreword v
Preface vii
1. Introduction to Testing 1
Research and Development – Quality Control – Comparative Testing –
Analyzing Product Failure – Selection of Raw Materials – Testing – Textile
Testing – Objectives of Textile Testing – Standard Atmosphere for Testing
– Laboratory Conditioning – Sample Conditioning – Factors affecting Test
result – Quality – Quality Control – Population – Sampling – Different Types
of Textile Testing – Textile Sampling – Numerical Sample – Yarn Sampling
Techniques – Fabric Sampling Techniques – Measurement of Moisture
Regain and Moisture Content – Factors Affecting the Regain of Textile Fiber
– Measurement of Moisture Regain by Oven Dry Weight – Measurement of
Moisture Regain by Shirley Moisture Meter.
2. Fibre Testing 25
2.1. Fibre Length – Sample Preparation – 2.2. Measurement of Fibre Fineness
– 2.3. Determination of Maturity – 2.4. Fibre Strength – 2.5. Determination
of Trash and Lint Content.
3. Yarn Testing 61
3.1 Yarn Numbering System – 3.2. Measurement of Count – 3.3. Tensile
Strength – 3.4. Twist Measurement in Yarn – 3.5 Yarn Evenness and it’s
Classification – 3.6. Yarn Hairiness – 3.7. Crimp Tester.
 x

4. Fabric Testing 105

4.1. Main Steps for Fabric Testing – 4.2. GSM Cutters – 4.3. Fabric Thickness –
4.4. Tensile Strength Tester – 4.5. Fabric Tearing Strength Test – 4.6. Bursting
Strength Tester – 4.7. Abrasion and Abrasion Resistance Tester – 4.8. ICI
Box Pilling Tester – 4.9. Drape Meter – 4.10. Stiffness Tester – 4.11. Crease
Resistance and Recovery Test – 4.12. Air Permeability Test by Shirley Air
Permeability Apparatus – 4.13. Water Repellency Tester – 4.14. Shrinkage
Template and Scale.
5. Colour Fastness in Textiles 143
5.1. Color Fastness – 5.2. Color Fastness to Rubbing – 5.3. Color Fastness to
Washing – 5.4. Color Fastness to Perspiration – 5.5. Color Fastness to Light
– 5.6. Color Fastness to Sublimation.
References 159
Index 161
 Textile Testing is the application of Engineering knowledge and science to
the measurement of properties and characteristics of and conditioning affecting
textile fibres, yarn and fabrics. It involves the use of techniques, tools, instruments
and machines in the laboratory for evaluation of the properties of different forms
of textiles. Quality control is concerned with the evaluation of test data and its
application to the control of textile process, raw materials, intermediate products
and final products. It concerned not only with quality level but also cost of
maintaining this level. Testing provides background and data and quality control
applies the results.
Textile Testing has attained important position in the textile industry. It is just
as applicable to the analysis of finished fabrics as it is to the raw materials. The
laboratory equipped for textile testing is providing ground for the determination,
measure and comparison such standards. It is also necessary to know the other
conditions or forces influence the result. To understand interrelationship of many
properties of textile materials knowledge of individual test methods and procedures
is essential. Standards are established by an individual organization. Textile testing
helps to establish scientific specification. Textile testing is also playing role in
analyzing the market requirements or consumer demand.
This book gives an insight of various testing methods and procedures, and the
way same is adopted in textile industry, laboratories and academic institutions.
 Chapter 1

Introduction to Testing

Textile testing is a key in gauging product quality, ensuring regulatory

compliance and assessing the performance of textile materials. Textiles can include
testing the strength of woven cloth, slippage in woven fabrics, seam strength and
tests on yarns and attachments such as buttons and poppers. Some of the most
common test types within textile testing are tear resistance, compressive strength,
tensile strength and puncture resistance, all of which are among the many types of
tests that can be performed on high-precision test machines. The main objective of
testing and analysis are research and development, quality control, comparative
testing, analyzing product failure and selection of raw materials.

Research and Development

Textile products are evaluated during the development process. This helps
textiles scientists determine how to precede at each stage of product development.
This category also includes testing in order to study theories of fabric or fabric or
fiber behavior.

Quality Control
Textile products are tested at various stages of production to assure quality
processing and products. Manufacturers may use quality-control testing as a
marketing tool, in that trade names imply to the consumer that certain levels of
quality are assumed to be standard for products produced by the manufacturer.

Comparative Testing
Comparative testing compares two or more products being considered by a
company or government agency. In selecting between competitive products, a fabric
manufacturer also may test fibers or yarns from different suppliers.
 2 Textile Testing

Analyzing Product Failure

Testing is done in this case to pinpoint defects in processing or design.
Results from this type of test can be used to improve products, and are also used
to determine liability in litigation.

Selection of Raw Materials

One attribute common to most textile raw materials is their variation in quality.
Fibers vary in length, color, and fineness; yarns vary in count, strength, and twist;
fabrics vary in threads per inch, freedom from faults, and shrinkage. Unsuitable
material can be rejected or perhaps put to another use. The standards by which
raw materials are accepted or rejected must be realistic, otherwise much will be
rejected which in fact is good enough, or else a large amounts of inferior material
will find its way into the flow of production and cause trouble.

Testing
Testing means checking, examine and verification of some items. On the other
way we can define testing as; it is the process or procedure to determine the
quality of a product. Before putting something into widespread use, production
or practice, the quality, performance, reliability etc. are checked. It finds out how
well something works. Testing can be defined as the process of determining the
properties of different kinds of substances. There are mainly two types of testing,
one is routine process testing and another is quality record testing. The result of
routine process testing can be got quickly in the working field. The result of quality
record testing is to be recorded for different objects to finish the work.

Textile Testing
Textile Testing is an important part for textile production, distribution,
and consumption. Also, define Textile Testing as the process of determining the
properties of different kinds of Textile substances.

Objectives of Textile Testing

P In case of research, the results of testing will help the scientist to decide
which route should be followed.
P It helps to select the proper raw materials. Raw material is a relative
term. As for example, fibre is the raw material of spinner, yarn is the raw
material of weaver etc.
P Textile Testing helps to control the different processes. Such as Spinning,
Weaving, Dyeing, Finishing etc. End breakage is controlled by controlling
weight per lap length, sliver length and roving length. Weaving process is
controlled by controlling the excessive breakage of warp and weft yarn.
Dyeing process is controlled by M : L, temperature and pressure.
Introduction to Testing 3

P In case of product control, it helps to ensure the fulfillment of the desired

quality of the end product. Such as the end product of spinning is yarn.
P In case of process development, it helps to improve the quality of end
product by avoiding unnecessary waste of time and money.
P In case of product development, it helps in continual search for new
knowledge and to develop new products.

Standard Atmosphere for Testing

The atmosphere in which physical tests on textile materials are performed. It
has a relative humidity of 65 ± 2 per cent and a temperature of 20 ± 2° C. In tropical
and sub-tropical countries, an alternative standard atmosphere for testing with a
relative humidity of 65 ± 2 per cent and a temperature of 27 ± 2° C may be used.

Laboratory Conditioning
Atmospheric conditions influence the measurement of cotton fibre properties.
Therefore, the temperature and relative humidity of classing laboratories must
be tightly controlled. Temperature should be maintained at 21 degrees Celsius
(70 degrees Fahrenheit), plus or minus 1 degree Celsius (plus or minus 2 degrees
Fahrenheit), and relative humidity should be maintained at 65 per cent, plus or
minus 2 per cent. For ASTM International Lab Conditioning Standards for Cotton
Classification, see the Standard Practice for Conditioning and Testing Textiles,
ASTM D1776-04.

Sample Conditioning
Prior to instrument testing, cotton samples should be conditioned to bring
the moisture content to equilibrium with the approved atmospheric conditions.
Properly conditioned samples will have moisture content of 6.75 per cent –8.25 per
cent (dry weight basis). There are two methods for conditioning samples: passive
conditioning and active conditioning. In passive conditioning, cotton samples are
placed in single layers in trays with perforated bottoms to allow free circulation of
air. The samples must be exposed to standard atmosphere conditions for 48 hours in
order to assure thorough conditioning. In active conditioning, a rapid conditioning
device is used in which air at standard atmospheric conditions is drawn through
the sample until the required moisture content for instrument testing is attained.
Depending on the type of rapid conditioning device used, the time required to
condition samples properly can be reduced to as little as 10 minutes. The moisture
content of conditioned samples should be monitored by checking sample moisture
prior to instrument testing to verify that the appropriate moisture content has
been reached.
 4 Textile Testing

Factors affecting Test result

P Atmospheric conditions
P Test methods
P Testing instruments
P Technician’s efficiency etc.

Quality
The term quality refers the excellence of a product. When we say the quality
of a product is good. We mean that the product is good for the purpose for which
it has been made.

Quality Control
Quality control is the synthetic and regular control of the variable which affects
the quality of a product. It is the checking, verification and regulation of the degree
of excellence of an attribute or property of something. The operational techniques
consists of quality planning, data collection, data analysis and implementation and
is applicable to all phases of product life cycle; design, manufacturing, delivery and
installation, operation and maintenance.
Objects of Quality Control
P To produce required quality product.
P To fulfill the customer’s demand.
P To reduce the production cost.
P To reduce wastage.
P To earn maximum profit at minimum cost.

Population
All elements, individuals or units that meet the selection criteria for a group
to be studied and from which a representative sample is taken for detailed
examination. It is the total system that needs to be studied.

Sampling
The total raw material bought or the total end production is not 100 per
cent tested due to cost effectiveness and time constraints. The destructive type of
testing will also increase the wastage in the process, which will ultimately increase
the cost of testing, resulting in overall profit being decreased. Therefore sampling
techniques are employed and representative samples of the whole material are
tested. For the testing of cotton fiber, a 20 mg weight of sample is taken from a 250
kg bale. The sample only represents a portion of the bulk, but the quality of the
whole population will be evaluated on the basis of it. The sample from the bale is
taken in such a way that each group’s fiber length has an equal opportunity to be
Introduction to Testing 5

selected. The main objective is to get an unbiased test sample that represents the
whole population; each and every part of the possible length group is represented
in the sample.
Causes of Bias in Sampling
1. Bias due to physical characteristics: Longer fibers have a greater chance
of being selected.
2. Position relative to the person: Lab assistant may pick bobbins from
the top layer of a case of yarn (just to make his job easier or may be
because of his ignorance), but the bobbin chosen will be biased due to
their position.
3. Subconscious bias: Person selecting cones will pick the best-looking
ones that are free from ridges, cub webbed ends and so on. This affects
the test results.

Need for Sampling in Textile Testing

Textile testing is destructive in nature, i.e. the materials used for testing go as
waste after testing and hence it is not desirable to test all of the material. As textile
production is always huge and bulk it is impossible to test all the final output from
a production process. Thus, only representative samples of the material are tested.
Sampling saves time and cost.
Sampling methods depends on the following factors:
P Form of the material
P Amount of material available
P Nature of the test
P Type of testing instrument
P Information required
P Degree of accuracy required

Sampling for Textile Testing

P Fiber stage
P Yarn stage
P Fabric stage
P Garment stage

Different Types of Textile Testing

Fibre Tests
Fibre tests include identification of fibres, grading, fibre length, strength and
elongation, fineness, maturity etc.
 6 Textile Testing

Yarn Tests
Yarns tests include yarn count, twist per unit length, strength, appearance,
evenness and regularity, hairiness etc.
Fabric Tests
Fabric tests include strength and elongation, width, thickness, number of ends
and pick per unit length, the count of yarn used, fabric weight per unit length, design
and construction of the cloth, air permeability, thermal properties, stiffness, handle,
drape, crease resistance and recovery, abrasion, pilling, shrinkage etc.

Textile Sampling
Sampling is the process by which a sample is collected from a large number
of materials. By the sampling we know the perfect characteristics of population.
Sampling increases the quality of population and reduces the cost. In textile industry
sampling is essential for produce export quality products. Textile sampling depends
on few factors such as the form of the material, amount of material available, nature
of the test etc.
1. The Random Sampling Method
In Random sampling method, every individual in the population has an equal
chance of being included it. The number in the sample must be sufficiently large
to include all the variations of the individuals in the population. The random
sampling technique is the most widely used technique. It can be applied in both
fiber and yarn testing. The steps involved are as follows: determine the size of the
population; determine the sample size; prepare a random numbers table; determine
the number of each item in a sample; collect the sample. The following types of
random sampling are used in the industry:
P Stratified random sampling: This is done by dividing the population
into several mutually exclusive regions.
P Cluster sampling: This is done by subdividing the population into groups
or clusters and taking a sample from each.
P Selected sampling: In this type, the samples are collected from one part
of the population.
P Systematic sampling: This is performed systematically at a regular
interval.
P Acceptance sampling: This is used to accept the incoming raw material
or for quality assurance of outgoing consignments.

2. The Biased Sampling Method

In biased sampling method, the selection of an individual is influenced by the
factors rather than chance. Hence a sample does not truly represent the bulk. The
Introduction to Testing 7

cause of the bias may be the physical characteristics of the individual, its position
relative of the person doing the sampling.
Table 1.1: Difference between Random Sampling and Biased Sampling Method

Substance Random Sampling Biased Sampling

Definition Every individual in the population has Every individual in the population
an equal chance of being included it. has not an equal chance of being
included it.
Factor Random sampling is not influenced Random sampling is influenced by
by the factors. the factors.
Depend on H e re s a m p l i n g p e r s o n i s n o t H e re s a m p l i n g p e r s o n i s n o t
depending on the position. depending on the position.
S a m p l e A sample truly represents the bulk. A sample does not represent the bulk.
Represent
Sample Result The sample or test result is not The sample result is dependable and
dependable and acceptable. not consistent.
Position Random method is considered best. Random may be negligible.

Fiber Sampling Techniques

Since 100 per cent testing of fiber is not possible, random sampling is done.
There are some types of techniques used in fiber testing.
Zoning Technique
Zoning is a popular technique for fiber as it is used for selecting samples from
raw material such as cotton or wool or other loose natural fibers. The properties of
these natural fibers may vary significantly from place to place. As cotton in bulk is
not homogeneous, a number of sub-samples must be taken at random from different
places in the bulk. When samples are drawn from cotton bales, the required amount
of fibers should be taken one by one at random from different parts of the bale.
You can show Figure 1.1 for details of zoning techniques.
P Step 1: A sample that weighs 2 ozs (approximately 906.72 gm) is drawn
by selecting about 80 large tufts from different parts of the bulk.
P Step 2: This sample is then divided into four parts.
P Step 3: Sixteen small tufts are taken at random from each part
(approximately 20 mg).
P Step 4: Each tuft is halved four times, discarded alternately by turning
the tuft through right angle between successive halving. Sixteen wisps
are thus produced from each part.
P Step 5: These wisps are combined to form a tuft.
P Step 6: Each tuft is mixed by doubling and drawing between fingers.
P Step 7: Each tuft is divided into four parts.
8 Textile Testing

Figure 1.1: Zoning Techniques.

P Step 8: A new tuft is obtained by combining a part of each of four tufts.

P Step 9: Sample is mixed again by doubling and drawing.
P Step 10: A quarter of sample is taken out from each tuft to form final
sample.
Introduction to Testing 9

Core Sampling Techniques

Core sampling is a technique that is used for assessing the proportion of grease,
vegetable matter and moisture in samples taken from unopened bales of raw wool.
A tube with a sharpened tip is forced into the bale and a core of wool is withdrawn.
The technique was first developed as core boring in which the tube was rotated
by a portable electric drill. The method was then developed further to enable the
cores to be cut by pressing the tube into the bale manually. This enables samples
to be taken in areas remote from sources of power. The tubes for manual coring
are 600mm long so that they can penetrate halfway into the bale, the whole bale
being sampled by coring from both ends. A detachable cutting tip is used whose
internal diameter is slightly smaller than that of the tube so that the cores will slide
easily up the inside of the tube. The difference in diameter also helps retain the
cores in the tube as it is withdrawn. To collect the sample the tube is entered in
the direction of compression of the bale so that it is perpendicular to the layers of
fleeces. A number of different sizes of nominal tube diameter are in use, 14, 15 and
18mm being the most common the weight of core extracted varying accordingly.
The number of cores extracted is determined according to a sampling schedule
and the cores are combined to give the required weight of sample. As the cores are
removed they are placed immediately in an air-tight container to prevent any loss of
moisture from them. The weight of the bale at the time of coring is recorded in order
to calculate its total moisture content. The method has been further developed to
allow hydraulic coring by machine in warehouses where large numbers of bales are
dealt with. Such machines compress the bale to 60 per cent of its original length so
as to allow the use of a tube which is long enough to core the full length of the bale.
Fiber Sampling from Combed Slivers or Roving or Yarns
P Random draw method: This method is used for sampling card sliver,
ball sliver and top. The sliver from which sample has to be taken is pulled
in such a way that the end has no broken or cut fibers.

Figure 1.2: Hydraulic Core Sampling Tool.

 10 Textile Testing

P Cut square method: This method is used for obtaining fibre sample from
yarn. Cut a certain length of the yarn and then untwist one of the ends
of the yarn by hand. Then lay the untwisted yarn on a small velvet board
and cover with a glass plate. Then cut the untwisted end of the yarn at
about 5 mm from the edge of the plate. Remove all the fibres that project
in front of the glass plate one by one with a pair of forceps and discard.

The Squaring Technique

This technique is used for the selection of a random sample from a sliver. In
using this technique, the sliver is first opened out into the form of a web and placed
on a black velvet pad. The end of the sliver is then ‘squared off. This is achieved by
placing a glass plate over the fibres to act as a control, allowing only a small fringe
to project beyond the leading edge of the plate, as shown in Figure 1.3. Next, all
the protruding fibres are removed and discarded. The plate is moved back a little
and a second fringe is removed. These last two steps eliminate the extent-bias
since all the ends of the fibres have terminated in a given volume of the fibre web.

Figure 1.3: The Random Draw Method.

The above operation is repeated until the final position of the plate edge is at
least a distance equal to the length, from its original position, of the longest fibre
present. This step is essential because whenever a sliver is broken there is a bias
of long fibres at each broken fringe. The plate is then moved back a millimeter or
so one last time and all the fibres protruding from the leading edge of the plate
are removed and taken as the numerical or representative sample for a test, e.g. a
length test on a comb sorter.
Fibre Sampling from Combed Slivers, Roving and Yarn
One of the main difficulties in sampling fibres is that of obtaining a sample
that is not biased. This is because unless special precautions are taken, the longer
Introduction to Testing 11

fibres in the material being sampled are more likely to be selected by the sampling
procedures, leading to a length-biased sample. This is particularly likely to happen
in sampling material such as sliver or yarn where the fibres are approximately
parallel. The fibre extent as defined in Figure 1.4 rather than the fibre length as such
which determines the likelihood of selection. The obvious area where length bias
must be avoided is in the measurement of fibre length, but any bias can also have
effects when other properties such as fineness and strength are being measured
since these properties often vary with the fibre length.

Figure 1.4: The Meaning of Extent.

There are two ways of dealing with this problem:

1. Prepare a numerical sample (unbiased sample).
2. Prepare a length-biased sample in such a way that the bias can be allowed
for in any calculation.

Figure 1.5: Selection of Numerical Sample.

 12 Textile Testing

Numerical Sample
In a numerical sample the percentage by number of fibres in each length
group should be the same in the sample as it is in the bulk. In Figure 1.5, A and B
represent two planes separated by a short distance in a sample consisting of parallel
fibres. If all the fibres whose left-hand ends (shown as solid circles) lay between
A and B were selected by some means they would constitute a numerical sample.
The truth of this can be seen from the fact that if all the fibres that start to the left
of A were removed then it would not alter the marked fibres. Similarly another
pair of planes could be imagined to the right of B whose composition would be
unaffected by the removal of the fibres starting between A and B. Therefore the
whole length of the sample could be divided into such short lengths and there
would be no means of distinguishing one length from another, provided the fibres
are uniformly distributed along the sliver. If the removal of one sample does not
affect the composition of the remaining samples, then it can be considered to be a
numerical sample and each segment is representative of the whole.
Length-Biased Sample
In a length-biased sample the percentage of fibres in any length group is
proportional to the product of the length and the percentage of fibres of that length
in the bulk. The removal of a length-biased sample changes the composition of the
remaining material as a higher proportion of the longer fibres are removed from it.

Figure 1.6: Selection of Tuft Sample.

If the lines A and B in Figure 1.5 represent planes through the sliver then
the chance of a fibre crossing these lines is proportional to its length. If, therefore,
the fibres crossing this area are selected in some way then the longer fibres will
Introduction to Testing 13

be preferentially selected. This can be achieved by gripping the sample along a

narrow line of contact and then combing away any loose fibres from either side
of the grips, so leaving a sample as depicted in Figure 1.6 which is length-biased.
This type of sample is also known as a tuft sample and a similar method is used to
prepare cotton fibres for length measurement by the fibrograph.

Yarn Sampling Techniques

Random Sampling (Yarn in package form)
Yarn is available in various forms of package such as bobbins, cops, cone and
cheese and as hanks. Table of random number is normally used sampling yarn
bobbins from comparatively small bulk size. Totally 10 packages may be selected
at random.
P If the bulk contains more than five cases, at least five cases are selected
at random and then two packages are selected at random from each case.
P If the number of cases is less than five, then ten packages are selected at
random approximately, two from each package.

Method Used for Sampling Yarns

Yarn samples are selected according to the type of test and the form in which
the yarn is available. The yarn could be ring bobbin, a double flanged bobbin, a
bundle of hanks and so on. Some sampling methods for the determination of yarn
count, twist and strength are discussed below.
Yarn Sampling
When selecting yarn for testing it is suggested that ten packages are selected
at random from the consignment. If the consignment contains more than five
cases, five cases are selected at random from it. The test sample then consists of
two packages selected at random from each case. If the consignment contains
less than five cases, ten packages are selected at random from all the cases with
approximately equal numbers from each case. The appropriate numbers of tests
are then carried out on each package.
Sampling for the Determination of Count of Yarn in Package Form
16 packages are selected from the concerned machine for spun yarn in the
form of cops, ring-frame bobbins, tubes or other forms of primary package. Skeins
are then wound form the top portion of eight packages, next skeins is wound from
about the middle portion of the remaining packages. Large packages such as cones
and cheeses, take eight packages. Prepare two skeins from each; it is preferable
to take one skein form the outer portion and another from a part near the middle.
For continuous filament yarn, only one skein is taken from the outside of each of
sixteen cones or cheeses.
 14 Textile Testing

Sampling for the Determination of Count from the Yarn Removed

from the Fabric
From the conditioned fabric, cut at least two rectangular strips, about 20
inch long containing different warp threads for determining the count of yarn.
Similarly take at least five rectangular 20 inch strips representing different weft
for determining count of weft yarn. The strip width should be such as it contains
at least fifty lengths of either warp or weft yarn.
Sampling of Yarn for the Determination of twist in yarn in package
form:
Take test specimens in equal numbers form ten packages, taking care that no
specimen is taken from within one yard of the end of the package. Discard a length
of about one yard of yarn between two consecutive specimens.
Sampling for the Determination of Lea Strength of Spun Yarn
A lea of yarn is taken from each of twenty packages. If only a small number of
packages, withdraw lea from a smaller multiple of four packages such that a total
of twenty leas are obtained.
Sample for Determination of Single Strength
If single yarn and two ply yarns of medium count are being evaluated, not less
than 50 test specimens are taken from the available material. Yarn may be from a
package, or from a warp, or from a woven or knitted fabric. In case two ply yarn
and for cabled yarns, the number of test specimens may be reduced to thirty.

Fabric Sampling Techniques

Fabric samples from warp and weft are taken separately as their properties
vary substantially along warp and weft. Identify and mark the warp direction first.
Make sure that no two specimens contain same warp or weft threads. Mark and
cut samples at least 2 inches away from the selvedge. Also, make sure not to take
samples from creased, wrinkled or damaged portions of the fabric, if any. In case
of knit fabric, samples are taken from different parts of the fabric almost the same
way as done for woven.
Methods Used in Sampling of Fabrics
Sampling for fabrics will vary from one kind of fabric to another. Three different
types of fabric commonly encountered in testing laboratory. They are
P Narrow type of fabrics like brides, laces, ribbons etc.
P Woven fabric of regular width.
P Knitted fabric

The following points are too kept in mind while removing samples from fabrics
for test.
Introduction to Testing 15

Figure 1.7: Fabric Sampling Techniques.

1. At least two inches near the selvedge should be avoided. This is, because,
the fabric properties of the fabrics at the selvedge differ from those at
the body of the fabric. This is due to extra strain is imposed in the yarn
near the selvedge.
2. No two samples should contain the same threads.
3. The weft wary fabric strips of samples should include fabric from two weft
packages. During weaving weft tension will vary at the top and bottom
ends of pirns and give rise to “cop end effect”, which may affect the fabric
strength, and causes changes in fabric structure and other properties.

Variation Caused by the Test Method

It is important that any variations due to the test itself are kept to the minimum.
Variability from this source can be due to a number of causes:
P The influence of the operator on the test results. This can be due to
differences in adherence to the test procedures, care in the mounting of
specimens, precision in the adjustment of the machine such as the zero
setting and in the taking of readings.
 16 Textile Testing

P The influence of specimen size on the test results, for instance the effect
of specimen length on measured strength.
P The temperature and humidity conditions under which the test is carried
out. A number of fibres such as wool, viscose and cotton change their
properties as the atmospheric moisture content changes.
P The type and make of equipment used in the test. For instance pilling
tests can be carried out using a pilling box or on the Martindale abrasion
machine. The results from these two tests are not necessarily comparable.

Measurement of Moisture Regain and Moisture Content

Many physical properties of textile materials are affected by amount of
moisture contained in it. Fundamentally the weight of the material is depends
upon the humidity of the atmosphere in which it is exposed. The greater the
humidity is greater the weight of the material. Under the natural condition, the
amount of moisture in the atmosphere is continuously changing. These results in
varying amount of moisture contained by the hygroscopic material exposed to the
atmosphere. The greater the moisture contents greater the loss to the buyer of the
material. So the textile transaction, when the weight is in consideration, like cotton,
silk trade etc., it is very much necessary to standardize the moisture contents.
Moisture Regain
It is defined as the weight of water in a material expressed a percentage of the
oven dry weight of the material.
Let,
Oven dry weight of a material = D
Weight of water in this material = W
Weight of water in this material
Moisture regain, R = ——————————————— × 100
Oven dry weight of a material
Moisture Content
Moisture content is defined as the weight of water in a material express as a
percentage of the total weight of the material.
Weight of water in this material
Moisture content, C = ——————————————————— × 100
(Weight of water in this material + Oven dry
weight of a material)

Factors Affecting the Regain of Textile Fiber

Different fiber types absorb different amounts of moisture depending on their
affinity for water. There are different factors that affect the moisture regains of the
textile materials, such as;
Introduction to Testing 17

1. Relative Humidity
2. Time
3. Temperature
4. The Previous History of The Sample

Relative Humidity
Relative humidity is the most important factor that affects the regain of textile
materials. The higher the relative humidity of the atmosphere, the higher is the
regain of textile material which is exposed to it. If the relative humidity in the air
is more then there will be more moisture regain or more rate of conditioning of
textile materials and vice versa.
Time
Material that is in equilibrium at a particular relative humidity which is then
moved to an atmosphere with a different relative humidity takes a certain amount
of time to reach a new equilibrium. The time taken depends on the physical form of
the material and how easily the moisture can reach or escape from the individual
fibres. For example the British Standard for count testing suggests a period of
one hour for yarn in hank form to reach equilibrium, but three hours for yarn on
packages. A material placed in a given atmosphere takes a certain time to reach
equilibrium. The rate of conditioning depends on several factors, such as;
P The size and form of sample
P The type of material
P External conditions

Temperature
The effect of temperature on regain is not important. A change of 10°C will
give a change in regain of cotton of about 0.3 percent. This effect can be ignored.
Now we can say that for practical purposes the temperature does not affect the
regain of a sample.
The Previous History of the Sample
The previous history of the sample can affect the equilibrium regain of the
sample. The hysteresis is a good example. Processing can also change the regain.
When oils, waxes and other impurities are removed then regain may change.
Effects of Moisture Regain on Fibre Properties
Apart from the weight, the moisture also affects in dimension, tensile strength,
elastic recovery, electrical resistance, rigidity etc., of textile materials. Cotton
absorbs moisture readily when exposed to high humidity and as results, the
weight as well as strength increased and other properties change. Linen shows
substantially increase in strength as the moisture content is increased. Rayon
 18 Textile Testing

generally shows reduction in strength with corresponding increase in elongation

as the moisture contents are increased. These changes are high on viscose rayon
and low on nylon and Dacron. Animal fibres show slight decrease in strength with
increase in moisture contents. Practically all textile material show increase pliability
and greater immunity to static electric influence with increase in moisture contents.
Standard Regain Value of Textile Materials
Standard regain is the regain of the material is obtained under standard
test condition when absorbed from dry side. Standard regain of different textile
materials are
Table 1.2: Moisture Regain and Moisture Content of Fibers

Textile Fiber Moisture Regain Moisture Content

(MR per cent) (MC per cent)
Cotton 8.5 7.34
Jute 13.75 12.1
Viscose 11.0 9.91
Silk 11.0 9.91
Wool 16.0 13.8
Acrylic 1.5 0
Flax 12.4 10.4
Hemp 12.4 10.4
Acetate 6.0 0
Polyester 0.4 0
Nylon 4.0 3.1

Textile manufacturing operations are conducted to large extent in a humidity

atmosphere. Under ideal humidity condition the following advantages realized in.
1. Reduction in generation of static electricity.
2. Materials are more easily workable due to increased pliability.
3. Reduction in amount of dust and fly.
4. Allows for the retention of the moisture already within the material.
5. Permits greater bodily comfort for personnel in cool weather.

Some of the man-made textiles fibres have high relative regain where as other
resist the absorption of water. Fibres that absorb moist readily are classified as
“hydrophilic” material, ex. Cotton, and that do not are classified as “hydrophobic”
material, ex. Terylene, nylon. It has been mentioned in the preceding sections that
fibre properties are affected, sometimes dramatically, by regain. The major effects
of regain on fiber properties discussed in the following.
Introduction to Testing 19

Fibre Dimensions
Absorption of moisture changes the dimensions of fibres. It is well known
that fibres swell with increasing moisture absorption. Swelling causes a greater
increase in the width of the fibre and a marginal increase in its length. As the water
molecules enter and penetrate the fibre, they break a number of the intermolecular
hydrogen bonds in the fibre, and separate the molecules and thus swell the fibre
in a width-way direction. As the molecules are now in a more relaxed state, they
tend to cause some increase in the length of the fibre. With regard to the effect of
moisture on a textile fabric, the net result of absorbed moisture is a decrease in
length i.e. shrinkage
Mechanical Properties
The strength of fibres is affected by moisture. In the case of vegetable fibres
such as cotton and flax, the strength is increased from 8 to 10 per cent. In the
case of viscose rayon, the strength is decreased by about 50 per cent. All other
fibres show a drop in strength with increasing moisture except for polyester and
polypropylene fibres, which are unaffected. Similarly Extensibility, crease recovery,
pliability (opposite of stiffness) and the ability to be set by finishing processes are
the other mechanical properties affected by regain. Fabric handle and drape is
associated primarily with the stiffness of the fabric. The drier the fabric the stiffer
it will be and vice versa.
Electrical Properties
The electrical resistance of a fiber varies with different regain values. When
the sample is dry, resistance to the flow of electrical current will be at a practical
maximum. When it is wet, the resistance will be minimum. The dielectric
characteristics and the susceptibility to static troubles are also affected by the
amount of moisture in the material. The hydrophobic synthetic fibres are notorious
for their proneness to static problems on account of their negligibly low moisture
regains.
Thermal Effects
When textile materials absorb moisture, heat is generated, i.e. they tend to be
exothermic. This heat is referred to as the ‘heat of absorption’ or sometimes ‘heat
of wetting’. An example of clothing is cited to explain this effect. In a place which
normally experiences severe winter, if a person goes from a warm room with a low
RH per cent into a cold environment with a higher RH per cent (i.e. from indoor
to outdoor) the clothes worn by the person absorb more moisture and heat is
generated. This heat acts like a warm blanket around the person and shield her/
him body from the sudden large drop in temperature suffered in process. Wool is
ideal in this respect as the heat of moisture absorption it produces is high.
 20 Textile Testing

Measurement of Moisture Regain by Oven Dry Weight

This is a direct method of assessing the amount of moisture in textile materials.
Principle
A sample of known weight is heated in a special oven at a temperature of 105
± 3 C for 1.5 to 2 hours to constant weight or oven-dry weight. The difference
o

between the original weight and the oven-dry weight of the sample gives the weight
of moisture present in the sample. The moisture in the sample is expressed as a
percentage of its original weight to get the moisture content of the sample. Similarly,
expressing the moisture in the sample as a percentage of the oven-dry weight of
the sample gives its moisture regain.
Description
Moisture-testing oven consists of a double-walled chamber A, the walls of
which are packed with an insulating material like glass wool to minimize loss
of heat. Two portions can be identified with regard to the chamber, the upper
portion B and lower portion C. The lower portion houses the heating elements,
a temperature-set knob E and a thermostatic control. The thermostat consists of
the typical bimetallic rod which senses and controls the temperature inside the
chamber. It is connected both to a red light F and a green light G.

Double-walled chamber - A; Upper portion – B; Lower portion – C; Blower fan – D;

Temperature set knob – E; Red light – F; Green light – G; Main switch – H; Cage – I;
Balance – J; Right-hand side pan – K; Standard weight – L; Left-hand side pan - M.
Figure 1.8: Measurement of Moisture Regain by Oven Dry Weight.
Introduction to Testing 21

A main switch H is connected to the power supply. A blower fan D is provided

inside the instrument at the right-hand side of the chamber circulating the hot
air inside. The middle portion of the chamber has accommodating a cage I that
carries the sample under test. The upper portion of the chamber has a balance J;
the right-hand side pan K of balance carries a standard weight of 50 grams (L). The
left-hand side pan M is connected to the cage. Weights corresponding to the loss
in weight of the sample as it dries can be put in this pan to counterpoise pan. This
arrangement helps to determine the weight of water inside the chamber without
disturbing the sample.
Procedure to Determine Fibre Moisture Content and Moisture Regain
1. 50 grams of the sample are placed in the cage inside the chamber, so as
to balance the 50-g weight in the right hand pan. The oven is switched
on and the heating elements are turned on. A continual How of air at the
correct RH (ideally air at standard RH and temperature) is passed through
the oven. The thermostatic control is set at 105°C.
2. The air flowing into the chamber starts getting heated and when the
temperature is sufficiently high the moisture in the fibre sample will start
evaporating. Care is taken that the thermostatic arrangement maintains
the temperature inside the chamber within ± 2°C of the set temperature
of 105°C.
3. After about 1.5 hours of heating, the weight of material will have reduced
due to the moisture being evaporated from it. A suitable weight is now
placed in the left-hand side pan such that it exactly balances the other
pan. Weighing is done at every 10 minutes until a constant weight is
obtained. This means that all the moisture from the sample has been
removed. The total of the weights in the left-hand pan is the amount of
moisture present in 50 grams of the sample.
4. The oven-dry weight of the sample is calculated as the difference between
the original weight of the sample and the weight of the moisture present
in it.
Formula
Moisture content (M) = Weight of moisture in the sample/Original weight of
the sample X 100
Moisture Regain (R) = Weight of moisture in the sample/Oven weight of the
sample X 100
The main advantage of a regain-testing oven is that all the, weighing is carried
out inside the oven. This means that the instrument avoids the need to carry the
sample to a separate balance, in which case it could gain in moisture and lead to
erroneous results. Further large samples can be tested. In fact this is by far the most
accurate method estimating regain of a large sample. It serves as a benchmark for
 22 Textile Testing

accurate testing of fibre regain and other methods can be checked against it for
accuracy.
Conditioning Oven
A modified version of the moisture testing oven has also been in use. This has
an additional feature. In this version, the relative humidity of the air in the oven can
be set to a desired value within a given range. This improvement allows both the
temperature and the humidity in the chamber to be set. Known as the ‘conditioning
oven’ this equipment permits the determination of moisture of a given sample at
specific values of humidity. The sample is allowed to ‘condition’ at the set value
of RH for a few hours and its weight is determined. Next its oven-dry weight is
determined as explained above. The difference between these weights expressed
as a percentage of the oven-dry weight gives the regain of the RH in which it was
conditioned.

Measurement of Moisture Regain by Shirley Moisture Meter

This instrument is based on an indirect method of measuring amount of
moisture in textiles. It used the principle of variation in electrical resistance with
moisture. When the fibre is dry, the resistance to flow of electrical current will be
at the practical maximum and when it is wet the resistance will be at maximum
level. This property of the textile fibre permits the use on an electrode by means
of which the electrical resistance of a given fibre can be measured and its moisture
regain can be read off a suitably calibrated dial.
Description
The regain indicating unit and a sectional view of the two electrodes are shown
respectively in the below. The Shirley moisture meter consists of an electrode is
fixed in a holder. The electrode consists of an insulating material in between central
and outer conducting materials. It is connected by means of cable to the regain
indicating unit. The regain indicating unit has two dials. Dial covers the normal
range of regain values from 7 per cent to 11 per cent. The other dial has two ranges,
one with a range 9 to 15 per cent regain for testing damp or wet fibres and other
with a range 5 per cent to 9 per cent for testing dry fibres. Out of two electrodes,
one is designed for the use of raw cotton fibre and the other for yarns. The angular
Introduction to Testing 23

Figure 1.9: Shirley Moisture Meter.

space between the conducting elements in the electrode is greater for yarns than
it is for cotton.
Procedures for the Determination of Sample Regain
P The instrument is switched on
P Depending upon whether loose fibre or cotton yarn is tested, the
appropriate electrode us selected and fitted into holder.
P The scale – select knob is set to the required scale depending upon
whether the test sample is wet or dry.
P Then the Zero-set position under the chosen scale is selected using the
same knob and the pointer on the chosen scale is checked to see whether
it indicates exactly zero. If not, Zero adjust knob is turned till the pointer
reads Zero.
P Next, knob S is turned to the max-set position and the pointer is checked
to whether it accurately coincides with the maximum reading on the scale.
P Once the selected scale has been calibrated, knob S is turned to the testing
mode.
P A sample is pressed by the sensing end of the electrode. A firm pressure is
applied to the holder in order to bring the electrode and sample in close
contact.
P The moisture in the sample is noted on the chosen scale.
P The numbers of readings are taken at various parts of the material and
the average value of regain is recorded.
 Chapter 2

Fibre Testing

2.1. Fibre Length

Fibre Length Determination Using Baer Sorter
As single fibre measurement takes time and hand stapling requires experience,
alternative methods have been developed. There are two methods for laboratory
analysis used to measure fibre length.
1. Fibres sorter method/Array method-is much slower but results are
more accurate.
2. Fibrograph– is the more rapid test but results are not detailed or accurate.

Importance of Length Measurement

P Fibre Length is one of the most important aspects to decide fibre quality.
P Fibre length decides the cost of raw material.
P It is required for most of the settings i.e. roller setting, beater setting, etc.
P Depending upon the count of the yarn to be spun length of the fibre is
selected.

Related Standards
IS 233 (Part 2): 1978, ASTM: D – 1440 -96 – Array method, D – 1447-89 –
fibrograph.
Properties/Parameters Tested
P Maximum Length
P Effective Length
 26 Textile Testing

P Mean Length
P Upper Quartile
P Per cent Short fibres
P Dispersion

Fibre Sorter Method

The fibre sorter is an instrument which enables the sample to be fractionalized
into length groups. The Baer sorter, the Shirley comb sorter, and the Suter-Webb
sorter are the most popular method of the fibre sorter. Basically, the operation
involves four main steps:
1. Preparation of a fringe or tuft with all fibres aligned at one end.
2. The separation or withdrawal of fibres in order of decreasing length.
3. The preparation of a sorter diagram by laying the fibres on a black velvet
pad in decreasing order of length, the fibres parallel and their lower ends
aligned along a horizontal base line as shown in Figure.
4. The analysis of the sorter diagram.

Figure 2.1: Baer Sorter.

Fibre Testing 27

Working Principle
This instrument works on end aligned principle. The fibres are arranged in the
descending order of fibre length which forms an array diagram of which various
properties related to fibre length are determined.
Specifications of the Instrument
P Top comb – 3
P Bottom comb – 12
P Depressor
P Tweezer
P Velvet pad
P Plastic scale

Instrument Description
The instrument is used to prepare the fibre array. It consists of two sets of
horizontal combs, an upper and a lower set.
P Top comb – Teeth only at one end, can be removed.
P Bottom comb – Fixed at one end and can be dropped at another end by
a knob.
P Depressor – To press fibres in the bottom comb.
P Tweezer – To pull fibres from the comb.
P Velvet pad – To arrange fibres in order.
P Plastic Scale – To trace baer sorter diagram.
P Preliminary adjustments- Nil

Sample Preparation
Zoning Technique
Divide the sample into 4 quarters. Take 16 small tufts from each corner at
random of size 20mg. Each tuft is halved four times, discarded alternately with
right and left hands and 16 parts are produced from each quarter. Combine into a
new tuft and divide into 4 parts. Obtain 4 new Tufts and take a quarter from each
to make the final sample. Sample Size=20mg of fibre.
Procedure
1. Clean all the combs of the comb sorter before testing.
2. Take about 20 mg of the fibre to be tested.
28 Textile Testing

3. Make the fibres straight and parallel by drawing and doubling several
times by the hand
(This is done by holding the specimen with the thumb and the forefinger
of each hand and then drawing and doubling).
4. Slightly twist the straightened specimen to hold the fibres more firmly.
5. Place the comb sorter in a suitable position such that the first of the
bottom combs, which can be dropped in succession, faces the operator.
6. Lift the upper combs, and lay the representative fibre sample towards
the right and across the lower bed of combs.
7. Press the fibre into the combs with the depressor.
8. Remove the projecting fibres with the grip and make the fibre end to align
with the first comb.
9. Grip a small tuft from the straightened edge of the fibre and comb it
several times across the needles of the upper comb to remove the loose
fibres.
10. Transfer the combed tuft to the left-hand side needles and press it with
the rake so that it is gripped by the first row of combs.
11. Transfer all the fibres present at the right side to the left side as above.
12. Turn the sorter round through 180 degrees.
13. Lower the upper combs.
14. Drop a sufficient number of lower combs and raise the corresponding
number of upper combs until the ends of the longest fibres project about
0.5 cm.
15. Using the grip, pull out small tufts of successively shorter lengths.
16. Comb and straighten the fibres in each tuft, and lay them side–by–side
on the velvet pad such that the free ends of the tufts lie along a straight
base line.
17. A continuous array of uniform density is produced by skillfully using the
teasing needle and a forefinger to arrange each tuft perpendicular to the
base line and joining up with the previous one.
18. Successive top and bottom combs are moved as shorter and shorter fibres
are pulled out and joined into the pattern.
19. The last few tufts should be very carefully arranged so that no short fibres
are lost. It should also be ensured that the pattern is of uniform density
throughout as the ultimate evaluation is based on this assumption.
20. Trace the outline of the fibre array on a sheet of transparent material.
Fibre Testing 29

Calculation and Expression of Results

Figure 2.2: Comb Sorter Diagram for Fibre Length Measurement.

OQ = ½ OA
KS = ½ KK’
OK = ¼ OP
OL = ¼ OR
Effective length = LL’
per cent mean length = (area of OAB/length of OB)
Dispersion = (NL’/LL’) × 100
per cent of short fibres = (RB/OB)×100
Suter-Webb array (SW)
This method consists of a bed of upright and parallel combs which control the
fibres and arranged it in the form of an array of uniform density in the descending
order of length. In this way enable the sample (fibres) to be fractionated into length
groups for determining cumulative fibre length distribution by weight in parameters
upper quartile length (UQL), mean length (ML) and per cent short fibres (SFC) as
illustrated in Figure 2.4 and dispersion percentage which is expressed as (CV per
cent). The disadvantages of this device are time-consuming (2 hrs. per sample)
and calls for considerable operator skill in sampling and preparing the diagram
(Figure 2.4).
The Digital Fibrograph
In Fibrograph, fibre samples are presented in the form of a pair of carefully
prepared fringes. The light transmitted through these fringes is monitored by
photoelectric current. The amount of light passing through the fibre sample is
 30 Textile Testing

Figure 2.3: Suter Webb Array.

Figure 2.4: Upper Quartile Length and Short Fibre Content.

linearly proportional to the number of fibers in the light path. The changes in the
photoelectric current are recorded graphically in the form of a Fibrogram as shown
in Figure From this Fibrogram various length parameters of practical interest,
such as span length, mean length (OM), upper-half mean length (OR) and index of
uniformity, given as the ratio of OM to OR, can be analyzed.
Preparation of Test Specimen
Test specimen can be prepared from the laboratory sample by on of the
following method.
Hand Combing Method
Pick up a handful of cotton from the laboratory sample and separate it into
two parts by pulling so as to expose a fresh surface of projecting fibers. Holding
one of the hand combs in one hand and the opened lump of cotton in the other,
transfer some of the projecting fibers on to the comb. Pick fresh lumps of cotton,
and proceed in the same manner so that a pair of combs is filled with sufficient
quantity of fibers drawn from 8 to 10 randomly picked lumps. Hold one comb in
Fibre Testing 31

each hand, and untangle and parallelize the projecting fibers by mutual combing.
The pair of combed beards constitutes the test specimen.
Fibro-Sampler Method
Mount one of the fibro-sample combs in the comb holder of the Fibro sampler,
with the teeth uppermost. Place the laboratory sample in the cage and press it
against the perforated surface. Maintain the pressure and rotate the sample holder
round the drum counter-clockwise through 360°. Remove the loaded comb from the
holder. Turn the sample in the cage to expose a fresh surface, and mount fibers in
one more comb. Either one or a pair of combed beards constitutes the test specimen
depending upon the model of the instrument being used.
Fibrogram
Fibrogram is an arrangement of fibres from shortest to longest in terms of
span lengths. Fibrogram test are required for determining the length uniformity
of fibres in the sample of cotton. At any instant in time, fibres caught by the roller
nips will depend on the randomness of their overlapping lengths; therefore, not all
the length of a given fibre projects into draft zone. The lengths that project into the
draft zone are called the span lengths, and the cumulative frequency distribution
of the span length gives the Fibrogram.
Digital Fibrograph
The digital fibrograph gives the tests results in digits or numerical form.
Suppose In the 2.5 per cent span the length is 1.14 inch while in the 50 per cent
span the length is 0.52 inch. The uniformity ratio is 46 per cent.
UR per cent = (50 per cent Span length/2.5 per cent Span length) x 100
= (0.52/1.14) x 100
= 46 per cent
Fibro sampler is used in later models to clamp the fibers on the comb. Fibre
sample is put inside the cylinder of sampler. Fibre comb, with 13 needles/inch,
is rotated around the fibro sampler, with pressure applied on the cotton, during
which it picks up fibers projecting from the holes of sampler. The instrument is
consequently insensitive to the presence of very short fibres, and in practice the
Fibrogram has its origin at a point representing a length of 0.15 inch (3.8 mm).
Principle
It is an optical instrument with light sensitive cells for scanning cotton fibres
and simultaneously drawing a length- frequency curve. The height of the vertical
axis of the fibro gram is equal to the total fibre length if it is assumed that the fibres
have the same linear density, it can be state that the height of the fibrograph is
proportional to the weight of the fibre.
 32 Textile Testing

Figure 2.5: (A) Digital Fibrograph (B) Fibro Sampler.

Description
As its name implies, the Digital Fibrograph presents the test results in digital
or numeric form. Preferably, a special fibre sampler, a ‘Fibrosampler’, is used to
prepare the beards by a light source is similar to that used in the earlier fibrograph
but the signals from the measuring console are fed into a separate transistorized
unit. The signals are electronically processed and the results fed back to the
measuring unit which has two four-digit counters facing the operator. One counter
is for selecting per cent S.L. and the other counter gives ‘Length’. A Servo-follower
system connected to the photoelectric cells indicates on the ‘Amount’ counter the
relative number of fibres in the sample beards at the point where the light beam
passes through them. A Servo-computer ‘remember’ the total number of fibres in
the sample at 0.15 in. distance from the center of the comb teeth and computes
the number of fibres corresponding to the different Span Lengths. When a span
length is selected, the comb carrier moves until the number of fibres under the
lighthouse is equal to the number of fibres corresponding to that span length. The
span length is then indicated by the ‘Length’ counter, which indicates, in mm, the
movement of the comb carrier. Now there are two counters t set the amount and
these two corresponding Length counter to give two length i.e., 2.5 per cent and
50 per cent simultaneously.
Working
The combs are placed in the instrument as shown in fig. so that the fibres can be
scanned. A narrow slit is provided in which the photo electric cell A is placed. Over
the slit, the combed fibres are placed. Above the fibres, a fluorescent tubular light
is provided. Another light from an incandescent lamp through a glass screen falls
onto a second photo cell B. The intensity of this light can be varied by rotating the
right hand-hand wheel. If the current passing through the photo cell A is matched
by the current passing through the photo cell B then the system is in balance and
the galvanometer will show null deflection.
Fibre Testing 33

B – Photocell; LvLight Source; C – Fibre length; p – Pen; D – Card;

H – Card Holder; E – Comb; G – Galvanometer; S1 – Scanning slit;
S2 – Glass Screen; W1 – LH Hand Wheel; W2 – RH Hand Wheel.
Figure 2.5: (C) Working of Digital Fibrograph.

The fibre fringe is so positioned that the centre line of the scanning slit coincides
with a line ¼ inch away from the comb teeth. In this condition, the right hand- hand
wheel is turned to give an optical balance. The fringes are now traversed upwards
by the left hand – hand wheel which imparts corresponding movement to a pen.
The vertical displacement of the pen thus registers the fibre length. As the fibres are
going up, the obstruction to the light by the fibres becomes less and the amounts
of light through the photo cell a increases. The extent of increase is measured by
rotating the right hand –hand wheel, which not only adjust the current through the
cell B but also traverses the card horizontally. The horizontal displacement of the
pen relative to the card is thus taken to represent the changes in relative number
of fibres during scanning. By rotating both LH and RH wheels simultaneously, we
get a smooth length – frequency curve which is called as Fibrogram. Time taken
for one test is 10 minutes.
Digital Fibrogram may be analyzed graphically to yield various length
parameters of interest to the producers and users of cotton. The tangent to the curve
at its starting point A cuts OY at P and OX at M. Then OM is the mean length of the
fibres in the original population longer than 0.15 inch (3.8 mm). If OP is bisected at
Q and the tangent to the curve from Q cuts OX at R, then OR is the upper-half mean
length, UHML, and the ratio of OM to OR is a valid index of uniformity.
 34 Textile Testing

Analysis of the Fibrogram

The fibrogram obtained from fibrograph is shown in Figure 2.6. From the
point X which is either the starting point of the pen ¼ inch above the base line, a
tangent is drawn to the curve, which meets OX at the point N and OY at the point
A. Measure OA which is the mean length. Measure ON, take a point S which is half
of ON. Draw another tangent from S to the curve meeting the like OY at T. Measure
OT ie, Upper Half Mean length. The upper Half Mean length is the mean length of
the longer 50 per cent of the fibres in the sample from which the clamped fibre test
specimen was prepared. Getting the two values, mean length and upper half mean
length, uniformity ratio of the sample can be measured which is the ratio between
mean length and upper half mean length expressed as a percentage.

Figure 2.6: Fibrogram of Length Measurement.

Fibre Testing 35

2.5 per cent Span length

It is defined as the distance spanned by 2.5 per cent of fibres in the specimen
being tested when the fibres are parallelized and randomly distributed and where
the initial starting point of the scanning in the test is considered 100 per cent. This
length is measured using “DIGITAL FIBROGRAPH”.
50 per cent Span Length
It is defined as the distance spanned by 50 per cent of fibres in the specimen
being tested when the fibres are parallelized and randomly distributed and where
the initial starting point of the scanning in the test is considered 100 per cent.
This length is measured using “DIGITAL FIBROGRAPH”. For the span lengths
measured, average the results for all specimens in inches to two decimal places
or in millimeters to one decimal place. Calculate the Uniformity ratio by dividing
the average of the shorter span lengths by the average of the longer span lengths.
Multiply the ratio by 100 to convert it to a percentage and round it off to a whole
number
i.e., Uniformity Ratio = 50 per cent span length/2.5 per cent span length x 100
Limitations
Fibrograph: Beard of fibres is prepared by picking the fibres randomly from the
sample by a comb and loose fibres brushed aside. The beard is optically scanned
from the base to tip from which a fibrogram is drawn. The comb has 28 needles/
inch. Since long fibres have a proportionally higher probability to be caught by comb
this results in a length biased sample. The instrument based on this principle was
developed by Hertel. Upper half mean length, mean length and Uniformity index
are determined from the fibrogram by drawing tangents to the curve. ASTM D1447
- 07(2012) gives the Standard Test Method for Length and Length Uniformity of
Cotton Fibers by instruments like Fibrograph. Mechanization of measurement of
length in the instrument resulted in servo fibrograph.
Merits
1. Simulates beard formed by fibres held by back or front roller nip of a
drafting system
2. Very rapid (about 1 - 4 min per sample)
3. Does not depend much upon operator skill
4. Effective length is close to graders staple length
5. Provides accurate estimate of short fibre content

2.2. Measurement of Fibre Fineness

Micronaire is one of the two most important fibre characteristics for
international cotton classers and spinners. Micronaire is an indicator of air
permeability. It is regarded as an indication of both fineness (linear density) and
 36 Textile Testing

maturity (degree of cell-wall development). For a given type of cotton, a relatively

low micronaire has been used as a predictor of problems in processing, but a low
micronaire may also indicate fine fibres with adequate maturity. Similarly, growers
may be discounted for high micronaire when, in fact, the fibres have adequate
fineness and good maturity, because high micronaire fibres are normally coarse,
which is undesirable from the point of view of spinning and yarn evenness.
Air Flow Principle
In this method, fibre fineness is measured by air flow. If large amount of air
is blown, the fibre will be coarse and if small amount of air is blown, the fibre
will be fine. The method based on this principle. This is an indirect method of
measuring fibre fineness which is based on the fact that the airflow at a given
pressure difference through a uniformly distributed mass of fibres is determined
by the total surface area of the fibres.

(a) (b)

Figure 2.7: Measurement of Fibre Fineness by Airflow Method.

The surface area of a fibre (length X circumference) is proportional to its

diameter but for a given weight of sample the number of fibres increases with the
fibre fineness so that the specific surface area (area per unit weight) is inversely
proportional to fibre diameter; Figure 2.7 shows this diagrammatically. Because
the airflow varies with pressure difference it is the ratio of airflow to differential
pressure that is determined by the fibre diameter. Therefore the method can be
used to measure either the airflow at constant pressure or the pressure drop at
constant airflow. The measurement of airflow at constant pressure is the more
usual form of apparatus with wool. For fibres of approximately circular cross-
section and constant overall density such as unmedullated wool, the estimate of
Fibre Testing 37

fineness corresponds to the average fibre diameter as determined by the projection

microscope with a good degree of accuracy.
Fibre Fineness Measurement by Projection Microscope
The projection microscope is the standard method for measuring wool fibre
diameter, and all other methods have to be checked for accuracy against it. The
method is also applicable to any other fibres with a circular cross-section. The
method involves preparing a microscope slide of short lengths of fibre which is then
viewed using a microscope that projects an image of the fibres onto a horizontal
screen for ease of measurement. The apparatus is shown diagrammatically in Figure
2.8. Techniques are followed that avoid bias and ensure a truly random sample.

Figure 2.8: Projection Microscope.

Method of Test
A suitable random and representative sample is conditioned for 24 h in a
standard testing atmosphere. Using a modified Hardy microtome the fibres are
cut to a suitable length (0.4mm for fibres below 27 (µm) and a slide is prepared
 38 Textile Testing

by carefully mixing the fibres into the mountant. The use of short fibres gives a
length-biased sample so that proportionally more of the longer fibres will have
their diameter measured. The mounting agent should be non-swelling and have a
suitable refractive index (for example liquid paraffin). The mixture of fibres and
mountant is spread thinly on the slide and covered with a cover glass, carefully
avoiding air bubbles and finger prints.
The slide is placed on the stage, cover glass down (microscope inverted) and
fibres are selected for measurement in the following way. The slide is traversed in a
zigzag fashion, measuring every fibre that complies with the following requirements:
1 has more than half its length visible in the 7.5cm circle which is drawn in the
centre of the field of view; 2 is not in contact with any other fibre at the point of
measurement. The traverse of the slide is continued until the required number of
fibres has been measured. The magnification of the microscope is adjusted to be
50Ox so that on the scale used to measure the fibres each millimeter represents
2 um. For accurate tests three slides should be measured from randomly selected
areas of the material and not less than 150 fibres per slide should be measured.
The coefficient of variation of diameter for unblended wool lies between 20 per
cent and 28 per cent. From this value the number of tests to give certain confidence
limits has been calculated.
Sheffield Micronaire Tester
The specific surface area which determines the flow of air through a cotton
plug, is dependent not only upon the linear density of the fibres in the sample but
also upon their maturity. Hence the micronaire readings have to be treated with
caution particularly when testing samples varying widely in maturity.
In the micronaire instrument, a weighed quantity of 3.24gram of well opened
cotton sample is compressed into a cylindrical container of fixed dimensions.
Compressed air is forced through the sample, at a definite pressure and the volume-
rate of flow of air is measured by a rotometer type flow meter. The sample for
Micronaire test should be well opened cleaned and thoroughly mixed (by hand
fluffing and opening method).
Out of the various air-flow instruments, the Micronaire is robust in construction,
easy to operate and presents little difficulty as regards its maintenance. By
measuring the rate of air flow under controlled conditions, the specific surface
area (s) of fibre can be determined and consequently the fibre diameter (also the
fibre weight/unit length). a) Measurement of air flow at a constant pressure drop.
b) Measurement of pressure drop at a constant air flow.
Air flow 1/S
Specific Surface Area (S) = (pdl/(pd2/4) x l) α 1/D
Procedure
The Micronaire instrument works in conjunction with an air-compressor.
Fibre Testing 39

Figure 2.9: Sheffield Micronaire Tester.

The latter, through the pressure regulation system supplies air to the Micronaire
instrument at the constant pressure of 0.33 kg/cm2 (4.7 PSI for the Sheffield
Micronaire). Initially, the instrument is calibrated with the master-plug. A test
specimen of 3.24g is weighed and well opened by hand. It is then placed into the
cylindrical chamber of the Micronaire instrument. The fibre compression plunger is
inserted into the cylinder and locked by turning. The air at definite pressure is forced
through the sample and the volume rate of airflow is measured on the scale to the
nearest 0.1 scale unit at the point level with the top of rotometer type float. Usually
two specimens are taken from each cotton and duplicate tests are carried out on
each specimen. The second test on each specimen is carried out by removing the
specimen from the chamber and repacking it in the reverse direction. The sample
for the Micronaire test should be well opened, cleaned and thoroughly mixed.
The fineness scale in the Sheffield Micronaire is suitable only for very fine and
medium fine cottons. The coarse desi varieties of cotton give a high reading beyond
the range of the scale, necessitating the determination of fibre fineness by direct
gravimetric method which is time-consuming. Recently two techniques (a) by using
a plug of 60 grains (3.89g) sample weight and normal air pressure of 6 psi; and (b)
by suing a plug of 50 grains (3.24 g) sample weight and reduced air pressure of 4
psi, were tried at the Laboratory whereby the flow meter reading could be kept
within the range of the Micronaire scale. Both the testing methods were found to
be accurate for predicting fineness. The first method is recommended for testing
very coarse desi varieties of Indian cottons.
WIRA Cotton Fineness Meter
A new version of WIRA Cotton Fineness Meter has been marketed by the Shirley
Developments Ltd. The scale of this instrument is graduated in Micronaire units.
 40 Textile Testing

It takes a 5g sample. The standard samples for the calibration of instrument are
provided by the Shirley Institute.
Arealometer
The instrument is portable and it measures the parameters such as specific
surface area, fibre weight and immaturity ratio. A small sample of 152 mg is used.
The instrument is similar to the Wheatstone bridge in which the three of the
resistances consist of copper capillaries and the fourth is the fibre plug under test.
Port-Air
The resistance a plug of cotton fibres offers to the flow of air is measured as
an approximate indication of the fineness of fibre. A predetermined mass of loose
cotton fibres is placed in the specimen holder and compressed to a fixed volume, the
resistance to air flow is measured and expressed as Micronaire reading. Instruments
available to measure resistance to air flow use compressed air or vacuum and are
constructed to measure air flow under constant pressure drop across the plug, to
measure pressure drop when a constant flow of air is maintained. The Micronaire
reading of cotton fibres is a function of both fineness and maturity and is related
to mill processing performance and to the quality of the end products. Factors
correlated with Micronaire reading include cleaning efficiency, neppiness, and the
strength and uniformity of the yarn. This portable instrument does not require
compressed air or electric power for operation. It determines the Micronaire value
and equivalent fibre thickness (in terms of specific surface area). The instrument
is provided with Micronaire scale ranging from 2.5 to 7. Port-Air does not need a
separate balance for weighing. It tests a specimen of 8 g.
Speedar
It measures specific surface area. This instrument does not require any fixed
weight of sample. Any weight between 5g to 10g can be used. Therefore, it is
speedier in testing the sample.
ATIRA Fineness Tester
In this instrument, air pressure is built up by pumping air by hand into a small
tank containing a loosely fitting float. This arrangement maintains fairly constant
air pressure when the float descends in the tank. The escaping air flows through an
adjustable needle valve connected in series with the sample chamber. An accurately
weighted 5g quantity of the fluffed sample is taken in the sample chamber and
compressed into a plug of fixed dimensions by the perforated piston. The junction
of the needle valve and the sample chamber is connected to a reservoir manometer,
the calibrated portion of which is in an inclined position to spread out the scale
increase the sensitivity. When the air from the air tank flows out under constant
pressure through the regulated needle valve and the cotton sample, the manometer
indicates directly the fibre fineness in micrograms per inch. This instrument is
Fibre Testing 41

also provided with an MH scale, as this scale is believed to agree better with the
air-flow than the fibre weight sale.

2.3. Determination of Maturity

Fibre maturity (in case of Cotton Fibre) is a fibre characteristic which expresses
the relative degree of thickening of the fibre wall. In other words, it is the measure
of primary and secondary wall thickness. The fibre maturity is usually estimated by
several indirect tests which are used to find out the proportion of fibres containing
a maturity greater than some selected level. A fibre will be matured if a high degree
of wall thickening took place into the fibre content during cotton growth. Related
Standards: ISO 236: 1968, ASTM D1442-00
Textile Fibre Maturity Depends
There are several factors upon which the fibre maturity is basically depends. By
changing these factors you can also measure that which factors is working behind
to be a fibre matured or which not. The factors are:
1. Weather: If the weather doesn’t favor, the fibre gets less chance to be
matured.
2. Types of Soil: It is proved that, in some country the fibres grows well and
becomes well matured and on some other country; due to the soil, fibres
don’t be so much matured and grows low quality fibres.
3 Plant Diseases: If proper care is not taken to the fibres, these become less
matured due to several diseases.
4. Pests: Some pests are good for Plants and some are bad. So be careful to
apply any pesticides on any plants.
5. Dead Fibres: It is natural that the dead fibres will be immature.

Swelling Method
Instruments Used for Testing
Microscope, Glass slides, and cover slips, Scissors, forceps, glass rod, 18 per
cent Sodium hydroxide solution, draw box.
Working Principle of Instrument
Approximately 100 fibres are placed between slits and viewed under a
projection microscope. The fibres are carefully spread in the glass slides, covered
with another glass slide after adding a drop of sodium hydroxide. This causes
swelling of fibres to give a better appearance.
Instrument Description
Radial Projection Microscope is a versatile instrument of universal application
designed for all stages of textile production. It is compact, dust proof and light
weight. The test object projected on the screen in desired magnification can be
 42 Textile Testing

analyzed. Adjustments require very few operations so that the user is free to
concentrate on the image on the screen.
Sample Preparation
P The fibres are opened and cleaned. The tuft is prepared from which the
sample is to be tested.
P 18 per cent caustic soda solution is also prepared which is used to swell
the fibres.

Sample Size
100 – 200 fibres approximately.
Working Procedure
It is most commonly used method. A thin tuft of fibre is drawn by means of
tweezers from a sliver help in a comb sorter. The tuft is laid on a microscope and
a cover slip put over the middle of the tuft. Likewise tour or eight slides are pre
planed. There are two step involved in this method, treatment with 18 per cent
caustic soda and Examination under a microscope to count the mature, half mature
and immature fibre. The fibres on the microscope slide are then saturated with
small amount of 18 per cent caustic soda solution which is swelling them. The slide
is then placed on stage of microscope and examined.
Specifications
P Observation screen : 200mm
P Graduated screen
P Coaxial halogen lamp
P Mechanical stage of size: 135×120mm
P Magnification : 125X to 1000X

Procedure
P 100 – 200 fibres are removed approximately from the bundle in their
lengthwise direction.
P The fibres are placed on a microscope slide and spread carefully to a
width of 30mm to 40mm.
P A drop of mounting medium ie sodium hydroxide is placed and covered
with another glass plate.
P This 18 per cent caustic soda spreads without any air bubbles and causes
swelling of fibres.
P The presence/absence of convolutions is observed by placing the slide
in the microscope.
Fibre Testing 43

P Mature fibres have a well-developed cell wall and appear rod-like after
swelling.
P Immature fibres are ribbon-like with convolutions.
P Half mature fibre lies between these two classes.
P The number of mature, half mature and immature fibres are counted and
calculations are performed.

Figure 2.10: (a) Parts of the cotton (b) Cross section view of cotton (c) Longitudinal
view of cotton (d) Cross sectional view of maturity of fibre.

Calculation
P Percentage of mature fibres (PM) = (M ÷ t) × 100
Where, M = total number of mature fibres,
and t = total number of observations.
P Percentage of half-mature fibres =(H ÷ t) × 100
P Percentage of immature fibres =(I ÷ t) × 10
Where M, H, I are no of mature, no of half mature, no of immature fibres.
P Maturity ratio MR = (N-D/200) + 0.7
N – Percentage of normal fibres
P – Percentage of dead fibres
 44 Textile Testing

P Maturity coefficient MC = (M+0.6(H)+ 0.4(I))/100

M – Percentage of mature fibres
I – Percentage of immature fibres
H – Percentage of half-mature fibres

Measurement of Maturity
Fibre maturity can be directly measured with tests of samples on the Uster
AFIS®PRO, L and M modules while performing tests for fibre length. Fibre maturity
can also be measured by placing a sample fibre tuft between microscopic slides,
irrigating the tuft with a small quantity of 18 per cent caustic soda and projecting
the swollen fibres on the screen of a projection microscope. Mature as well as ‘Dead’
fibres are counted. The mature fibre swell, the dead fibres do not swell. Similarly,
the half mature and immature fibres can be counted.
Circularity
Circularity Τ, is given by the ratio of fibre wall thickness (shown as shaded
area in Figure 2.9) by the area of the circle of same perimeter.

Figure 2.11: Circularity.

where,
A = Cross sectional area of wall thickness
P = Perimeter
Θ = 0.577 when maturity factor is unity. Empirical relation between per cent
mature and dead fibres and Τ is
Θ = 0.00309(N-D) + 0.403
Fibre Testing 45

A value of N-D = 60 is taken as standard, Τs, standard circularity is given by

Τs = 0.59
Maturity ratio can be estimated by the following equation

Maturity Ratio = = + 0.7

Where N = per cent of fibres with Θ > 0.5 and

D = per cent of fibres with Θ < 0.25
Degree of Thickening

Figure 2.12: Degree of Thickening.

Degree of thickening is given by

where,
T= wall thickness and
P = Perimeter

Xu4 et al., found good correlation between degree of thickness and circularity
which represent independent measures of maturity. Matic-Leigh and Cauthen found
a curvilinear relationship between the two as shown in Figure 2.13.
Fineness (H)
Fineness expressed as weight per unit length (H) is related to area of wall
thickness (A) by
H=ρA
Where ρ is density of cellulose in wall, which is 1.52 gms/cm3
Specific Surface Area (S)
HS which is standard hair weight per cm is given by H/M
Specific surface area per gm S = P/H = 3.8 √HS/H = 3.8/√MH
as Perimeter P = 3.8√HS
 46 Textile Testing

Figure 2.13: Relation between Circularity and Degree of Thickening.

Maturity Factor
Matic-Leigh and Cauthen define maturity factor by (Figure 2.14).

Figure 2.14: Maturity Factor.

Maturity Factor, Mf =

Where D = Effective circular diameter obtained by dividing perimeter P by π,

t = Wall thickness of cross sectional area,
L = Lumen diameter
Fibre Testing 47

Mf =

Wall thickness is given by

Wall thickness area is obtained by subtracting lumen area from cross sectional
area. Ratio of maximum to minimum fibre width along longitudinal direction is
correlated with maturity. Xu and Huang contend that from maximum, minimum,
mean and Standard deviation of widths of each fibre maturity can be obtained by
the equation

where,
Wmean = Mean width of fibre
Wsd = SD of width

Barker has developed a method for determining circularity of fibre cross

section from longitudinal measurement.
Fullness
Fullness, which is considered a better estimate of maturity, is given by

P2

where,
A = Overall area of cross section,
Al = Area of lumen cross section
Amax = Area of the circle with same perimeter P

Gravimetric Method
Fibres are counted either as whole fibres or after being cut to a finite length
(about 1.5 cm) under a microscope and weighed in a sensitive balance. About 500
to 1000 fibres have to be weighed to get accurate results Time consuming
Polarized Microscope Method (ASTM D1442- 06)
Maturity is determined by interference colour of fibres under polarized
microscope of 100 X with first order retardation plate.
 48 Textile Testing

P Immature – Blue, Purple

P Half mature - Green – Yellow with blue parts, Green, Blue
P Mature - Orange or Yellow, Green

Schwarz and Hotte have given a detailed account of how the test should be
done and the precautions to be taken.
Merits: Less subjective than caustic soda method as there is less confusion
between mature and immature fibres
Limitation: Measurement is likely to be influenced by total wall area. Lower
maturity is obtained with cottons with lower maturity.
Differential Dyeing
Fibres get dyed in boiling dye bath containing.036g Diphenyl Fast Red 5 BL
and.084g Chloarantine Fast green BLL in 120g of water. Red dye has specific affinity
for thick walled mature fibres and green dye has affinity for thin walled immature
fibres. As a result mature fibre is dyed to red Immature fibre is dyed to Green. By
visual comparison of the dyed samples against standards, maturity of the sample
is estimated. Rebenfeld and Wu present a method for quantitative estimation of
maturity to minimize subjective errors. Dyes from differentially dyed sample are
extracted and analyzed under spectrophotometer to determine Green/Red uptake.
Green/Red uptake shows a highly significant correlation with maturity. Estimation
of maturity by differential technique is based on the fact that immature fibres being
less crystalline absorb more dye.
Merits: Quick method, useful for mill application
Limitation: Not very accurate
Air Flow Methods
Airflow methods are based on resistance to flow of through a plug of fibres.
The rate of airflow is proportional to the reciprocal of square of specific surface
area of fibre. If M is maturity ratio, H is fibre weight per unit length then specific
surface area S is given by

S = 3.8

Micronaire (ASTM D1448-11)

Determines rate of flow of air through a known mass of fibres (3.24 grams)
packed in a cylinder of known dimensions under constant pressure. This is
expressed in mirograms/inch. Micronaire value is dependent upon not only liner
density but also on maturity of fibres. Micronaire, Mc which indicates rate of
airflow is therefore proportional to as shown earlier. Based on a study of
Fibre Testing 49

100 cottons Lord found the following relation between Micronaire and Fineness
and maturity of cotton.
MH = 3.86 (Mc)2 + 18.16 Mc +13
H in turn is equal to M × HS where HS is intrinsic fineness or fibre weight. HS
depends upon the perimeter of fibre cross section.
Precaution
The cotton should be opened into a fluffy mass before being packed into the
sample older. Trash and foreign matter should be removed by cleaning. Tests should
be carried out in a laboratory where humidity and temperature are maintained at
standard level. Calibration should be done with International cotton calibration
standards with a low Micronaire and high Micronaire cotton. Micronaire is
calibrated on the basis of testing of American upland cottons in terms of microgms/
inch and therefore a correction may be needed while testing India and Egyptian
cottons.
Micromat Fineness and Maturity Tester by SDL
The instrument provides independent estimates of fineness and maturity of
cotton from measurements of pressure drop through a plug of cotton at 2 levels
of compression.
Arealometer
The instrument determines specific surface area, fineness and maturity of
fibres. Resistance to air flow through a plug of fibres is measured at two pressure
levels. The increase in resistance to air flow at low porosity (high compression)
over that at high porosity is correlated to immaturity of cotton. It is proposed
that immature fibres get flattened at high compression and therefore offer higher
resistance to air flow. While the instrument is useful for measuring of fineness and
maturity on raw cotton, it does not give accurate results on mechanically processed
material. On the other hand, Balasubramanian et al., found that Micronaire value
by both conventional and HVI testing do not show any significant change from raw
cotton to Lap, card sliver, comber sliver and finisher drawing sliver. Worley et al.,
found the following relationship between Micronaire (Mic) and Arealometer (Ar)
Mic = 17.146 -0.044268 Ar + 0.000032 Ar2
The instrument is not widely used like Micronaire.
Speedar
Speedar is a high speed airflow instrument to measure specific surface area.
Instrument is much faster as there is no need to weigh the specimen. Using specimen
between 5 to 10 gm, equipment automatically adjusts itself to weight of specimen.
Merits: Much faster, not widely used.
 50 Textile Testing

Port Air
Port air is a portable instrument which uses 8 gm sample. It gives Micronaire
value and Equivalent thickness (FT). Its main merit is that it can be used in the field.
FT = 2000/A, Where A = specific surface area
HVI (ASTM D5867-05)
HVI incorporates Micronaire or Micromat as one of the modules for determining
fibre fineness. Testing procedure is same as in standard Micronaire except that that
the sample need not be weighed to the exact level. Microcomputers are incorporated
to test the specimen for a range of weights. For estimating maturity, Shirley HMT
instrument or near infrared spectroscopy is used.
Advanced Fibre Information System (AFIS)
AFIS employs scattered infra red light from a single fibre to determine fineness
and maturity. An aeromechanical separator separates the fibres to individual level
Shape of the fibre is viewed by sensor optically to determine fineness. Each fibre is
viewed at different angles to determine the shape. Maturity ratio of fibre is given
by the ratio of high degree (Τ ≥ 0.5) and low degree (Τ ≤ 0.25) wall thickening of
fibres. Instrument also gives fibre fineness fraction which is per cent of fibres with
fibre cross sectional area by number, less than 60µm2.
Merits: Rapid, requires small sample about 500mg, no subjective errors,
Limitation: requires calibration, costly
Near Infrared Spectroscopy (NRI)
Maturity is determined by distinctly different absorbance spectra. It has 3
components viz; spectrophotometer, sample presentation system and chemometric
software. Photons in the light that strike the fibre are scattered away from detector
and do not fall on detector. Specific surface area of the fibre determines the intensity
of light falling on the detector. NRI uses this principle for determining fineness
and maturity of fibre. A minimum of 5 gm of cotton fibre compressed in a cell is
placed in quartz bottom cell and NRI spectrophotometer placed in it scans the
sample. Software determines Micronaire, maturity ratio and fineness from the
spectral analysis. As NRI is a secondary measurement, it should be calibrated
with HVI or other classical instruments. Maturity and Fineness by bench type and
portable NRI systems show good agreement but the former is more accurate. NRI
measurements show good agreement with FMT in regard to maturity, fineness
and Micronaire. Optimum instrumental conditions for NRI is with the use of a
glass-covered sampling port and increased instrumental gain, with high R 2 values,
low residuals, and with < or = 12 per cent outliers. Ramsey used NRI instrument
with wavelengths 1.53, 1.97 and 2.32µm to determine fineness properties. High
correlation (.89 and above) was found with Micronaire and Arealometer in regard
to Micronaire value, causticare maturity index, specific surface area and cross
Fibre Testing 51

sectional area. Technical and instrumental time is less with NRI compared to other
instruments except for Micronaire.
Merits: Test is very rapid compared to FMT, Arealometer and Micronaire. It
is easy to use, more accurate and non destructive.
Limitation: Equipment is costly and requires to be calibrated with calibration
cottons
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy can also be used to determine
Micronaire and specific surface area of cotton with good accuracy. But it cannot
be used for accurate measurement of maturity.
Thermogravimetric (TGA)
Weight loss in Thermogravimetric (TGA) analysis in the region 225 to 425°C is
significantly related to maturity of cotton. Weight loss shows a significant negative
correlation with HVI Micronaire, and maturity ratio by AFIS. This method can also
used to determine maturity and Micronaire.
Cotton Scan
Cotton scan is an instrument by CSIRO for determining fibre fineness. Fineness
is estimated from total length and weight of fibres cut to short lengths or snippets.
Pre weighed fibre snippets are suspended in an aqueous medium and image analysis
is used to measure total length.
Cotton Scope
Cotton scope is an automated instrument for measuring fineness and maturity
of cotton employing birefringence property of the fibre. The equipment is based on
image analysis and polarized microscopy on small cut fibres (snippets) suspended
in water medium. Mature fibres appear with a red hue and immature fibres appear
translucent. From the total length and weight of snippets fineness is estimated.
Standard test involves measurement on 2000 snippets in 25 - 35 sec.
Merits: Rapid, accurate, requires small sample about 50 mg, free from
subjective errors
Limitation: Needs calibration, Costly, Maintenance of temperature and
humidity at the level used in calibration is important to get accurate results of
fineness.
Siromat
Siromat is an automated polarized microscope for measuring maturity. Use of
digital colour cameras, Image analysis and powerful computer enables accurate
measurement of interference colours transmitted by fibre, from which fibre
maturity is estimated. The instrument is calibrated in terms of maturity ratio.
Merits: Rapid
Limitation: Not accurate, shows poor correlation with manual results.
 52 Textile Testing

UAK-1+ by ITRU
The tester uses image analysis of longitudinal images of single fibres to
determine fibre fineness and maturity through sophisticated algorithms. Other
parameters displayed are circularity coefficient, fibre perimeter, area of wall,
standard fibre fineness, causticare maturity per cent, degree of fibre flatness and
micronaire value. Time taken for test is 20 – 40 sec.
Merits: Rapid
Limitation: Expensive, accuracy not well established

2.4. Fibre Strength

Fibre strength is generally considered to be next to fibre length and fineness in
the order of importance amongst fibre properties and for cottons beyond a certain
staple length this property assumes greater significance. The different measures
available for reporting fibre strength are ‘breaking strength’, ‘tensile strength’ and
‘tenacity or intrinsic strength’. Breaking strength denotes the maximum tension
the fibre is able to sustain before it breaks. In the case of cotton fibre, it depends
upon various factors such as the inherent strength of the material constituting
it, the number and intensity of weak places and the area of cross-section of the
fibre. It is mainly due to the last factor that coarse cottons generally record higher
values for fibre breaking strength than finer ones. Therefore, in order to compare
strength of two cottons differing in fineness, it is necessary to eliminate the effect
of the difference in cross sectional area by calculating from the values the fibre
strength per unit cross sectional area. However, the determination of the area of
cross-section is difficult in the case of cotton fibres due to irregular shape of the
cross-sections. Hence it is a common practice to divide the breaking load by the
fibre weight per unit length which can be taken as proportional to cross-sectional
area, assuming the density to be the same for all varieties of cotton. The value so
obtained is known as ‘intrinsic strength’ or ‘tenacity’. Intrinsic strength is found
to be better related to spinning quality than the breaking strength. The strength
characteristics can be determined either on individual fibres or on bundles of fibres.
Principle
The instruments generally used for determining the tensile strength or the
‘load extension’ diagram of textile materials can be classified into three groups,
based on the principle used for the application of load, namely, those of:
(i) The rate of traverse (CRT)
(ii) The constant rate of specimen elongation (CRE)
(iii) The constant rate of loading (CRL) types.

(i) Constant Rate of Traverse

In the instruments of the CRT type, the specimen is held between two clamps,
one of which (the lower clamp in a vertical arrangement) is traversed at a constant
Fibre Testing 53

speed to exert a load on the specimen. The other clamp works against a spring
or a pendulum suitable weighted. The load on the specimen is measured by the
extension of the spring or the swing of the pendulum, as the case may be. In these
instruments, the rate of loading depends on the extensibility of the specimen and
hence will vary with the type of specimen under test. In the case of instruments
using a pendulum principle, the errors due to inertia are appreciable. As there is
a time lag before the pendulum is accelerated to the required speed, there will be
a lag in the rate of loading in the initial stages, while at the later stages there is a
likelihood of the pendulum overshooting beyond the breaking load of the specimen.
(ii) Constant Rate of Specimen Elongation
In the instruments of the CRE type, the application of load is made in such
a way that the rate of elongation of the specimen is kept constant. This can be
accomplished by modifying the CRT instruments suitably so as to render negligible
movement of the upper clamp. For this purpose, the upper clamp is fixed to a stiff
support and the load on this support is measured by suitable means such as a strain
gauge as in the case of the Instron Tester.
(iii) Constant Rate of Loading
In the instruments of the CRL type, the mode of application of load is such
that the rate of loading is constant throughout the duration of the test. This can
be effected by the sliding of a weight down an inclined plane or by the extension
of a spring or flow of water at a constant rate etc. The CRL type of instruments is
usually preferred for accurate scientific work in view of the case of interpretation
of the results obtained with these instruments. In the CRE and the CRL types
of instruments, it is easy to adjust the ‘time-to-break’ while this adjustment is
not easy in the CRT type of instruments. The test results with the CRE and the
CRL instruments show less variation than those obtained with the CRT type of
instruments as in the latter the rate of loading is dependent on the extensibility of
the specimen. Hence, where accurate interpretation of results is required the CRT
instruments are not recommended although these are widely used in view of the
ease of operation and rapidity of testing. Some instruments like the Instron can be
made to function both on the CRE and the CRL principles.
Single Fibre Strength
The tenacity of a fibre is dependent upon many factors related to its structure
and the conditions under which the test is carried out. The structural features
contributing to strength are the chain length of the molecules, their orientation
and the size and distribution of the crystallites. Testing conditions which affect
the strength values are as mentioned earlier, the gauge length used, the rate of
loading, the type of instrument employed and the relative humidity prevailing in
the testing room.
 54 Textile Testing

Universal Tensile Tester

This is a robust and versatile instrument used for measurement of a variety of
mechanical properties. Its versatility rests in the fact that it is capable of recording
the tensile load-elongation curves of a range of samples from single fibres to thick
fabric strips, which cover a wide spectrum of mechanical characteristics. The
specimen under test is clamped between two jaws. The upper jaw is suspended
from the ‘load cell’ which is the load sensing device, while the lower jaw is mounted
on the ‘cross-head’ which can be moved up and down at controlled speeds. The
crosshead speed, which decides the rate of extension of the specimen, can be
varied from 0.05 cm/min to 50 cm/min in 12 steps. The choice of the suitable load
cell from among the four cells which cover a range from 2 g to 500 kg. is made in
accordance with the load requirements of the specimen under test.
The load cell contains a bonded wire type of strain gauge which consists
essentially of a cantilever beam with a resistance wire bonded to the surface. The
upper jaw carrying the specimen is suspended from the free end of the cantilever
beam such that the tension developed in the specimen leads to an infinitesimally
small bending of the beam. As a result, the wire bonded to the beam increases
in length and hence in electrical resistance in proportion to the tension in the
specimen. Since this resistance wire forms one arm of a weigh stone bridge circuit,
which is excited by an oscillator and which remains normally balanced, any tension
in the specimen would cause misbalance in the circuit. The resulting signal is
amplified to operate a recorder pen. Thus when the test specimen is extended, the
recorder pen moves across the chart through a distance proportional to the tension
in the specimen. Since the deflection of the end of the beam is infinitesimally small,
the Instron works as a ‘constant-rate-of-extension’ instrument when the crosshead
is moved at a steady rate.
The crosshead and chart are driven synchronously through magnetic clutches
and convenient gears to provide a choice of constant and reversible extension
speeds. The chart movement can be varied to achieve a range of extension
magnifications. As a result of the simultaneous movement of the pen and the chart,
the former responding to the tension in the specimen and the latter synchronized
to the specimen extension; the trace on the chart represents the load-elongation
curve. The Instron is also equipped with an Integrator which is a convenient device
for obtaining the area under the load-elongation curve which measures the work
of rupture.
Bundle Strength
The determination of strength on individual fibres, as discussed above, involved
considerable amount of time as tests have to be made on a large number of fibres
in view of the high variability in fibre strength. Moreover in actual practice, fibres
are not used individually but in groups, such as in yarns or fabrics. Thus, bundles
or groups of fibres come into play during the tensile break of yarns or fabrics.
Further, the correlation between spinning performance and bundle strength is
Fibre Testing 55

at least as high as that between spinning performance and intrinsic strength

determined by testing individual fibres. The testing of bundles of fibres takes
less time and involves less strain than testing individual fibres. In view of these
considerations, determination of breaking strength of fibre bundles has assumed
greater importance than single fibre strength tests.
Instruments for Bundle Strength Determination
In the past, various methods were tried for the determination of bundle
strength. In one of the methods (which was being used at this laboratory), a small
tuft containing about 80 to 120 fibres was taken and the ends fixed between two
pairs of paper strips by means of some good adhesive, taking care to see that the
test length was 1 cm; the paper strips were gripped between the jaws of a schopper
testing machine and the bundle broken in the usual manner. The bundle strength
that was recorded on the machine was divided by the number of fibres in the
bundle to get an idea of the strength realized per fibre. In this category mainly two
instruments are in use.
1. Pressley Strength Tester
2. Stelometer

Pressley Strength Tester

It works on the principle of inclined plane apparatus. Now this instrument
is not much in use because of service limiting factors. Error is likely to occur on
account of the fact that the tension applied to straighten the fibres while keeping
them in the clamps and the torque applied for tightening the jaw screws would

C1 – Top Clamp; C2 – Bottom Clamp; D – Rolling Weight;

F – Ribbon of Fibre; G – Graduated beam.
Figure 2.15: Pressley Strength Tester.
 56 Textile Testing

vary from operator to operator. This error can be reduced by using a torque vice, in
which tension is adjusted to about 8 lb-in. (1.5 kg/cm). Further, as this instrument
works on the principle of constant but increases with the traverse of the moving
load carriage further away from the initial position; hence, for bundles having
higher breaking strength, the rate of loading at breaking point would be higher
than that for bundles of lower strength. Also, there is an increased likelihood of
the rolling weight overshooting the breaking point before coming to rest in the
former case due to inertia.
The beam AB is pivoted at O. When B rises, the clamp C1 moves upwards.
Initially the beam have a slight inclination of a few degree to the horizontal. The
heavy rolling weight (W) when released from the catch, it rolls down the beam. A
‘O increases until the fibres break. As soon as the break occurs, the arm AO drops
and the brake arrangement stops the carriage instantly. The distance A’O is the
measure of breaking force. The scale is directly graduated on the beam AB.
Pressley Index = Breaking Load in Pound/Bundle weight in mg
Tensile strength (G/Tex) = 5.36 x Pressley Index
Stelometer
The Stelometer is a pendulum type of instrument in which, contrary to usual
practice, the pendulum weight remains stationary while the pendulum axis moves
through an arc. By means of a special dashpot device, the rotation of the pendulum
axis (beam) is controlled in such a manner that the rate of loading is approximately
constant. An arrangement has been provided to check the calibration of the
instrument and adjust the rate of loading. Normally, the rate of loading used is 1
kg/sec. A pointer, freely mounted on the axis and driven by a sensing pin mounted
on the pendulum, moves over a scale graduated from 2 to 7 kg. indicating the
breaking load. In addition, a smaller pointer suspended from the above indicates the
percentage elongation on an auxiliary scale. The indicators can be read to nearest
0.01 kg and 0.1 per cent for breaking load and elongation respectively.
The clamps, after removal of the protruding fibres, are loaded in the slots on
the top of the Stelometer and the beam is released. One part of the Pressley clamps
is held in the adjustable holder carried by the beam while the other is held in a
slot on the top end of the pendulum. The movement of the beam applies tension
to the bundle by pulling apart the two parts of the clamps. As soon as the bundle
breaks, the sensing pin falls away and the pointer stops immediately. The breaking
load can be read on the scale. The broken fibres are collected from the clamps and
the weight in milligrams determined accurately. Six bundles are tested by two
operators, on every sample. The bundle tenacity is obtained by dividing breaking
load by the weight of the sample.
Fibre Testing 57

Figure 2.16. Stelometer.

Correction Factor
Correction Factor = Standard value for calibration cotton/Observed value for
calibration cotton
After finding out the correction factor, the test values obtained on the
instrument are adjusted by this factor. Therefore, for any sample under test,
Adjusted value = Observed value x Correction factor
Stelometer value at zero (gauge length (g/tex)) = Breaking strength of bundle
in kg x 11.81/Weight of bundle in mg.
Stelometer value at 1/8 in.(gauge length (g/tex)) = Breaking strength of bundle
in kg x 15.0/Weight of bundle in mg.
Fibre Quality Index
In order to decide the quality characteristics of the cotton required for spinning
different counts with desired CSP values, a single measure for the overall quality of
cotton has been established by SITRA. This measure known as Fibre Quality Index
(FQI), is derived from the following formula:
 58 Textile Testing

FQI = lusm/f
where,
lu = Product of 2.5 per cent span length (l) in mm and uniformity ratio per
cent (u) measured on Digital Fibrograph divided by 100
s = Bundle strength in g/tex at 3mm gauge length (Stelometer)
m = Maturity coefficient
f = Fibre fineness as determined on Micronaire and expressed as Micronaire
value (micrograms/in.)

2.5. Determination of Trash and Lint Content

Determination of trash and lint content of material using trash analyzer is very
important according to following aspects.
P The amount of trash decides the quality of the material and gives an idea
whether to select or reject the lot.
P Raw material cost is decided while purchasing.
P As well as settings on different machines can be determined for better
cleaning efficiency (i.e. Blow room settings, carding and Comber machine
settings).

Sample
Cotton fibre about 50 gm.
Related Standards- IS 233 (Part 2): 1978, ASTM D2812.
Instrument Description
The trash analyzer works on the principle of buoyancy separation (air flotation
principle) by air currents. The trash analyzer consists of a feed roller, licker- in the
cylinder and a blower to open the fibers and separate lint and trash. The working
is similar that of a miniature carding machine.
Specifications of the Instrument
P Cover distance = 90 x 60 x 52 cm.
P Main motor = 3P, 1HP, 1440 rpm.
P Suction motor = 3P, 2880 rpm.
P Licker-in =1240 rpm.
P Feed roller = 26 rpm.

Sample Preparation
P The raw cotton is randomly selected from the bale.
P The sample is weighted accurately in the balance.
Fibre Testing 59

Figure 2.17: Shirley Trash Analyzer.

P The sample is opened by hand to a small extent before bringing feed into
trash analyzer.

Procedure
1. Clean the instrument and the containers.
2. Shake the specimen so that large particles of foreign matter i.e. husk,
leafs, stem particles, metal particles etc. (which may otherwise damage
the machine) are removed from the specimen. Keep these droppings
separately.
3. Open out the hard lumps of fibers, if present.
4. Spread the specimen on the feed plate in the form of an even layer.
5. Start the machine and let the trash and lint collect in their respective
compartments.
6. Take out the lint from the lint chamber and pass it again through the
machine without disturbing the discarded matter in the settling chamber.
7. Stop the machine and collect the lint (L1) from the lint chamber and keep
it in a separate container.
 60 Textile Testing

8. Remove all the discarded particles containing lint from the tray and
settling chamber and pass it through the machine.
9. Collect the lint (L2) and keep it in a separate chamber. Collect all the
discarded matter (T1) in the tray, settling chamber and any seeds clinging
to the wires of the licker– in the cylinder and combine them.
10. Weigh the discarded matter (T1) (to an accuracy of 100 mg and if the
weight is less than 10g, weight to an accuracy of 10 mg), which contains
lint again through the machine and ignore the discarded matter collected.
Collect the lint (L3) and keep it in a separate container. Weigh the lint
(L3) to an accuracy of 10 mg.
11. Combine all the portions of lint (L1, L2, and L3) and weight to an accuracy
of 10 mg.
12. The steps followed is shown in the flow chart as shown in the figure.

Calculation of Trash Content

Calculate the lint content, trash content (visible waste content), and the
invisible waste content as percentages of the original specimen by the following
formulae:
1. Lint content (L) per cent = [(L1+ L2+ L3) ÷ M] × 100
2. Trash content (visible waste) (T) per cent = [(T1 – L3) ÷ M] × 100
3. Invisible waste content (W) per cent = 100 – (L+T)
where,
L – Lint Obtained, T – Trash, M – Total sample weight
 Chapter 3

Yarn Testing

3.1 Yarn Numbering System

The thickness or diameter of a yarn is one of its most fundamental properties.
However, it is not possible to measure the diameter of a yarn in any meaningful way.
This is because the diameter of a yarn changes quite markedly as it is compressed.
Most methods of measuring the diameter of yarn, apart from optical ones, involve
compressing the yarn as part of the measurement process. Therefore the measured
diameter changes with the pressure used so that there is a need for agreement
on the value of pressure at which the yarn diameter is to be defined. On the other
hand optical systems of measuring yarn diameter have the problem of defining
where the outer edge of the yarn lies as the surface can be rather fuzzy, having
many hairs sticking out from it.
Count is a numerical value, which express the coarseness or fineness (diameter)
of the yarn and also indicate the relationship between length and weight (the mass
per unit length or the length per unit mass)of that yarn. Therefore, the concept of
yarn count has been introduced which specifies a certain ratio of length to weight.
The fineness of the yarn is usually expressed in terms of its linear density or count.
There are a number of systems and units for expressing yarn fineness. Yarn number
is a measure of the fineness or size of a yarn expressed either as mass per unit length
or length per unit. Yarn Count and Yarn Size are synonymous with Yarn Number.
There are two systems of expressing yarn number or yarn count.
Systems of Yarn Count Measurement
Count/Yarn Count
Count or yarn count is a numerical expression which indicates the coarseness
 62 Textile Testing

or fineness of a yarn. In other words, yarn count is a number indicating the mass
per unit lengh or the length per unit mass of the yarn.
There are mainly two systems or ways of yarn count measurement, these are:
(a) Indirect System/Fixed weight system: Length per unit mass
(b) Direct system/Fixed length system: Mass per unit length

Indirect System of Yarn Count Measurement

The indirect system or fixed weight system is the yarn count system where
the count of a yarn is calculated by measuring the length of a fixed/definite mass.
In this system, the count of yarn is the number of length units in one weight
unit. So, the count number indicates the length per unit mass of the yarn. That is
why, higher the count, finer the yarn. In indirect count system, the mass of yarn is
fixed and the length of yarn varies according to its fineness.
This system is widely used for measuring count of cotton yarns.
The following formula is used to calculate yarn count in indirect system :
N = (L × w)/(l × W)
where,
N= Yarn count
L= The length of the sample
w= “Unit of weight" of the system
W= The weight of the sample
l= “Unit of length" of the system

Some of the most commonly used indirect systems include :

1. English cotton count (Ne) system
2. Metric count (Nm) system
3. Worsted count (NeK) system
4. Woolen count system.

English Cotton Count (Ne)

In this system, yarn count is defined as the number of hanks of 840 yards per
pound. For example, yarn count 30 Ne means that there are 30 hanks (each hank
consisting of 840 yards of yarn) per 1 lb or 1 pound of that yarn (length per mass).
In other words, if a yarn has a count of 30 Ne, it means that 30 hanks (of 840 yards)
of that yarn will weigh 1 pound.
Metric Cotton Count (Nm)
In Metric cotton count system, yarn count is defined as the number of hanks
of 1000 m per 1 kilogram of that yarn. For example, yarn count 30 Nm means that
Yarn Testing 63

there are 30 hanks of 1000 m per 1 kilogram (kg) of that yarn. In other words,
yarn count 30 Nm means 30 hanks (each hank consisting of 1000m) of that yarn
will weigh 1 kg.
Worsted Count (NeK)
It is defined as the number of hanks of 560 yards per 1 pound of that yarn.
For example, yarn count 30 NeK means that there are 30 hanks of 560 yards per
one pound (1 lb) of that yarn. In other words, yarn count 30 NeK means 30 hanks
(each hank consisting of 560 yards) of that yarn will weigh 1lb.
Woolen Count
In this system, yarn count is defined as the number of hanks of 256 yards per
pound. For example, woolen yarn count 30 means that there are 30 hanks (of 256
yards) per 1 lb or 1 pound of that yarn. In other words, yarn count 30 Ne means
30 hanks (each hank consisting of 256 yards) of that yarn will weigh 1 pound.
Table 3.1: Indirect Yarn Count System

Count System Name Unit of Length Unit of Mass

English Cotton Count (Ne) 840 yards 1 pound/1 lb
Metric Count (Nm) 1000 m/1 km 1 kg
Worsted Count (NeK) 560 yards 1 lb
Woolen Count 256 yards 1 lb

Direct system of yarn count measurement

The direct system or fixed length system is the yarn count system where the
count of a yarn is calculated by measuring the mass of a fixed/definite length. In
this system, the count of yarn is the number of weight units per length unit. Here,
the count number indicates the mass per unit length. So, higher the count, coarser
the yarn. In direct count system, the length of yarn is fixed and the mass of yarn
varies according to its fineness. This system is commonly used for polyester, nylon,
silk, acrylic and jute yarn. The following formula is used to calculate yarn count
in direct system:
N = (l × W)/L
where,
N= Yarn count
L= The length of the sample
W= The weight of the sample
l= “Unit of length “ of the system

Some of the most commonly used direct systems include: Tex, Denier, Pounds
per Spyndle, DeciTex (dtex) MilliTex (mtex) KilloTex (ktex)
 64 Textile Testing

Tex
The yarn number or count in Tex system is the weight in grams of 1000 m of
yarn. For example, yarn count 30 Tex means that there are 30 grams of yarn per
1000 m or 1 km of that yarn (mass per length). In other words, yarn count 30 Tex
means 1000 m of that yarn will weigh 30 gm.
Denier
The yarn number or count in Denier system is the weight in grams of 9000 m
of yarn. For example, yarn count 30 Denier means that there are 30 grams of yarn
per 9000 m or 9 km of that yarn. In other words, yarn count 30 Denier means that
9000 m of that yarn will weigh 30 gm.
Pound per Spindle/Jute Count
The yarn number or count in Pound per Spindle system is the weight in pounds
of 14,400 yards of yarn. For example, yarn count 20 Pound per Spindle means that
there are 20 lbs of yarn per 14400 m yards of that yarn. In other words, yarn count
20 Pounds per Spindle means that 14400 m of that yarn will weigh 20 lbs.
deciTex (dTex)
The yarn number or count in deciTex system is the weight in grams of 10,000
m of yarn. For example, yarn count 30 deciTex means that there are 30 grams of
yarn per 10,000 m or 10 km of that yarn (mass per length). In other words, yarn
count 30 dTex means 10,000 m of that yarn will weigh 30 gm.
MiliTex (mTex)
The yarn number or count in miliTex system is the weight in milligrams of 1000
m of yarn. For example, yarn count 30 miliTex means that there are 30 milligrams
of yarn per 1000 m or 1 km of that yarn. In other words, yarn count 30 mTex means
that 1000 m of that yarn will weigh 30 milligrams.
Table 3.2: Direct Yarn Count System

Count System Name Unit of Length Unit of Mass

Tex 1000 m No. of grams
Denier 9000 m No. of grams
Pounds per Spindle 14,400 yards No. of lbs
(Jute, Hemp)
DeciTex (dTex) 10,000 m/10 km No. of grams
miliTex (mTex) 1000 m No. of miligrams
KiloTex (kTex) 1000 m No. of kilograms

Kilo Tex (kTex)

The yarn number or count in kiloTex system is the weight in kilograms of 1000
m of yarn. For example, yarn count 30 kiloTex means that there are 30 kilograms
Yarn Testing 65

of yarn per 1000 m or 1 km of that yarn. In other words, yarn count 30 kTex means
1000 m of that yarn will weigh 30 kilograms.

3.2. Measurement of Count

Beesley’s Balance
Principle
The instrument consists of simple bean with a small hook at one end and a
pointer at other end. The beam is initially leveled to bring the opposite to datum
line. A standard weight is hanged in a notch on the beam arm on the pointer side
of the pivot. A template is used to cut short fibre of yarn. These short length yarns
are added on hook until the pointer is opposite to the datum line. The yarn count
is the number of fibres required to balance.
Description
Beesley’s yarn balance consists of a pillar A which carries a cross beam B,
fulcrumed at knife edge at the point G. At one end the cross beam is a hook E upon
which the yarn to be tested can be placed. The other end of the beam tappers to
a point C. When the beam is in balance, the pointer will coincide with the detum
line.The pillar is mounted on the base. The whole instrument is leveled by a leveled
screw at one end of the base. The cross has a small notch at the point D to take the
counter weight or rider.

A – Pillar; B – Beam; C – Pointer; D – Notch; E – Sample Holder;

F – Datum Point; G – Pivot; H – Leveling Screw.
Figure 3.1. Beesley’s Yarn Balance.
 66 Textile Testing

Template
Template is a length measuring instrument which contains eight arms. When
a sample has short length (Fabric) which we cannot determine by the wrap reel
then we use template by using that we can determine the length.
The following length is used to determine the count:
P Cotton : 4.32 Inch
P ½ cotton :2.16 Inch
P Linen :1.543 Inch
P Wool :1.315 Inch
P Worsted :2.88 Inch

Procedure
1. Collect sample by appropriate sampling
method.
2. This Sample conditioning at testing atmosphere.
3. Marked the fabric by using template
4. Cut that’s fabric by knife according to the marking.
5. The pointer is set directly opposite to the detum line, with no material
and counter weight in their proper places, by adjusting the leveling screw.
The counter weight for the particular length which is supplied with the
instrument is chosen and suspended at the notch D. (For full cotton the
large rider is placed in the notch and for ½ cotton small rider is placed)
6. Now yarn is withdrawn from sample and placed sample hook until the
pointer comes in level with the detum line.
7. At that stage the threads are taken out and counted which givers directly
the cont of yarn teken for testing.
8. There 30 threads in the sample hook at the balanced condition so the
count of the yarn is 30s

Quadrant Balance Method

It is a type of typical balance.it is a direct reading instrument. The count can be
directly measure from quadrant balance. Count of small length of yarn up to 40yds
can be measured directly from this device. The weight of the sample of sample of
fabric can also be measure. In textile testing lab we have to measure yarn count
of different length. Where some are long but some are short. All the machine or
balance can’t measure the count of short lengths yarn. To overcome this obstacle
a balance named Quadrant was made to measure the count of yarn containing the
length less than 120 yards and this is a direct reading yarn count balance.
Yarn Testing 67

Principle
The count of yarn expression coarseness or fineness of yarn.
1. Indirect system N=L×w/l×W
2. Direct system N=W×l/L
where, W = the weight of sample
w = the unit of weight of weight of the system
L = the length of weight of the sample
l = the unit of length of the system

Machine Parts
This balance is consisting with the following parts;
1. Quadrant scale Yarn sample
2. Pillar Sample hook
3. Pointer Leveling screw
4. Counter weight

Machine Description
1. This balance have a quadrant scale which is divided into other three scale
including the top one scale is used to find the weight per square yard of
sample the middle one find the count of yarn length 8 yards and finally
the third one is used to find the count of yarn of length 40 yards.
2. A pillar is used to hold all the parts and the quadrant scale is attached
with the pillar by a pivot.

Figure 3.2: Quadrant Balance.

 68 Textile Testing

3. Another pivot holds a pointer which marks the reading on the scale.
4. The same pivot holds a beam which has a sample hook at one end and a
counter weight in another.
5. At the base of the balance there is a leveling screw by which we can leveled
the instrument.
6. Finally when we put the sample in the sample hook adjusting with the
counter weight the pointer show the count of yarn directly on the scale.
7. One important thing is that we have to calibrate the balance before we
used it. The pointers of this machine will reads 40s on 40 yards scale
when it is leveled but if not we have to calibrate again properly.

Working Procedure
1. A given length of sample (4yds of cotton) was measured by measuring
scale.
2. Adjusting the quadrant balance the sample is hung in its hook and from
the respective scale, count is directly measured.
3. Three type of scale are present in quadrant balance.
P 1.4 yds for sliver (hank)
P 2.20 yds for roving (hank)
P 3.840 yds for yarn (count)
4. The operation is represented 16 times and mean is calculated, the mean
will be the count.

3.3. Tensile Strength

Tensile property of textile yarns is a prime important parameter in determining
the suitability for any particular application. It is therefore of utmost importance
to determine this characteristic accurately. There are three basic principles for
measuring yarn tensile strength. But for measuring single yarn tensile strength
mainly constant rate of extension (CRE) and constant rate of loading (CRL)
principles are used. A single yarn shows two different results of breaking load and
elongation value in these two methods due to the difference in measuring system.
In this article a comparative study is carried out between these two methods. It is
absolutely essential for spinners today to test weaving or knitting yarns properly
prior to actual use or further processing. Breaking strength, elongation, elastic
modulus, resistance abrasion etc. are some important factors which will represent
the performance of the yarn. Among all these measurable tensile properties of spun
yarn, considerable attention has been paid on the evaluation of tensile strength and
breaking extension, as these properties of the spun yarns influence the efficiency
of weaving and knitting machines and the quality of the fabric produced from
them.The tensile strength property of yarn will depend on many factors like type
Yarn Testing 69

of instrument used, Rate of traverse, Gauge length and Yarn twist. The instruments
used for determining the tensile strength of yarns are classified into three groups,
based on their principle of working.
1. CRE - Constant rate of extension
2. CRL - Constant rate of loading
3. CRT - Constant rate of traverse

CRE and CRL type of instruments are usually preferred for accurate scientific
work and it is easy to adjust the “time-to-break” while this adjustment is not easy
in the CRT types of instruments.
The fundamental criteria which affect the compatibility between different
measurements of tensile yarn properties are testing conditions, the testing
principle(CRE,CRL), testing speed, gauge length, and pre-tensioning, etc.,
CRE - Principle
Uster Tensorapid
In the instruments of CRE type, the application of load is made in such a way that
the rate of elongation of the specimen is kept constant. Constant Rate of Extension
describes the simple fact that the moving clamp is displaced at a constant velocity.
Testing speed = 5 meter/min, Test specimen length = 500 mm. As a result, the
specimen between the stationary and the moving clamp is extended by a constant
distance per unit of time and the force required to do so is measured. Apart from
single values, this instrument also calculates mean value coefficient of variation
and the 95 per cent confidence range of maximum force, tenacity, elongation and
work done. The total coefficient of variation describes the overall variability of a
tested lot, i.e the within-sample variation plus the between-sample variation. If 20
individual single-end tensile test are performed on each of ten bobbins or packages
in a sample lot, the total coefficient of variation is calculated from the pooled data of
the total number of tests that were carried out. In tensorapid, the breaking tenacity
is calculated from the peak force which occurs anywhere between the beginning of
the test and the final rupture of the specimen. The peak force or maximum force is
not identical with the force measured at the very moment of rupture. The breaking
elongation is calculated from the clamp displacement at the point of peak force.
The elongation at peak force is no identical with the elongation at the very moment
of rupture(elongation at rupture).The work to break is defined as the area below
the stress/strain curve drawn to the point of peak force and the corresponding
elongation at peak force. The work at the point of peak force is not identical with
the work at the very moment of rupture.
Uster Tenso Jet
In the instruments of CRE type, the application of load is made in such a way
that the rate of elongation of the specimen is kept constant. Testing speed of 400
 70 Textile Testing

meter/min and Test specimen length of 50 meter. Other working principle is same
as Uster Tensorapid (except speed and testing length) and in this we can made in
between cop test readings as more as around 500 per cop.
CRL - Principle
Uster Dynamat –II
This is a mechanical instrument, works on the inclined plane principle. The
loads are 200 grams, 500 grams, 1000 grams etc. The loads are selected according
to the fineness of the yarn (count). The time to break is 20±2 seconds. The load is
applied on the test specimen and when the yarn breaks the breaking strength is
indicated by a steel ball which falls. The load is selected such that the test specimen
breaks at 50 to 60 per cent of the load and time to break is maintained at 20±2
seconds. Normally 100 tests are taken and the frequency of distribution of the steel
balls is indicative of the strength of yarn and the variation.
CRT- Principle
CRT – (Lea Strength Tester)
The skein breaking strength was the most widely used measure of yarn quality
in the cotton textile industry. The measurement of yarn quality by this method has
certain drawbacks. Firstly, in most of the subsequent processing, such as winding,
warping or weaving, yarn is used as single strand and not in the form of a skein
except occasionally when sizing, bleaching, mercerizing or dyeing treatments are
carried out on hanks. Secondly, in the method used for testing skein strength, the
rupture of a single strand at a weak place affects the result for the whole skein.
Further, this method of test does not give an indication of the extensibility and
elastic properties of a yarn, the characters which play and important role during
the weaving operations. However, since a large size sample is used in a skein test
as against that in a single strand test, the sampling error is less. The skein used
for strength test can be used for determination of the linear density of the yarn as
well. Testing traverse speed = 300 mm/min, Test specimen length = Not constant
(Variable).In addition to the factors influencing the yarn strength, the size of the
skein (lea) will affect to a large extent the strength recorded. The usual practice is
to use a lea(120 yards) of yarn prepared by winding 80 turns on a wrap-reel having
a perimeter of 1.5 yards(54 inches), so that during a test, there are 160 strands
of 27 in.(“) length. There are different systems in use. But the actual breaking
strength recorded on the machine would depend on the type of skein used as both
the number of strands and test length may differ. The instruments most commonly
used for this test is CRT type, where the bottom hook moves at 12 inches per min.
The most common skein used is the lea and the results of lea strength tests
are expressed as CSP (Count Strength Product) which is the product of the linear
density (count) of the yarn in the English system (Ne) and the lea breaking strength
expressed in lbs. The leas are prepared and using a weighing balance and a
computing system that calculates the linear density of the skein, the count is
Yarn Testing 71

measured. The lea is then taken for strength testing. The computing system records
the count and strength and calculates the CSP as well as CV per cent of count and
strength.
Skein Strength or Lea Strength
The skein breaking strength was the most widely used measure of yarn quality
in the cotton textile industry. The measurement of yarn quality by this method has
certain drawbacks. Firstly, in most of the subsequent processing, such as winding,
warping or weaving, yarn is used as single strand and not in the form of a skein
except occasionally when sizing, bleaching, mercerizing or dyeing treatments are
carried out on hanks. Secondly, in the method used for testing skein strength, the
rupture of a single strand at a weak place affects the result for the whole skein.
Further, this method of test does not give an indication of the extensibility and
elastic properties of a yarn, the characters which play and important role during
the weaving operations.
However, since a large size sample is used in a skein test as against that in a
single strand test, the sampling error is less. The skein used for strength test can
be used for determination of the linar density of the yarn as well. In addition to the
factors influencing the yarn strength, the size of the skein(lea) will affect to a large
extent the strength recorded. The usual practice is to use a lea(120 yards) of yarn
prepared by winding 80 turns on a wrap-reel having a perimeter of 1.5 yards(54
inches), so that during a test, there are 160 strands of 27 in.(“) length.
There are different systems in use. But the actual breaking strength recorded
on the machine would depend on the type of skein used as both the number of
strands and test length may differ. The instruments most commonly used for this
test is CRT type, where the bottom hook moves at 12 inches per min.
Here,
L = length of the sample and l = unit length of the system W = wt. Of the sample
and w = unit wt. of the system.
A lea strength tester measures the strength of one lea yarn. One lea means 120
yards. Strength is a measure of the steady force necessary to break a material and
is measured in pound. The machine works in constant rate of extension. Assuming
the specimen to be extensible and an absence of any dynamic effects, we get from
the figure:
Fr = Mgr = MgRsinq
As the value of MgR and r are constant, therefore according to the applied force
the machine dial gives us the strength in lb on the basis of this q.
Description of Lea Tester
It is a motor driven, pendulum type lea tester. It consists of an upper jaw and a
lower jaw. The lower jaw can be engaged with a screw mechanism, which is driven
 72 Textile Testing

Figure 3.3: The Pendulum Lever Principle.

at a constant speed by a motor. Thus a constant rate of traverse of 12 inches/minute

is given to the bottom jaw. The top jaw is connected to a pendulum arm by means
of a steel tape. A heavy machined component is attached to the pendulum arm
and the arm moves over a serrated quadrant. A pawl is attached to the pendulum
arm to control the movement of the arm and helps the arm to stop when the lea
breaks. There is a dial, calibrated in pounds, over which a pointer moves through
the geared movement of the pendulum arm. The pointer indicates the lea strength
in pounds on the dial.
Working Principle of Lea Tester
Samples of lea are prepared from the ring bobbins or cones using wrap reel.
The length of the lea is 120 yards. The bobbins are reeled under the same tension
and with a small traverse to separate the layers. When the set length is wound,
the reel automatically stops and the lea is transferred from the wrap reel to the
lea tester. The lea is mounted over the jaws and when in doing so, care should be
taken to avoid the formation of any twist in the lea and the grapping of threads on
Yarn Testing 73

Figure 3.4: pendulum Type Lea Tester.

the jaws. Then the bottom jaw is engaged with the screw mechanism and the motor
is switched on. As the bottom jaw descends, a load is imposed on the loops of yarn
constituting the lea. Because of the pull on the upper jaw, the pendulum arm is
pulled which moves the pointer over the dial. At one point, one or two strands break
and then many will slip and at the stage, there will not be any further movement
of the pendulum. The pendulum will be prevented in falling back suddenly by the
pawl which engages with the teeth over the serrated quadrant. At that place, the
pointer also stops moving and indicates the maximum load on the dial. This load
is called the strength of the lea. The lower jaw is then brought up and the lea is
removed from the jaws.
After finding out skein strength, broken skeins are also weighed to determine
the linear density.
The most common skein used is the lea and the results of lea strength tests
are expressed as C.S.P., which is the product of the linear density (count) of the
yarn in the English system (Ne) and the lea breaking strength expressed in lbs. In
view of the fact that C.S.P. is much less dependent on yarn count than on strength,
 74 Textile Testing

especially when count differences are small, C.S.P. is the most widely used measure
of yarn quality.
This method involves the reeling of the yarn onto a skein more commonly
known as a lea through a wrapping reel, which is used for measuring linear density,
the two loose ends being tied together. This lea is mounted on two jaws of a tensile
strength tester. After that the lea is subjected to increasing extension and the force
applied is recorded. As one portion of the lea is broken from a point in the weakest
region, the maximum force applied is noted in kilograms or pounds. The strength
of at least 10 leas of the same count is measured by using the above method from
which the mean is calculated. The British Standard determines a hank or lea of
100 wraps of 1 m distance across. This is tested at a certain rate, namely, up to
the point at which it breaks within 20 ± 3 s. alternatively, a consistent velocity of
300 mm/min may be used. On the off chance that the yarn is spun on the cotton,
worsted frameworks of 10 skeins ought to be tested with 20 leas for woolens. The
strategy is not utilized for persistent fibre yarns.
Working Procedure
1. At first 25 yards jute yarn is measured by wrap reel and in this way 5
samples are taken for count testing.
2. Then all the samples are weighted and counts are calculated.
3. Now a single 24 inches yarn from 1st sample is fixed between the jaw J1
and J2.
4. The machine is started and observed the dial until the yarn is torn out.
5. When the yarn is torn out the machine is stopped and the reading is taken.
6. By this way the reading of other yarns from other samples are taken.
7. Quality ratio of the all samples are calculated.
8. At last average and CV per cent are calculated.

Linear Density of Yarn

Among the other parameters of a yarn, yarn’s diameter is a significant factor.
But determining the diameter is impossible by any means due to the fact that it
varies significantly as the yarn is squeezed. Besides the optical technique, all other
methods involve compressing the yarn during testing. Due to this compressive
character of yarn, the measured diameter varies with the pressure applied. Optical
techniques for determining diameter have the difficulty of specifying where the
peripheral edge of the yarn lies as its surface can be unclear or rough due to
hairiness on it. That is why the determination of the yarn’s edges is subject to the
operator’s understanding. Due to these problems a system must be designed to
ascertain the delicacy of a yarn by weighing its predefined length. This quantity is
called the linear density or yarn count and it can be determined with accuracy if
the tested amount of yarn is sufficient. There are two main systems for assessing
the linear density of yarn: the direct and the indirect.
Yarn Testing 75

Measurement of Linear Density

Yarn linear density is often measured using standard test method ASTM
D1907. Specified lengths of yarn are wound on reels as skein, and then weighed.
From this the linear density is calculated from the weight and length of the skein.
In some options, the skein is scoured before weighing, or the mass of the skein
may be determined after oven drying or after conditioning. A reel having a length
between 1.0 and 2.5 m or between 1.5 and 3.0 yards may be used with a tolerance of
±0.25 per cent. The tension on the reel is adjusted to 0.5 cN/tex with an adjustable
tension device. The yarn sample is preconditioned for a minimum of 3 h before
drying in an oven. A ventilated oven with the ability to control the temperature
at 105°C ± 3°C is required to dry the skeins. After oven drying, the weight of the
sample is measured by a weight balance having a sensitivity of 1 part in 1000 to
measure the linear density. This sample is then conditioned for a minimum of 24 h
at a standard condition of 20°C ± 2°C and 65 per cent ± 4 per cent relative humidity
then weighed to measure the linear density at the standard moisture regain, from
which the linear density is calculated.
(100 + Standard regain)
Weight at correct condition = Dry weight × ————————————
100
Count Strength Product or CSP
The check quality item (CSP) is a term utilized for staple spun yarns of cotton
and the lea (hank) quality. It depends on determining the quality of the lea made
on a wrapping reel having a circumference of 1.5 yards; a 80 turns lea has a total
length of 120 yards. The quality is commonly noted in pounds force (lbf). This
strength, measured in pounds, is then multiplied with the English cotton count of
that yarn to get the CSP.
CSP (Count Lea Strength Product) = Count(Nec) x Lea strength(in pounds)
Tensile Strength by Single Yarn Method
The tensile testing of yarns is commonly done in accordance with ISO 2062
and ASTM D2256. These tests are used to determine the breaking force, elongation,
and toughness properties of the yarn. The breaking tenacity, a ratio of the breaking
force to yarn linear density, is also a common property for evaluating the strength
of a yarn’s material and for comparison and validation purposes. It is necessary
to clamp the yarn test specimen so that the machine loading axis is aligned with
the specimen axis. This alignment is most easily achieved and repeatable using
capstan style grips. Sharp edges or changes in the path can cause specimen failure
to occur outside the gauge section and far below the actual strength of the yarn.
Capstan grips also help to avoid this, as the yarn never encounters sharp changes
in geometry. Since elongation properties are important for the product application
of yarn materials, it is necessary to prevent slippage of the yarn during testing,
 76 Textile Testing

which is accomplished through the even distribution of the load over the capstan
instead of using only a set of clamp jaws.
Mostly the test standards are similar. In order to obtain more precision in
results, the tests are performed many times so that accurate results are obtained.
According to British standards the following number of tests should be performed:
a. For a single yarn
P For continuous filament yarns perform 20 tests
P For spun yarns perform 50 tests
b. For cabled and plied yarn perform 20 tests

Test Procedure
Before the start of the test, the atmospheric conditions of the laboratory should
be maintained according to standard. The settings of the machine should also be
accurate and meet the demands of the standard. Mostly the USTER TENSORAPID/
USTER TENSOJET testing machine is used for this purpose. The gauge length for the
test is 500 mm and pretension is set to 0.5 cN/Tex. First of all the conditioned yarn
is fixed into the USTER TENSORAPID/USTER TENSOJET and is adjusted between
the two jaws of the machine, one of which is movable and the other stationary.
It works at a speed of 5000 mm/s and the gauge between the two jaws is 500
mm. The machine is turned on and the test is started. The tests are performed
automatically and stop after 20 have been completed. After completion the result is
printed, which gives the value of the tensile strength and its coefficient of variation.
We require a large number of tests to be performed in less time and with higher
efficiencies and accuracy levels. To meet this requirement USTER Technologies
produces the USTER TENSORAPID/USTER TENSOJET testing machine, which is
frequently used for measuring the single yarn strength. USP or USTER statistics
enable us to compare the results of single yarn strength, whether they fall within
an acceptable range or not. Mostly, the mean strength is not so important, though
the frequency of any weak place is. Due to these weak places, yarn breakage occurs
during subsequent processes of weaving and causes low production efficiencies
or fabric faults that must be avoided to obtain high quality and more production.
In high speed production the weak places still cause problems even if they occur
after hundreds of meters. Therefore, in such cases, the coefficient of the strength
of a single yarn is of greater importance than the mean value. In order to check
greater lengths of yarn the speeds of the machine are kept higher, otherwise the
tests would take longer if the standard test time of 20 s was used. The greater the
number of tests, the better will be the statistical prediction of weak spots and more
precise results of tensile strength will be obtained.
Yarn Testing 77

Table 3.3: Parameter for Tensile Strength

Parameter Unit Description

B-Force cN The maximum tensile force measured, called the breaking force.
Elongation per cent Elongation at maximum force, called the breaking elongation.
Tenacity cN/tex Breaking force divided by the linear density of the yarn.
B-Work cN × cm Work done to break the yarn.
Max values Maximum values denote the maximum value of force, elongation,
tenacity, or work within one test series.
Min values Maximum values denote the minimum value of force, elongation,
tenacity, or work within one test series.
Percentile 0.01 per cent, 0.05 per cent, 0.1 per cent, 0.5 per cent, and 1.0
values, e.g., per cent of all measurements are below the reported value.
P. 0.01

3.4. Twist Measurement in Yarn

The most obvious way to measure the number of twists per unit length of yarn
is simply to untwist a known length of the yarn and check visually to see whether
the twist has been completely removed.
Direct Counting Method
The essence of the method is to unwind the twist in a yarn until the fibres
are parallel to the yarn axis and to count how many turns are required to do his.
A suitable instrument has two jaws at a set distance apart. One of the jaws is fixed
and the other is capable of being rotated. The rotating jaw has a counter attached
to it to number the whole turns and fractions of a turn. Before starting any tests
the samples should have been conditioned in the standard testing atmosphere.
Testing is started at least one meter from the open end of the yarn as the open end
of the yarn is free to untwist so that the level of twist may be lower in that region.
As the yarn is being clamped in the instrument it must be kept under a standard
tension (0.5 cN/tex) as the length of the yarn will be altered by too high or too low
a tension. The twist is removed by turning the rotatable clamp until it is possible
to insert a needle between the individual fibres at the non-rotatable clamp end
and to traverse the needle across to the rotatable clamp. The use of a magnifying
lens may be required in order to test fine yarns. The twist direction and the mean
turns per centimeter or per meter are reported.
Yarn Twist
Twist may be defined as the spiral disposition of the components of a thread
which is usually the result of relative rotation of the two ends. Twist is generally
expressed as the number of turns per unit length of yarn, e.g. turns per inch (TPI),
turns per meter (TPM), etc.
 78 Textile Testing

1. The twist in a yarn binds the fibres together and helps to keep them in
the respective positions. It thus gives coherence to yarn.
2. Twist gives sufficient strength to the yarn.
3. Twist is also used to bring about novel effects that are prominently visible
when the yarn is converted to fabric. This is achieved primarily by having
a combination of yarns with different twist levels and twist directions in
the fabric.

In the manufacture of staple fibre yarns, twist is inserted into the fine strand of
fibres to hold the fibres together and impart the desired properties to the twisted
yarns. Without twist, the fine strand of fibres would be very weak and of little
practical use. A change in the level of twist also changes many yarn properties,
such as strength and softness.
Types of Twist
There are two types of twist: real twist and false twist.
Real Twist
To insert a real twist into a length of yarn one end of the yarn should be rotated
relative to the other end, as indicated in figure. Spun yarns usually have real twist,
which holds the fibres together in the yarn.

Figure 3.5: Real Twist.

Yarn Testing 79

False Twist
When inserting false twist into a length of yarn, both ends of the yarn are
clamped, usually by rollers, and twist is inserted with a false twister between the
clamping points, as indicated in figure (b). If the yarn is not traversing along its
axis, the twist will be in opposite directions above and below the false twister. If
the false twister is removed, the opposite twists will cancel out one another, leaving
no real twist in the length of yarn. If the yarn is traversing along its axis, then the
section of the yarn moving away from the false twister would have no net twist,
as indicated in figure (b). False twisting is a very important phenomenon, which
has considerable practical implications in yarn technology.

Figure 3.6: False Twisting.

Twist Direction
A twist can be either in Z direction or S direction as indicated in the following
figure, depending on the orientation of the surface fibre in relation to yarn axis.
It is worth noting that twist direction affects fabric properties. For example,
following Figure shows two identical twill-weave fabrics with the warp yarn of
different twist direction. Fabric A will be more lustrous than fabric B, because
light reflected by fibres in the warp and weft is in the same direction. Fabric A will
be softer while fabric B firmer, because in Fabric B, the surface fibres on the warp
and weft in the region of contact are aligned in the same direction and they may
‘get stuck’ inside each other and reduce the mobility of the intersection. Whereas
for fabric A, the surface fibres on the warp and weft in the region of contact are
crossed over, and they can move about easily. The freedom of movement at the
yarn intersections is the key for fabric softness.
 80 Textile Testing

Figure 3.7: Twist Direction.

Figure 3.8: Effect of Twist Direction on Fabric Properties.

General Specification Required for Twist Measurement

Twist testing methods depends on the specification, accuracy, demanded,
from of the sample etc. In general the following points may be followed for getting
reliable result. They are Usually twist is not distributed uniformly along a yarn.
Speaking technically, the amount of twist in materials is inversely proportional to
its thickness. This from is ‘twist x weight=constant’’. And for to avoiding having
bias in twist measurement, twist should be determined at fixed intervals along
the yarn that is 1 yard of distance which is suitable. Withdrawal of yarn over the
end of the package adds twist to a yarn, whereas withdrawal from the side of the
package does not. The yarn should be withdrawn from the package in the manner
in which it would be normally used in the next stage of processing. The package
should be mounted vertically on a peg and free to rotate about the peg as the yarn
is withdrawn gently from it. The actual test specimen should be handled manually
such that the fingers do not touch the length over which the twist is actually
Yarn Testing 81

measured. In the case of plied and cabled spun yarn and continuous filament yarn;
at least 20 specimens are to be tested if the length is 500 mm according to BIS
(British Standards Institution). In the case of single spun yarn, BSI recommends
50 specimens of 25 mm each. The tension is the test specimen must be constant.
BSI recommends a yarn tension level of tex/2±10 per cent grams. For example:
A 40s Nec count (i.e. about 15 tex) yarn would be maintained at a tension in the
range 6.35-8.25 grams.
Techniques of Twist Measurements
(A) Straightened Twist Tester
Principle
Used only for testing single spun yarns, this technique involves the untwisting
of the test specimen until all of the twist is removed. The completeness of the
untwisting is varied by visual examination of the straightening of all of the fibers
in the strand – this is why the name ‘straightened fibre technique’. The number
of turns required for the untwisting is counted and the number is divided by the
length of the test specimen to arrive at the twist of the test yarn turns per unit
length. This technique is also known as the ‘direct count method‘, as the twist in
the yarn is directly counted.
Construction
The below figure depicts the salient features of a single yarn twist tester
incorporating the straightened fibre technique. The instrument consists of two

A, B – Pillars; C – Base; D – Fixed jaw; E – Pulley; F – Tensioning Arrangement;

G – Lens; H – Black board; I – Rotatable jaw; J – Counter; K – Handle; L – Specimen.
Figure 3.9: Straightened Twist Tester.
 82 Textile Testing

pillars, A and B, mounted on a rigid base C. On pillar A are mounted a fixed jaw D,
a guide pulley E, a tensioning arrangement F, a magnifying lens G and a blackboard
H. Pillar B carries a jaw I that can be rotated manually either way by means of
handle K and the number of revolutions is recorded in the revolution counter J. A
length of 25 mm (or one inch), the test length normally used, separates the faces
of the jaws D and I. A test specimen L can be seen mounted between the two Jaws.
Test Procedure
1. The first step is to set the revolution spy stealth counter to zero.
2. Next clamp the test yam in the rotatable jaw. Open the static jaw and lead
the yarn through it and then over the guide pulley; attach a small weight
to the yarn to give it the required tension and then close the jaw to clamp
the yarn.
3. Check, by means of lens G if necessary, the twist direction of the test
specimen. Then using the handle, rotate jaw I in a clockwise or anti-
clockwise direction so as to untwist the yarn.
4. Note the twist in the yarn being removed. When most of the twist has
been removed, push a sharp needle through the middle of the partially
untwisted strand so it nearly touches the static jaw; then, looking through
lens G, gently move the needle towards the other jaw.
5. Give the handle a final rotation either way until the needle is in the closest
possible position to the rotatable jaw.
6. Finally, the number of turns of the rotatable jaw required to untwist the
test specimen is read off the revolution counter and recorded.
7. At least 50 tests are conducted in this manner and the mean TPI and CV
per cent are calculated.
8. The mean instrument reading is first calculated and then the twist is
expressed either in terms of turns per inch (TPI) or turns per meter (TPI).

(B) Continuous Twist Tester

Principle
This twist tester is a modification of the above instrument and permits the
continuous testing of a number of one-inch test specimens without undue handling
of the yarn. This instrument is therefore capable of giving more reliable results on
the short- term variation in twist in the yarn.
It works on the same principle as the above instrument, viz. the straightened-
fiber principle. As the test specimen has to be static during a twist test, the term
‘continuous’ simply implies that one-inch lengths of the test yam can be evaluated
successively and quickly, one after another, on an extended length of the yarn.
Construction
The figure shows a continuous twist tester. It has a broad base A, on which
Yarn Testing 83

are mounted from left to right a peg to support a yarn package C, a thread guide
D, a magnifying lens E, a fixed jaw F, a rotatable jaw G, connected to a revolution
counter H that indicates the reading on a dial, a handle I and a winding drum J. Both
the jaws can be moved, in a translational motion either to the left or to the right, in
a slot provided in the base of the instrument. This arrangement allows specimen
lengths of 13 , 53 or 103 . A test specimen K is shown mounted between the two
jaws. A zero-set knob in the instrument helps to set the pointer in the dial to zero.

A – Base; B – Peg; C – Yarn package; D – Thread guide; E – Lens;

F – Fixed jaw; G – Rotatable jaw; H – Counter; I – Handle; J – Winding Drum;
K – Test Specimen; L – Slot.
Figure 3.10: Continuous Twist Tester.

Test Procedure
i) Using 1-inch test specimens
1. The distance between the two jaws is set at one inch by moving the
rotatable jaw appropriately.
2. The test yarn sample is drawn from the sample package and passed
through the guide, the fixed jaw and the rotatable jaw, and finally wound
on to the take-up drum
3. The jaws are closed to clamp an inch length of the specimen.
4. The revolution counter is set to zero by adjusting the zero-set knob.
5. The twist direction in the test yarn is identified by means of the magnifying
lens. The rotatable knob is then rotated to untwist the yarn.
6. After the major portion of the twist is removed, a sharp needle is inserted
into the untwisted strand as close to the fixed jaw as possible and moved
towards the rotatable jaw while looking through the magnifying lens.
Complete untwisting is achieved by rotating the jaw one way or the other
until it is possible to push the needle right up to it.
 84 Textile Testing

7. The TPI of the test specimen can now be directly read from the dial and
recorded as m1.
8. The yarn is then twisted back to its original level of twist, as indicated by
the zero reading on the dial. The original twist is thus put back into the
test specimen.
9. The rotatable jaw is then opened and moved leftward to the fixed jaw
until the two jaw faces touch each other.
10. The fixed jaw is now opened and the rotating jaw is closed and pulled back
to its original position. This brings in a new 1-inch specimen in between
the jaws. The fixed jaw is now closed.
11. The take-up drum is rotated to take up the slack yarn at its left.
12. The new test specimen is then evaluated for twist. Let its reading be m2.
13. The above procedure is repeated until the required number of tests is
completed.
14. The mean TPI value is then calculated from the individual readings m1,
m2, m3, m4.mn. and reported.

ii) Test lengths greater than one inch

The above general procedure can be used to test yarn for twist using 5-inch and
10 inch test specimens. The greater the test length the fewer will be the number
of test specimens to be tested.
Advantages of this Instrument
Unnecessary handling of material between successive tests is avoided.
Shorter variations in TPI values along a continuous length of yarn can be
assessed.
Twist Contraction Technique or the Untwist and Re-twist Method
Principle
Also known as the twist and re-twist method, this technique works on the
principle that the twist in a given length of yarn, under specified tension, is removed
by untwisting. This causes the yarn to extend in length. The original level of twist
is then inserted into the yarn but in the opposite direction. As a result, the yarn
reverts to its original length (change from Z-direction to S direction or vice versa).
The number of turns required to untwist and re-twist the yarn is noted and the TPI
is calculated. The contraction in length when a strand of parallel fibers is twisted
in a given direction will generally be equal to the contraction it suffers when it is
twisted in the opposite direction.
Twist Contraction
The twisting together of two strands causes a contraction effect that must
be known in order to calculate the count of the plied yarn accurately. The twist
Yarn Testing 85

Figure 3.11. Untwist and Re-twist Method.

contraction principle holds good even when a strand of parallel fibers (or filaments)
is twisted. In general, if the length of the strand before twisting is L and upon
twisting the contracted length is L1, the twist contraction C is given by C = L – L1.
Extension on Untwisting
If the above yarn of length L1 were untwisted so that no twist remains, the
resulting strand would have a length equal to L.
Contraction on Re-twisting
Further, if the untwisted strand above were twisted in the opposite direction
of its original twist, such that the same level of twist is attained, the length of the
resulting yarn would again be L1.
Tension Type Twist Tester
A typical tension-type twist tester is shown in the figure. It is specifically
designed to apply the twist contraction principle to single spun yarns. Essentially,
it consists of two pillars, mounted on a solid base. A fixed jaw is mounted on a pillar.
This jaw is connected to a tension scale that has a sliding weight that can be set at
any required point on the scale, the lower end of which is a pointed tip. The whole
scale is in effect a small pendulum. At the base of this pillar is a fixed index mark.
The other pillar carries the rotatable jaw I, which is connected to handle and a
revolution counter through gears. The gear ratio is such as to display the TPI of the
test specimen at the end of the test. The mechanical counter displays four digits. The
first two digits represent whole numbers while the next two indicate two decimal
places. A zero setting knob is connected to the counter. The test specimen mounted
in between the fixed and rotatable jaws. The specimen length in this instrument
 86 Textile Testing

A – Pillar; B – Fixed Jaw; C – Rotating Jaw; D – Tension Scale; E – Sliding Weight;

F – Index Point; G – Test Specimen; H – Handle; I – Zero setting knob.
Figure 3.12: Tension Type Twist Tester.

is a fixed 103 . In some testers of this kind there is an arrangement to change the
specimen length by sliding the fixed jaw pillar along a slot in the base.
Test Procedure
The sliding weight on the tension scale is first set according to the count of
the test yarn and the instrument constant, which will usually be provided by the
concerned instrument manufacturer. For example, a particular manufacturer
recommends that the following formula be used to arrive at the tension setting.
Tension scale reading = 156/English count
1. Yarn from the test package is first gripped in the fixed jaw and then led
through the rotatable jaw. It is pulled through the latter jaw until the
knife-edge tip of the pendulum pointer is exactly in line with the fixed
index mark at the base. This jaw too is then closed.
2. At this stage, the test specimen is under recommended tension and has
a test length or gauge length of 103 .
3. The mechanical counter is now set to zero using the zero-set knob.
4. The twist direction of the test specimen is ascertained, if necessary by
means of a magnifying lens and the handle is rotated so as to untwist the
yarn.
5. As the twist in the 10 inch specimen is removed, the yarn extends and
the tension in it falls; as a result, the pendulum pointer moves away from
the index mark and eventually reaches its position of rest (i.e. the vertical
position). At this stage, all the twist has been removed from the sample.
6. The jaw is kept rotating in the same direction until sufficient twist has
been inserted to bring the pointer gradually back to coincide with the
index mark.
Yarn Testing 87

7. Thus, in this method, the twist is first removed by untwisting and then
put back by re-twisting the untwist and re-twist principle.
8. The revolution counter reading is noted and recorded. As stated earlier,
this is the value of the TPI of the test specimen.

Twist-to-Break Technique of Twist Measurements

The twist-to-break technique is not a reliable method for everyday tests with
yarns and is therefore not much used these days. Its mention here is merely for
historical interest.
Principle
A specific short length of yarn is twisted in a twist tester until it breaks. Another
specimen of the same length is then twisted to break by twisting it in the opposite
direction. If Ns are the number of turns required in the first case and N2 those in
the second instance, the TPI of the yarn is given by (NS – N2)/2.
The Microscopic Technique
This technique is more suitable for research work on special model yarns
rather than for routine yarn testing. The fact that only a very small portion of the
yarn is tested at a time and that the technique is therefore very slow makes it
inconvenient for regular testing. However, the textile technologist is encouraged
to be aware of this technique.
Principle
A microscope equipped with a graduated rotary sample stage is used to
measure the helical angle of the twist in the yarn. The yarn diameter is also
measured. From these two quantities the twist per unit length is calculated.
The Microscopic Arrangement
Line diagrams depicting the principle of the technique are shown in the figures
(a) and (b). Note the circular rotary stage A of the microscope with graduations
in degrees at its periphery.
The rotary microscopic stage can be fixed at any desired position by means of
a small screw catch B. Note also the fixed index mark C close to the circular stage
against which the angular positions of the stage can be read off The eyepiece used
should be a crosswire eyepiece haying a built-in micrometer scale to measure
the yarn diameter. A magnified View of the yarn as seen through the eyepiece is
superimposed at the center of the diagrams. The two perpendicular cross wires
can be clearly seen in these views.
Test Procedure
1. The circular rotary stage is first set so as to have its ‘zero’ mark coinciding
with the index mark It is then fixed in this position.
 88 Textile Testing

Figure 3.13: Twist Measurement by Microscope.

2. A length of yarn mounted on a microscopic glass slide is placed on the

rotary stage and held in position by the catches normally available on
the stage itself.
3. The yarn is brought into sharp focus and the eyepiece is turned one way
or another so that one of the cross wires of the eyepiece is parallel to the
yam axis.
4. The stage catch is released and the stage rotated slowly until the crosswire
is tangential to the helix formed by the twisted fibers on the yarn surface.
The stage catch is again turned onto fix the stage in this new position.
5. The angle through which the stage is rotated is noted. This is the yam
twist angle.
6. Now the eyepiece is rotated so that the micrometer scale is perpendicular
to the yarn axis. The width of the yarn is read off on the scale. The yam
diameter is then calculated in terms of inches.

Calculations
Let the yarn diameter be d inches also the twist angle Τ. The length of yarn
occupied by one turn of twist is therefore given by
π×d
H = ———
tan θ
Since turns per inch = 1/h
tan θ
Turns per inch = ———
π×d
The values of Τ and d are known, so the yarn TPI can be calculated
Yarn Testing 89

Disadvantage
P As stated earlier, this method has disadvantages. These are listed below.
P Accurate determination of the yarn twist is not possible as a very small
portion of the yarn is examined at a time. A very large number of readings
would have to be taken to have representative values of the twist.
P The technique is tedious and considering the large number of tests,
operator fatigue could affect the results.
P This technique is therefore unsuitable for routine testing and quality
control.

3.5 Yarn Evenness and it’s Classification

Evenness, Unevenness, regularity, and irregularity are common terms used
to describe the degree of uniformity of a textile product. In the textile field, the
uniformity of products like the lap, sliver, roving or yam is expressed in terms of
evenness or regularity or in terms of unevenness or irregularity. A yarn which is
not uniform is said to be irregular or to contain yarn defects or faults. These faults
vary in their cross-sectional size and length. Figure shows a plot of fault cross-
sectional size against fault length.
Unevenness or Irregularity
The irregularity or unevenness of a yarn is commonly defined as the variation
in fineness along its length and more appropriately as the variation in mass per
unit length along the yam’. It is expressed as U per cent or CV per cent.
The following yam properties are usually subject to variation.
P Weight per unit length
P Twists per inch
P Diameter
P Strength

Classification of Yarn Irregularity

Generally two types of variation are shown in yarns (especially spun yarns).
1. Random Variation
2 Periodic Variation

Random Variation
Random variation is a variation that occurs randomly in a textile material
without any definite pattern or order is called random variation. This is caused
mainly due to the natural variations in the fiber properties. If a yarn was cut into
one-inch lengths and the weight of each consecutive length is determined and then
the weights are plotted in a graph against the lengths. When the plotted points are
 90 Textile Testing

joined to form a graph. It represents an irregularity trace. A mean line is drawn to

indicate the average value of the weight of the one-inch lengths of yarn. Thus the
deviation of each point or value from the mean can be observed. If the deviations
from the mean are of a random nature and no definite pattern of variation is visible,
as seen in the figure, then the variation is called ‘random variation.
Periodic Variation
Periodic variation is a variation that occurs at definite length sequences in the
textile material.If a yarn were cut into one-inch lengths and the cross sections of
each consecutive length are determined and then the cross-sections are plotted in
a graph against all the lengths. The plots are joined to form a graph as shown and
a line indicating the mean value is drawn. Usually two terminologies ‘wavelength’
and ‘amplitude’ are used to describe the periodic variation. Figure illustrates these
two terms. The wavelength is the distance from one peak of the wave to the next
on the same side of the mean line and amplitude is a measure of the size of the
deviation from the mean level. If the deviations from the mean are in a definite
sequence, the variation is called ‘periodic variation‘.
Classification of Periodic Variation
Periodic variations may be classified according to their wavelength, using the
fiber length as a length unit.
Table 3.4: Classification of Periodic Variation and its Wavelengths

Periodic Variation Wavelength

Short term variation 1 to 10 times the fiber length
Medium term variation 10 to 100 times the fiber length
Long term variation 100 to 1000 (or more) times the fiber length

The different classes of periodic variation affect the appearance of the woven
or knitted fabrics in different ways. The amplitudes of short term variations are
generally greater than those of the longer term variations. This is because they are
usually the result of faulty processing at the last machine and they have had no
chance of being reduced in amplitude by drafting and doubling.
Causes of Irregularities
The factors determining the single zone drafting wave irregularity are:
Strictly Random Occurring Faults
1. The size of draft
2. The count of the input material
3. Multiple inputs or doubling
4. Roller or drafting zone setting
Yarn Testing 91

5. The degree of parallelism, length, and fineness of fibers in the input

material

Strictly Periodic Occurring Faults

1. Eccentricity of roller shaft
2. Belt life comes to end
3. Bearings out dated
4. Apron faults
5. Rubber cots faults
6. Waste between gear meshing
7. Damaged Gear teeth

Premier Evenness Tester

The task of a spinner is to transform a mass of millions of fibres with
variable properties, tangled and containing unwanted foreign matter into a yarn
characterized by uniformity of weight per unit length, diameter, TPI, colour, strength
and so on. Now to test this uniformity different types of machines are used in textile
technology. Evenness Tester is such a machine which measures the evenness of yarn.
Evenness testing is that which measures the uniformity of different yarn
properties such as thick, thin places, neps, weights per unit length etc. The test also
consists the deviation of these property parameters from the average and their
graphical presentation in chart.

Figure 3.14: Premier Evenness Tester.

A schematic diagram of the machine is shown in the following figure. Two

oscillators A and B have equal frequencies when there is no material in the
measuring capacitor C. When the two frequencies are superimposed the difference
in frequency is zero. The presence of the material in the capacitor causes its
capacity to change and so alter the frequency of the oscillator A. There will then be
 92 Textile Testing

a difference between the two frequencies which varies according to the amount of
material between the capacitors plates. Suitable circuits D translate these frequency
differences into signals which (1) are indicated on the meter M, (2) drive the pen
of the recorder and (3) are fed into the integrator which indicates the average
irregularity either as percentage mean deviation or coefficient of variation. This is
why another common name of this machine is Electronic Capacitance Tester. The
yarn speed for testing must be chosen so that the frequency of the fluctuations lies
within the capacity of the recording pen to follow them. Again the chart contraction
is to choose to suit the type of variation being examined. We should also choose
the capacitors in order to achieve a change in capacity which is linearly related to
the amount of material between the plates, the thickness of the material relative
to the size of the capacitor must not exceed certain limits.
Main Parts
1. 4 measuring capacitors
2. Creel
3. Guide
4. Traverse rollers
5. Meter
6. Integrator
7. High speed pen recorder.

Functions
1. It can measure the thick, thin places, neps etc.
2. It can give the graphical charts of the irregularities.

Limitations
The machine has some following problems/limitations:
1. The changes in capacity are linearly related to the weight of material
present, the material thickness should not exceed 40 per cent of the
distance between the capacitors plates.
2. The length of the capacitor should be as short as possible so that the
variations in weight are measured over short lengths.
3. The shape of the cross section of the tested strand affects the change in
capacity.
4. The moisture in the material affects the magnitude of the change in
capacity, a higher moisture content giving a greater change in capacity.
Yarn Testing 93

Methods of Evenness Testing

Capacitive Method/Uster Evenness Tester
In this case the principle is that the current fiow through the capacitor alter
with the material amount inside the two plates of capacitor. So if yarn passes
through the capacitor plate, the current fiow change with respect to thickness/
mass of the yarn, thick thin places. This signal then processed by digital processor
to get mass variation.

Figure 3.15: Capacitive Method.

Optical Method (Zweigle G580)

The optical method measures the variations in diameter of a yarn and not in
its mass. The instrument an infra-red transmitter and two identical receivers. The
yarn passes at speed through one of the beams, blocking a portion of the light to
the measuring receiver. The intensity of this beam is compared with that measured
by the reference receiver and from the difference in intensities a measure of yarn
diameter is obtained. For a constant level of twist in the yarn the mass of a given
length is related to its diameter by the equation:
Mass = CD2
Where, C = constant, D = diameter of yarn
Yarn Appearance Board Winder
Yarn Appearance Board Winder is used to compare the appearance of
irregularities against standard rating photographs which carry out visual
determination of unevenness along the length of a yarn. Tenable yarns of different
thickness to be assessed; the spacing between the wraps is suitably selected so as
to clearly give a distinguishable pattern.
 94 Textile Testing

Figure 3.16: Optical Method.

Figure 3.17: Yarn Appearance Board.

Yarn Appearance Board Winder is used for wrapping the yarn in equally spaced
parallel wraps over a board for visual examination.
Features of Yarn Appearance Board Winder
P Manually/electrically operated.
P Checks the evenness and appearance of yarn.
P Precise preparation for accurate assessment of imperfection to grade the
yarn against photographic comparison standards.
Yarn Testing 95

P Is used for winding the yarn on the blackboard for visual examination
and grading the yarn as per ASTM standards.
P Choices of wide range of rectangular and tapered boards.

Working of Yarn Appearance Board Winder

Wrapping Boards
P Yarn number of the yarn to be tested has to be determined. The appropriate
spacing of the yarn wraps on the boards has to be found from the table.
P A parallel/tapered board has to be fixed onto the short stubs.
P The spacing of the yarn on the board has to be checked by making a small
sample wrapping on it.
P The moving block has to be raised. It is taken to the right side and released.
The yarn guide fixed on this block has to be in alignment with the point
from where the winding will start. To ensure this, a red mark is present
on the guide road.
P The bobbin containing the yarn to be tested has to be placed on the stand.
The yarn has to be passed through the tensioning device and the eyes on
the front bracket and moving block.
P The tension on the yarns has to be adjusted so that it moves freely onto
the board as it is rotated. Wrap the yarn over the board till a sufficiently
wide band is formed.
P Cut off the yarn and remove the board from the apparatus.

Evaluation
P Evaluating the evenness rating of the yarn by comparing the board against
the master photographs of the same spacing. The standard has 4 master
photographs: A, B, C, and D in each spacing.
P Comparing the specimen with the different ASTM Cotton Yarn Appearance
Standards.
P Assigning to the specimen the grade designated for the photograph for
which it is equal to or better than, without being equal to the next higher
grade.

Classimat Faults
There are two types of yarn faults, frequently occurring faults and Seldom-
occurring faults.
1. Frequently Occurring Faults
This type of faults includes thin, thick and neps as measured by evenness tester.
These faults occur in the range of 10 to 5000 times per 1000 meters
 96 Textile Testing

2. Seldom Occurring Faults

Theses faults refer to the thin places and thick places in the yarn, which are
so seldom occurring for atleast 100 km of the yarn. The seldom occurring faults
can be grouped in three main types Short thick, Long thick and Long thin faults.
Classifications of Faults
This will provides a detailed break-up of yarn faults based on the length and
dimensions of the faults. There are totally 23 types of faults, each fault is identified
by an alphabet and a number. The alphabet ‘A’ to ‘G’ indicates the thick yarn faults
while the letters ‘H’ and ‘I’ represent thin faults. The Number 1 represents a faults
of size +100 to +150 per cent over the nominal cross-section in the case of thick
place and -30 to -45 per cent in the case of thin places. Number 2 means +150 to
+250 per cent for thick places and -45 to -75 per cent for the thin places and so
on. The ‘E to ‘G’ categories of faults is not followed by any numerical since they
are fewer in numbers.
Yarn Classification Dimensions

0.1 1.0 2.0 4.0 8.0 32.0 cm Length

| A4 | B4 | C4 | D4 |
+400% -------------------------------------------
| A3 | B3 | C3 | D3 |
+250% -------------------------------------------
| A2 | B2 | C2 | D2 |
+150% -------------------------------------------
| A1 | B1 | C1 | D1 | E
+100% -----------------------------------------------------------
| F | G |
+45% ---------------------
------------------------------------------------------------
-30% ---------------------
| H1 | I1 |
-45% ---------------------
| H2 | I2 |
-75% ---------------------

Diameter

Assessment of Classimat Faults in Classimat Tester

Due to the existence of fewer faults and nature of distribution of these faults, it
is recommended to take randomly atleast 5 tests of each 100km of yarn. The testing
yarn has to be carried out on a winder having a uniform winding speed. Once the
Yarn Testing 97

testing is over, the results are in the form of printout. And it contains two sets of
data, the one is Individual faults and other one is cumulative faults/100km of yarn.
Major Causes of the Classimat Faults
Short Thick Faults
A4 B4 C4 D4
High Ringframe speed High Ringframe speed High Ringframe speed Drafting faults
Loose (or) Spun in fly Loose (or) Spun fly Drafting faults E xc e s s ive f l u f f i n
Foreign matter Floating fibers Long fibers spinning department

Type of spacers Narrow cage length Narrow cage length

and tight cage length and tight cage settings

Loose fly
A3 B3 C3 D3
Raw material High Ringframe speed High Ringframe speed Drafting faults
High Ringframe speed Loose (or) Spun in fly Drafting faults E xc e s s ive f l u f f i n
Fly at traveller Piecing faults Ring piecing spinning department

Spun in fly Unsuitable travelers Spun in fly Cage settings

A2 B2 C2 D2
Low Micronaire High Ringframe speed High Ringframe speed Speed frame gauge
Immature fibres Loose (or) Spun in fly Spacer settings Ringspinning drafting
Bad carding Settings of spacers Drafting faults faults

I n s u f f i c i e n t n e p Piecing faults Piecing faults Spacer

removal at combing Damaged aprons Damaged aprons Aprons
Trash in yarn Excessive trash Long piecing

A1 B1 C1 D1
Low Micronaire Raw material Excessive trash Raw material
Immature fibres F i b r e d a m a g e i n Drafting faults Drafting faults
Bad carding process Floating fibers
Insufficient Nep
removal at combing
Trash in yarn

Long Thick Faults

E
Incorrect settings in drawframe
More piecing in draw frame
 98 Textile Testing

F G
Worn out rings in Ringframe Worn out rings in Ringframe
Incorrect settings in drawframe Incorrect settings in drawframe
Very high hairiness High breakages in Drawframe and Speedframe
Piecing in drawframe Very high hairiness
Incorrect settings and more sliver breaks in Improper maintenance of spinning machines
speedframe Insufficient air conditioning
Improper maintenance of spinning machines Insufficient Humidity control and return air
Insufficient house keeping
Insufficient air conditioning
Insufficient Humidity control and return air

Long Thin Faults

H1 I1
Stretch of roving at speedframe Drawframe settings and maintenance
Eccentric bobbins at speedframe High breakages at Drawframe and Speedframe
Drawframe settings and maintenance Ring hanger jam
Higher breakages at Drawframe and
Speedframe
Ring hanger jam
H2 I2
Sliver splitting at Speedframe Drawframe settings and maintenance
Creel stretch at ringframe High breakages at Drawframe and Speedframe
Settings and maintenance of Speedframe and
Ringframe

3.6. Yarn Hairiness

Weighting Method
The hairiness is first removed by singeing (burning the protruding fibers), and
then the hairiness could be determined by comparing the weight difference before
and after the singeing. The advantage of this method is its simplicity; however, the
main drawback is that the length and number of hairiness cannot be determined,
moreover, the experimental conditions are difficult to be controlled, such as the
flame temperature, moisture, the speed of the yarn moving and others; therefore,
the method lacks reliability and repeatability.
Yarn Testing 99

Electrostatic Method
Under the effect of high-voltage in an electrostatic field, yarn hairiness could
be erected by polarization, so the yarn surface is electro-statically charged through
contacting with the inner surface of pipe. After that, the electrified yarn through
another pipe connected to a capacitor so that the charge of the hairiness could
be detected. However, the detected charge is easily affected by moisture regain,
conductivity of the yarn and other factors, so the precision of this measuring
method is limited.
Microscopic Visualization Method
The image of yarns after amplification can be projected onto a screen, and
then the number of protruding, looped and floating hairiness per unit length could
be counted and measured manually. Although this method has the advantages of
simplicity in operation, manual counting and measuring could be laborious, time
consuming and lower efficient.
Photoelectric Measurement Method
The principle is that optical hardware is utilized to obtain a signal proportional
to yarn hairiness, and then the electronic hardware converts the optical signal
into a proportional voltage signal. The converted voltage could be acquired by a
data acquisition board (DAQ Board). Finally, specific tailor made software could
be developed to analyze the corresponding data. This method is able to quantify
both traditional hairiness parameters and other related parameters. The popular
photoelectric devices in the market include the Shirley yarn hairiness tester, Zweigle
hairiness tester, Uster tester and etc.

3.7. Crimp Tester

Woven fabric made of two sets of yarns - warp yarns and weft yarns. Warp and
weft yarns are interlaced with each another and form fabric sheet. When warp and
weft yarn interlace in fabric they follow a wavy path. This waviness of yarn is called
crimp. According to pierce “crimp”, geometrically considered is the percentage
excess of length of the yarn axis over the cloth length.
Hairiness is characterized by the quantity of freely moving fibre ends or
fibre loops projecting from a yarn or textile fabric (woven, knitted or non woven
fabrics). In term of measurement Hairiness corresponds to the total length of the
protruding fibres in unit length of one centimeter. Yarn hairiness is a complex
concept, which generally cannot be completely defined by a single figure. The effect
of yarn hairiness on the textile operations following spinning, knitting and weaving
and its influence on the characteristics of the product obtained may be as follows:
1. High fluff – fly generation in ring frame, winding and subsequent
processes.
2. Excessive yarn breaks at ring frame stage.
100 Textile Testing

Figure 3.18: Photoelectric Measurement Method.

Laser-Coherent light, L1,L2-Two lens beam expander telescopes,
L3,L4-Two lenses, O-Place that secures object, F-Place for spatial filter.

3. Higher yarn breaks at knitting or warp creel.

4. Pipe choking of Circular Knitting machine causing frequent yarn breaks
and hole in fabric.
5. Barre or Shade variation in fabric.
6. High pilling in knitted fabric.
7. Linting problem in terry towel.

Percentage crimp is defined as the mean difference between the straightened

thread length and the distance between the ends of the thread while in the cloth,
expressed as a percentage. From the definition of crimp two values must be known,
the cloth length from which the yarns is removed and the straightened length of the
thread. In order to straighten the thread, tension must be applied, just sufficient to
Yarn Testing 101

remove all the kinks without stretching the yarn. In practice it is seldom possible
to remove all the crimp before the yarn itself begins to stretch.
Crimp per cent =
Straightened thread length - The length of thread in fabric, crimped length
———————————————————————————————— x 100
The length of thread in fabric, crimped length
The Number of Hairs in Several Length Zone Counted
The measuring method used is based on the photometric principle. The yarn
and projecting fibres interrupt a light beam, thus effecting a fluctuation in the
measuring luminance of the light beam. The luminance registered in this way by
a phototransistor is converted into a photocurrent, which must be amplified. In
order to allow the number of hairs in several length zones to be counted, the yarn
is scanned by four photo-transistors. The measured values were entered into a
logarithmic coordinate frame.
S3 Value
The instruments provide the information that how much number of fibres
belong to a particular length. In this method total number of hairs 3.0 mm and longer
is known as S3 Value. For a textile yarn long hairs are undesirable, while short hairs
are desirable for soft feel of fabric. Hairiness value obtained through OH sensor
of evenness tester is the average of all protruding fibre length in one centimeter
length of yarn, which is not indicating the distribution of the length of hairs.
Measurement of Crimp per cent
1. At first we have to select the warp or weft way of the fabric. Then we
should select the test length of the yarn. Here it is 10².
2. According to test length we will cut the flap of fabric.
3. Now a single yarn is to remove from the flap of fabric carefully as discussed
in theory.
4. One end of the yarn is gripped in the fixed gripper of the machine and
the other end is gripped in the other setting the test length.
5. Now the tension for the sample is found out from its count and it is set
in the machine.
6. After that we will apply tension along the yarn length with hand by taking
away the other end of yarn far from the first end.
7. As soon as the white marl on the tension bar is on the same line of its
both sides white mark, we will stop far away the other end.
8. The length of the yarn after applying tension is taken from the scale.
9. Now from this two lengths crimp percentage is calculated from the given
formula.
102 Textile Testing

10. In this way at least 10 crimp percentage for warp and 10 for weft is taken
and average crimp percentage is calculated from them.

Shirley Crimp Tester

When yarn is removed from a fabric it is no longer straight but it is set into
the path that it took in the fabric. This distortion is known as crimp and before the
linear density of the yarn can be determined the crimp must be removed and the
extended length measured. The crimp tester is a device for measuring the crimp-
free length of a piece of yarn removed from a fabric.
Description
P The instrument consists of two clamps, one of which can be slid along a
scale and the other which is pivoted so as to apply tension to the yarn.
P The sample of yarn removed from the fabric is placed in the clamps with
each end a set distance into the clamp. This is because the length of yarn
in the clamps has to be allowed for in the measurement.
P The right hand clamp can be moved along the scale and it has an engraved
line on it at which point the extended yarn length can be read.
P The left hand clamp is balanced on a pivot with a pointer arm attached. On
the pointer arm is a weight which can be moved along the arm to change
the yarn tension, the set tension being indicated on a scale behind it.
P At zero tension the left hand clamp assembly is balanced and the pointer
arm lines up against a fixed mark. As the weight is moved along the arm
the clamp tries to rotate around the pivot, so applying a tension to the
yarn.

Figure 3.19: Shirley Crimp Tester.

Procedure
P The counts of the warp and weft yarns are first determined and the correct
tension is calculated.
P When a measurement is being made the movable clamp is slid along the
scale until the pointer is brought opposite the fixed mark.
Yarn Testing 103

P At this point the tension in the yarn is the value which was set on the
scale.
P The length of the yarn can then be read off against the engraved line.
 Chapter 4

Fabric Testing

4.1. Main Steps for Fabric Testing

1. Checking raw materials
2. Monitoring production
3. Assessing the final product
4. Investigation of faulty material
5. Product development and research

Different Fabric Tests

1. Dimensional Characteristics – A) Length, B) Width, C) Thickness
2. Threads/Inch – EPI, PPI, CPI, WPI
3. Count- Warp and Weft
4. Weight
5. Crimp per cent
6. Strength
7. Shrinkage
8. Abrasion and Pilling
9. Handle a) Stiffness b) Drape c) Crease Resistance and crease recovery
10. Flame Retardancy
11. Water repellency
106 Textile Testing

Fabric Length
Fabric length is the distance from end to end, along the selvedge of a fabric.
The following 3 methods to measure the length of a fabric:
1. By using a measuring table
2. By using measuring scale
3. By using a measuring machine (Trumeter)

Fabric Width and Thickness

Collection of Samples from Fabrics:
Samples should be collected from at least three places from fabric e.g.
1. Two samples from the two sides and
2. One from the middle.

Conditioning of Test Samples (Standard Atmospheric Condition)

It is recommended that the fabric should be conditioned in the standard
testing atmosphere
1. 65±2 per cent RH
2. 20±2oC (or 27± 2oC for tropical countries) temperature in a fully relaxed
state.

Fabric Width
Fabric width is the distance from one selvedge to the other, measured
perpendicular to the length of the fabric.
Measurement of Fabric Width
1. In the standard method, (B.S. Hand book) it is recommended that the
fabric should be exposed to a standard atmosphere for at least 24 hours
before final width measurements are taken.
2. Measurements should take before and after conditioning. Then it should
be watched that if there is any change in width.
3. On a piece of cloth, 10 width measurements should be made at points
distributed at roughly equal distances throughout the full length of the
fabric piece.
4. If full length is not used a sample length not less than 1 yard should be
used and width measurement should be taken at least 3 places.
5. Then, in both cases, mean width should be calculated.

Continuous Measurement of Width

A pair of photo electric cells, one at each selvedge, which scan the edges and
Fabric Testing 107

detect changes in width. The signals are translated into cloth width and indicated
on a meter or recorded on a chart. An accuracy of ± 0.3 cm is claimed.

4.2. GSM Cutters

GSM cutters are used to determine accurately the GSM (Grams per square
meter) of any type of fabrics. This GSM cutter is circular fabric sample cutter with
which uniform circular fabric is cut without measuring. The specimen which is cut
with the help of fabric GSM cutter is 100 cm2 areas. The instrument is equipped
with a set of four replaceable blades and normal cutting pads.

Figure 4.1: GSM Cutters.

Accessory of GSM Cutter

1. GSM Pad
2. GSM Weighing Scale

Features of GSM Cutter

P Reliable rapid, and easy to use.
P 100 Square Centimetres cutting area.
P Depth of cutting up to 5mm.
P Special finishes for contacting surfaces to avoid of specimen slippage.

Working of GSM Cutter

The material to be cut is placed between the Sample Cutter and a Special
Cutting Board. When the safety catch is released, light downward pressure on the
hand wheel brings the multiple blades into contact with the material. Specimens
are cut by rotating the hand wheel under a light and even pressure. The design
108 Textile Testing

and precision manufacture of the instrument ensures the specimens are perfectly
circular and have smooth edges. To maintain the cutting efficiency, the blades should
be turned or changed when they become damaged or blunt, and the Cutting Board
should be turned or changed when it becomes worn.
Applications of GSM Cutter
GSM cutter are not just use in textile industry, they are use in various other
industries like acrylic sheets, aluminium and foils, bags and luggage of cotton,
plastic, paper and leather, beach wear, blankets, belts, foot ware, paper industry,
package material, machines, boxes, polyester and BOPP films, hand tufted carpets,
home furnishing items Teflon products, thermal paper and thermo chart and various
other endless things.

4.3. Fabric Thickness

Thickness is a parameter of a fabric which controls handle, creasing, thermal
resistance, heaviness or stiffness in use and many other properties of fabric.
Fabric Thickness Test Principle
The Principle of the measurement of fabric thickness is expressed in B.S. Hand
book as follows.
“Essentially, the determination of the thickness of a compressible material
such as a textile fabric consists of the precise measurement of the distance between
two planes parallel plates when they are separated by the cloth, a known arbitrary
pressure between the plates are applied and maintained. It is convenient to regard
one of the plates as the pressure foot and the other as the anvil.”
Points to be Considered in Measuring Thickness
1. The shape and size of pressure foot: A circular foot of diameter inch is
usually used. The ratio of foot diameter and cloth thickness should not
be less than 5: 1.
2. Shape and size of Anvil: If a circular anvil is used it should be at least
2 inch greater in diameter than the pressure foot. Where the sample is
larger than the anvil, the anvil should be surrounded with a suitable
support.e.g. a smooth plane board.
3. Applied pressure: Recommended pressure is specified e.g. 0.1 lb/inch2
or 10.0 lb/inch2. Suitable weights may be added to pressure foot to obtain
these pressures.
4. Velocity of pressure foot: The pressure foot should be lowered slowly
on sample i.e. it needs slow and careful movement.
5. Time: The thickness is read from the dial of the instrument when the
movement of pointer has stopped.
6. Indication of thickness: A clock type dial is usually built into a thickness
tester.
Fabric Testing 109

Instruments for measuring fabric thickness:

1. Reynolds and Branson thickness tester.
2. Heal’s thickness gauge.
3. Shirley thickness gauge.
4. Mag Ana thickness tester

Shirley Thickness Gauge

For testing the thickness of compressible materials like carpets, sponge rubber,
foam, felts etc., Shirley thickness gauge is used.

1 – Anvil; 2 – Circular Pressure Foot (Dia. 10 mm); 3 – Zero Setting Dial Gauge (Bezel);
4 – Knob for zero setting of the Dial Gauge; 5 – Dead Weight (As Per Standards); 6 –
Lifting Lever; 7 – Grub Screw for Calibration; 8 – Circular Pressure Foot (Dia. 25 mm).
Figure 4.2: Fabric Thickness Tester.

Specification of Fabric Thickness Tester

P Range of measurement : 0 - 10 mm
P Least count of dial gauge : 0.01 mm
P Diameter of anvil : 60 mm
P Diameter of pressure foot (Interchangeable) : 10 mm and 25 mm
P Load on pressure foot : 78.5 g (100g/sq. cm)
P Throat depth : 22 mm
110 Textile Testing

P Overall Dimensions of the Instrument : 115 (L) x 185 (W) x 180 (H) mm
4.5” (L) x 7.5” (W) x 7” (H) Inch
P Net Weight of the Instrument : 1.9 Kg. (4.18 lbs)

Working Procedure of Fabric Thickness Tester

P The fabric sample that is to be measured is kept on an anvil.
P The press foot is gently lowered on to the specimen.
P The reading is taken to get the thickness of the specimen.
P The flat circular indenter of the micrometer exerts the specified pressure
on the fabric sample.
P The above procedure is repeated to obtain the values of thickness at least
at 3 different locations.
P The mean value of all the readings of thickness determined to the nearest
0.01m is calculated and the result is the average thickness of the sample
under test.

Digital Fabric Thickness Gauge

Features
P Determines the thickness of yarns, fabrics, paper, etc.
P Range of measurement: 0 - 10 mm.
P Thickness is accurately measured in millimeter through digital gauge.
P Standard load on the pressure foot to ensure accuracy.
P Supplied with calibration and inspection certificates.
P Accurately and conveniently performs thickness measurement.
P Consists of a dial micrometer with a flat pressure foot and a flat anvil.

Figure 4.3. Fabric Thickness Tester (Digital).

Fabric Testing 111

Working of Digital Fabric Thickness Gauge

P The fabric sample that is to be measured is kept on an anvil.
P The press foot is gently lowered on to the specimen.
P The reading is taken to get the thickness of the specimen.
P The flat circular indenter of the micrometer exerts the specified pressure
on the fabric sample.
P The above procedure is repeated to obtain the values of thickness at least
at 3 different locations.
P The mean value of all the readings of thickness determined to the nearest
0.01m is calculated and the result is the average thickness of the sample
under test.

4.4. Tensile Strength Tester

This is referred to as a strength test where the load is applied along the
direction of the test sample.
Tensile strength test of fabric is divided into two groups-
1. Strip test
2. Grab test.

Strip Strength Test

1. Five fabric samples are extended in a direction parallel to the warp and
five parallel to the weft.
2. The specimens are cut to a size of 2.5 inch in width and then removing
threads from both edges until the width has been reduced to 2 inch.
3. The test length should be 8 inch between the jaws and so enough extra
length must be allowed for gripping in the jaws.
4. Under optimum conditions, the specimen will be mounted centrally.
Security gripped along the full width to prevent slipping.
5. The load is applied uniformly across the full specimen width till the
specimen tear out.
6. If a test specimen breaks within 0.25 inch of the line of contact of either
of the pairs of jaws at a load less than the average of normal breaks, the
result should not be used in calculation.

Grab Strength Test

1. At first we take specimen 4”x6”.
2. Then the specimen is marked by a pencil at 1.5”from the edge of the
specimen to assist in clamping it so that the same set of threads are
clamped in both jaws.
112 Textile Testing

A – Fixed Jaw; B – Movable Jaw; C – Load Cell; D – Gauge length;

E – Base; F – Fabric specimen.
Figure 4.4: Tensile Strength Tester.
3. The two jaws are fixed on both side of the specimen from 1” edge. This
means that only the central 1 inch of the fabric is stressed.
4. The gauge length used is 3 inch and the speed is adjusted so that the
sample is broken in 20 ± 3s.

Figure 4.5: Specimen Template for Grab Strength Test.

Fabric Testing 113

5. One jaw is fixed another jaws moveable.

6. Then the moveable jaws start to move outwards till the specimen is tear
out.

4.5. Fabric Tearing Strength Test

Tearing Strength
A fabric tears when it is snagged by a sharp object and the immediate small
puncher is converted into long rip by what may be a very small extra effort. It is
probably the most common type of strength failure of fabrics in use. It is particularly
important in industrial fabrics that are exposed to rough handling. (E.g. Tents, Sacks,
Parachutes, etc.) In some applications low tear strength is require, e.g. Adhesive
tape, bandages, etc. Tear strength is the strength required to start or continue
the tear in a fabric under specific condition and tearing force is the required to
continue a tear previously started in a fabric. The tear resistance test on fabrics
or tear strength is measured to check how the material can withstand the effects
of tearing or cuts when in tension. The tear strength is measured as per the ASTM
D412 standard test method, which is also used to measure tensile and elongation.
Importance of Tear Strength Test on Fabrics
The tear strength is the resistance of fabric against tearing. The tear strength
is vital for the textiles, bulletproof jackets, worker jeans, tents, apparel, sacks, and
industrial applications. If the tear strength is high, means punctures in the fabrics
do not propagate easily. The tear strength is vital in the industrial textiles as heavy
duty work is performed.
Factors Affecting the Tear Strength are as follows
1. The GSM of the fabric indicates the tear strength. High the GSM means
more the tearing strength.
2. The strength of the yarn has a direct relation to the tearing strength of
the fabric. More the yarn strength means more tear strength.
3. Weave designs mean the plain weave could have lowest tear strength.
Similarly, the spun yarn has low tear strength as compared to filament
yarn.
4. The knitted fabric is less strong as compared to woven fabric.

The tearing strength tester is an appropriate tool to measure the tear resistance
of various materials including textiles and fabric
Types of Tear Test
1. Tongue Test
2. Trapezoid
3. Elmendorf
114 Textile Testing

Elmendorf Tear Tester

Sample Preparation
1. First we take specimen of 100 ×75.
2. The template is placed on the specimen and cut according to the template,
which are given below.
3. A slit is created at the middle point of the specimen, which range is 20
mm.
4. In the test, the Elmendorf continuous to tear the fabric from the end of
the slit to the opposite edge distance of 43mm.
5. Pendulum lever principle is used here.

Figure 4.6: Elmendorf Sample Preparation Template.

Working Procedure
1. The apparatus consists of a sector shaped pendulum carrying a moving
sample clamp and a fixed clamp on the frame.
2. When the pendulum is in the raised to starting position, the specimen is
transferred between the two clamps.
3. The tear is started by a slit cut in the specimen between the clamps.
4. The pendulum is then released and the specimen is torn as the moving
clamp, moving away from the fixes clamp.
5. The pointer attached to the pendulum, which is graduated to read the
tearing force directly.
Fabric Testing 115

A – Fixed Clamp; B – Movable Clamp; C – Pendulum;

D – Pointer; E – Pointer Stopper; F – Pendulum stop.
Figure 4.7: Elmendorf Tear Tester.

4.6. Bursting Strength Tester

This tear strength is basically used for knitted, lace, non-woven fabric,
parachute fabrics, filters, sacks and nets etc. It is the uniformly distributed force
over a given area applied to the fabric surface which is needed to break. There are
mainly two types of bursting strength test-
1. Hydraulic or Diaphragm burst
2. Ball burst

Diaphragm of Bursting Test

The British Standard describes a test in which the fabric to be tested is clamped
over a rubber diaphragm by means of an annular clamping ring and an increasing
fluid pressure is applied to the underside of the diaphragm until the specimen
bursts. The operating fluid may be a liquid or a gas. Two sizes of specimen are
in use, the area of the specimen under stress being either 30mm diameter or
113mm in diameter. The specimens with the larger diameter fail at lower pressures
(approximately one-fifth of the 30mm diameter value). However, there is no direct
comparison of the results obtained from the different sizes. The standard requires
ten specimens to be tested.
116 Textile Testing

A – Clamps; B – Specimen; C – Diaphragm; D – Piston; E – Liquid; F – Pressure Gauge

Figure 4.8: Bursting Strength Test.

In the test the fabric sample is clamped over the rubber diaphragm and the
pressure in the fluid increased at such a rate that the specimen bursts within 20
± 3 s. The extension of the diaphragm is recorded and another test is carried out
without a specimen present. The pressure to do this is noted and then deducted
from the earlier reading.
The Following Measurements are Reported
The US Standard is similar using an aperture of 1.22 ± 0.3 in (31 ± 0.75mm)
the design of equipment being such that the pressure to inflate the diaphragm
alone is obtained by removing the specimen after bursting. The test requires ten
samples if the variability of the bursting strength is not known. The disadvantage
of the diaphragm type bursting test is the limit to the extension that can be given
to the sample owing to the fact that the rubber diaphragm has to stretch to the
same amount. Knitted fabrics, for which the method is intended, often have a very
high extension.
Importance of Ball Bursting
1. This method is used to determine the force required to rupture textile
fabric by forcing a steel ball through the fabric.
2. Fabrics having more extension that cannot be checked by diaphragm
bursting strength test.
Fabric Testing 117

3. This test can be carried out on a standard universal strength tester with
a suitable attachment.
4. This method used for knitted fabric, coated fabric, non-woven fabric etc.

Sample Preparation
P Using a circular template 12.5 cm in diameter, mark and cut out ten
samples of the fabric from random areas so as to be representative of
the entire sample.
P No sample shall be taken nearer than 20 cm from the edge of the roll.

Machine Description
According to US Standard
P Steel ball having diameter 1 inch (25.4 mm) with a clamp of diameter
1.75 in (44.45 mm).
P Speed of ball = 12 in/min (305mm/min).
P Steel ball is an attachment which is used in the tensile mode on a standard
tensile strength testing machine.
P There are not a British Standard for the ball bursting strength of knitted
fabrics, although a standard does exist for coated fabrics.
P Steel ball having diameter 25.2 mm with a clamp of diameter 45 mm.
P Speed of ball = 5 mm/sec

Machine Diagram

A – Handle; B – Support; C1, C2 – Clamp plates; D – Plunger; E – Ball; F - Fabric

Figure 4.9: Ball Bursting Strength Tester
118 Textile Testing

Working Procedure
P Test is carried out using an attachment on standard tensile testing
machine.
P Place the sample in the ring clamp as flat as possible with no wrinkles or
tension and tighten the clamp.
P In the test, the steel ball is pushed through the stretched fabric and the
force required to do so is recorded.
P By the steel ball downward force apply at constant rate until the sample
break.
P Ball bursting follows the CRE method.

Considering point
P Sample size should be cut properly by template.
P Sample keep ring clamp as flat as possible without no wrinkle.
P Sample should be tightening properly by the clamp.

4.7. Abrasion and Abrasion Resistance Tester

Abrasion
Abrasion is one aspect of wear and is the rubbing away of the component
fibers and yarns of the fabric.
Abrasion may be classified as follows-
1. Plane or flat abrasion-A flat area of material is abraded.
2. Edge abrasion-This kind of abrasion occurs at collars and folds.
3. Flex abrasion-In this case, rubbing is accompanied by flexing and
bending.

Abrasion Resistance
The resistance power against damage due to abrasion of a fabric known as
abrasion resistance.
Factors Affecting Abrasion Resistance
Fibre Type
Nylon is generally considered to have the best abrasion resistance. Polyester
and polypropylene also have good abrasion resistance. Blending either nylon or
polyester with wool and cotton is found to increase their abrasion resistance.
Viscose and acetates have the lowest abrasion resistance.
Fibre Properties
A fabric made up with longer fibres gives better abrasion resistance than
Fabric Testing 119

short fibres because they are harder to remove from the yarn. For the same reason
filament yarns are more abrasion resistant than staple yarns made from the same
fibre. Increasing fibre diameter up to a limit improves abrasion resistance.
Yarn Twist
An optimum amount of twist in a yarn gives the best abrasion resistance. At
low-twist factors, fibres can easily be removed from the yarn so that it is gradually
reduced in diameter. At high twist levels, the fibres are held more tightly but the
yarn is stiffer so it is hard abrade under pressure
Fabric Structure
Fabrics with the crimp evenly distributed between warp and weft give the best
wear because the damage is spread evenly between them.
Martindale Abrasion Tester
Martindale Abrasion is used to check the abrasion resistance of the fabric. It
consists of four testing plates on which the abrading fabrics is attached, these four
testing table are mounted on the base plate of the instrument. There is revolving
plate, which revolves with the help of three cranks, pegs and motor. There are
four sleeves attached on the revolving plate. The sample holders for abrasion and
pilling testing are provided with the instrument. There is a set of weights for proper
pressure on the test specimens. Templates for cutting the samples and abrading
cloth and their mallet are also supplied as standard accessory.

A – Load; B – Top Plate; C – Spindle rod; D – Sample holder;

E – Foam back; F – Fabric.
Figure 4.10: Martindale Abrasion Tester.
120 Textile Testing

Description of the Machine

1. This apparatus gives a controlled amount of abrasion between fabric
surfaces.
2. Abrasion is given at comparatively low pressures in continuously changing
directions.
3. In this test, circular specimens are abraded under known pressure.
4. This abrasion is given by a motion that is the resultant of two simple
harmonic motions at right angles to one another.
5. The fabric is abraded against a standard fabric called abradant.
6. Abrasion resistance is estimated by visual appearance or by loss in mass
of the specimen.

Martindale Abrasion cum Pilling Tester

Features
P Effective speed ratio of outer pegs to inner pegs
P 4 specimen can be tested simultaneously.
P Maximum load (corresponding to pressure of 12KN/m2): 790g
P Comprise of stainless steel balls.
P Acrylic Top Plate for safety.
P The Abrasion of the fabric can be tested through two methods.

Working of Martindale Abrasion cum Pilling Tester

1. Number of rubs to end point: 4 specimens of each sample can be tested
in each of the specimen holder of the machine. Inspect the specimens
without removing them from the holders at regular intervals and note
the number of rubs when at least two threads are broken. This should be
assessed independently for each specimen and the specimens removed
when they reach end point.
2. Average weight loss: Abrade two specimens to end points as in above
case and then abrade further pairs of specimens. Weight all the specimens
before and after abrasion and plot a graph of weight loss against the
number of rubs. Draw a line through the points and determine the rate
of weight loss in mg per 1000 rubs if reasonably linear.

Method
1. Four specimens, each of 38mm in diameter are cut by using the
appropriate cutter.
2. Then they are mounted in the specimen holders with a circle of standard
foam backing behind the fabric. The specimens must be placed flat against
the mounting block.
Fabric Testing 121

3. The test specimen holders with the specimens are placed on the abradant.
4. A spindle is inserted through the top plate and the correct weight (usually
of a size to give a pressure of 12kPa but a lower pressure of 9kPa may be
used if specified) is placed on top of this.
5. The standard abradant should be replaced at the start of each test and
also replaced after each 50,000 cycles if the test is continued beyond this
number.
6. While the abradant is replaced it is held flat by a weight and the retaining
ring is tightened.
7. Behind the abradant, there is a standard backing felt which is replaced
at longer intervals.
8. After appropriate clamping of specimen on the holders, required numbers
of cycles of abrasion is applied.

Assessment of Abrasion Damage

Several methods are used to judge the amount of damage. Some are mentioned
below:
1. The difference in appearance between an abraded and unabraded
specimen.
2. The number of cycles required to produce a hole, broken threads or
broken strip.
3. Loss in weight often plotted against the number of cycle. Change in
thickness e.g. loss of pile height.
4. Loss in strength, e.g. tensile, bursting or tearing strength, expressed in
percentage of unabraded strength.
5. Change in some other properties like lustre, air permeability etc.
6. Microscopic examination of damage of yarns and fibres.

The specimen is examined at suitable intervals without removing it from its

holder. In the Table 4.1, the time intervals between examinations are shown. All
four specimens should be judged individually. The individual values of cycles to
breakdown of all four specimens are reported and also the average of these.
Table 4.1: Inspection Intervals for Martindale Abrasion Test

Estimated No. of Cycles Intervals for Inspection

Up to 5,000 Every 1,000
Between 5,000 to 20,000 Every 2,000
Between 20,000 to 40,000 Every 5,000
Above 40,000 Every 10,000
 122 Textile Testing

Points to be Consider before Abrasion Testing/Factors Affecting

Abrasion Tests
P Condition of specimen: The fabric should be conditioned and tested in
a standard testing atmosphere.
P Choice of testing instrument: The choice of testing instrument may be
dependent upon the character of the testing desired, e.g-flat abrasion,
flexing abrasion, etc.
P Choice of abrasive motion: The rubbing movement may be reciprocating,
rotary or multidirectional.
P Direction of abrasion: The direction of abrasion can be at angles to the
warp and weft directions.
P Choice of abradant: The severity of the abrasion will vary with the
nature of abradant. For example: steel and silicon carbide give constant
abrasive qualities. A standard worsted or canvas fabric, emery cloth of
various grade are also used as abradant.
P Backing the specimen: The hardness of the backing of the specimen
may affect the results. In some testes a hard backing is used, in others a
felt or foam rubber.
P Cleanliness of the specimen and instrument: The region to be abraded
should be handled as little as possible and be free from foreign matter
such as graphite of pencils. The accessories of the instrument which may
rub the fabric must be spotlessly clean and free from grease.
P Tension on the specimen: Standard method of mounting the specimen
should be used to avoid errors due to variation in the tension used.
P The pressure between abradant and specimen: The severity of the
abrasion will be affected by the pressure applied. So suitable standard
must be set up.
P The end point of the test: The test should be frequently stopped as soon
as the hole appeases or the specimen breaks by automatic stop motion.

4.8. ICI Box Pilling Tester

Pilling:
Pilling is formation of little balls of fibers (pills) on the surface of a fabric which
is caused by abrasion in wear. Pilling is the tendency of fibers to come loose from
a fabric surface and form balled particles of fiber.
Causes of Pilling
1. Due to wear and abrasion.
2. Due to rubbing action of fabric with particular parts of garments and
body.
Fabric Testing 123

3. Due to soft twisted yarn.

4. Due to excess short fibres.
5. Due to migration of fibres from constituent yarn in fabric.
6. Due to protruding fibre/yarn hairiness.
7. Due to heat in case of thermoplastic fibres.

Minimizing of Pilling
1. By using high twisted yarn.
2. By brushing and cropping of the fabric surface to remove loose fibre ends.
3. By using singeing process to reduce yarn hairiness, longer fibres.
4. By using anti pilling technique.
5. By special chemical treatment such as adhesive, anti-rubbing agent.
6. By reducing migration of fibres by means of Air jet spinning process.
7. By increasing inter-fibre friction.
8. By increasing linear density of the fibre.
9. By using a high number of threads per unit length.

ICI Box Pilling Test

P For this test four specimens each 5 inch X 5 inch are cut from the fabric.
P A seam allowance of 12mm is marked on the back of each square. In two
of the samples the seam is marked parallel to the warp direction and in
the other two parallel to the weft direction.
P The samples are then folded face to face and a seam is sewn on the marked
line.
P This gives two specimens with the seam parallel to the warp and two
with the seam parallel to the weft.

P Each specimen is turned inside out and 6mm cut off each end of it thus
removing any sewing distortion.

Figure 4.11: Preparation of a Pilling Sample.

 124 Textile Testing

P The fabric tubes made are then mounted on rubber tubes so that the
length of tube showing at each end is the same. Each of the loose ends is
taped with poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC) tape so that 6mm of the rubber
tube is left exposed as shown in Figure.
P All four specimens are then placed in one pilling box.
P The samples are then tumbled together in a cork-lined box as shown in
Figure.
P The usual number of revolutions used in the test is 18,000 which take 5
hrs.

Assessment
The specimens are removed from the tubes and viewed using oblique lighting.
The samples are then given a rating of between 1 and 5 with the help of the
descriptions in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Rating Scale for Pill Assessment

Rating Description Points to be taken in to Consideration

5 No change No visual change
4 Slight Change Slight surface fuzzing
3 Moderate change Either moderate fuzzing, Isolated fully formed pills
2 Significant change Distinct fuzzing and/or pilling
1 Severe change Dense fuzzing and/or pilling which covers the specimen.

Digital Pilling Tester

Digital Pilling Tester is used to check the pilling resistance of the fabric. Pilling
is a fabric surface fault characterized by little pills of entangled fibres clinging to
the surface. Pills are formed during wearing or washing by the entanglement of
the loose fibres, which protrude from fabric surface. To determine the tendency
to form pills, test specimens taken from the fabric sample are rubbed against each
other under controlled conditions.
Features of Digital Pilling Tester
P Consists of two wooden cubical Boxes with inside surfaces lined with
special standard cork sheet and outside surfaces beautifully laminated.
P Consists of geared motor which rotates the boxes about their central axis
P Pre-set Digital Counter stops the motor automatically after the desired
number of revolutions
P Can be used for all types of fabric and weave patterns.
P Eliminates subjective assessment.
P More accurate.
Fabric Testing 125

Figure 4.12: Digital Pilling Tester.

P User friendly.
P Adopted universal standard testing procedure.

Working of Digital Pilling

P The very first step is to clean the boxes thoroughly.
P Then place four mounted test specimens in each box and close the boxes.
P Later set the pre-set counter at 18000 with the help of the Thumb Wheel
setting provided on the Digital Counter.
P Press the start button. The machine would stop automatically after 18000
revolutions.
P Now, finally take the specimens and compare them with the photographic
rating standards.

4.9. Drape Meter

Drape is defined as “the extent to which a fabric will deform when it is allowed
to hang under its own weight”. When a fabric is draped; it can bend in one or more
directions. Curtains and drapes usually bend in one direction, whereas garments
and upholstery exhibit a complex three-dimensional form with double curvature.
There have been numerous instruments, ranging from a simple cantilever bending
tester to a dynamic drape tester developed for measuring fabric drape. “Drape
coefficient (DC)” the main parameter used to quantify fabric drape. This paper
reviews various techniques and instruments used to measure drape.
Test Principle
The drape sample is projected onto a white sheet, and digital camera is used to
126 Textile Testing

obtain sample’s drape figure through which we can get some specified quantitative
information regarding fabric drapability. The relevant indexes as drape coefficient
and drape wave number can be got from computer image processing technology.
Generally, fabric drapability is evaluated by drape coefficient “F”. Drape coefficient
is the ratio of the projected area to original area:
F= [(S3-S2)/(S1-S2)] × 100 per cent
where,
F= Drape Coefficient
S3 = The Projected Area
S2 = The Area of Clamping Plate
S1 = Sample Area

The bigger the drape coefficient, the stiffer the fabric and the weaker fabric
drapability; vice versa. We can get a comprehensive understanding of the fabric
drapability through drape wave number and amplitude.

Figure 4.13: Drape Meter.

Sample Preparation
3 samples of a diameter of 24cm are prepared, with no crease on surface. Each
circular sample should be opened a 4mm pore in the center. Two sides of each
sample should be marked “a” and “b” respectively.
Fabric Testing 127

Method
A three-dimensional representation was necessary for making appropriate
evaluation of drape characteristics quantitatively. Cusick, developed a drape meter,
in that circular specimen of fabric about 30 cm in diameter supported on a circular
disk of 18 cm diameter on the drape meter. The unsupported area drapes over the
edges of the support disk forming the drape configuration of the fabric specimen.
The drape coefficient (DC) defined as the fraction of the area of the annular ring
covered by the projection of the draped sample, is used to quantify the fabric
drape. A low drape coefficient indicates easy deformation of a fabric and a high
DC indicates less deformation.
DC = [Area under the draped sample - Area of support disk]/[Area of the
specimen - Area of support disk]

Figure 4.14: Drape.

Cusick introduced a simpler method of calculating DC. In this method, “A

circular piece of paper, of radius R, is placed under the centre of the tester. The
perimeter of the shadow of the draped fabric is then drawn on the paper. The circle
of paper is folded and weighed to give W1. The paper is then cut along the perimeter
of the shadow, and the paper in the shape of the shadow of the area A is weighed to
give W2”. DC is expressed as the ratio of W1 and W2. Collier developed a modified
version of a drape meter. The instrument utilizes a bottom surface of photovoltaic
cells to determine the amount of light blocked by a fabric specimen draped on a
pedestal. The amount of light absorbed by photovoltaic cells is displayed digitally
relating the drape of the fabric.

4.10. Stiffness Tester

Stiffness tester is used to determine the stiffness of fabrics. Stiffness Tester
provides a quick and accurate method of determining stiffness properties such as
128 Textile Testing

flexural rigidity of most textile fabrics and other flexible materials. The principle
of Cantilever Test method is used in it.
Description of Shirley Stiffness Tester
The stiffness tester is consists of a platform, having a smooth low friction, flat
surface such as polished metal or plastic. The platform is supported by two side
pieces made of plastic. Index lines are engraved on these side pieces, inclined at
an angle of 41.5° below the plane of the platform surface. At this angle f (ô) = 0.5.
A mirror is attached to the instrument to enable the operator to view both index
lines from a convenient position. A scale is supplied with the instrument to measure
the bending length and is graduated in cm. It also serves as a template for cutting
the samples of size.
Sample Preparation
The sample is conditioned in the standard testing atmosphere and using the
template, specimens are cut to the size of 6 inches X 1 inch. Four specimens in
warp way and weft way are prepared for the test. If the fabric is not uniform or a
high degree of accuracy is required, more samples can be tested. The specimens
are cut in such a way that the warp specimens do not contain the same warp
yarns and the weft specimens contain different weft yarns. Selvedges, end pieces,
creased or folded places must be avoided and the specimens must be handled as
little as possible.

Figure 4.15: Shirley Stiffness Tester.

Fabric Testing 129

Procedure
1. The test is carried out in the standard testing atmosphere. The tester is
set on a table so that the horizontal platform and the index lines are at
eye level.
2. The specimen is placed on the platform with the template at the top of
it so that the leading edges coincide. Both are slowly pushed forward
until the leading edges of the specimen and the template project beyond
the edge of the platform. With the eye in a position so that the index line
coincide, the sliding of the specimen is stopped when it cuts both index
lines.
3. If the specimen has a tendency to twist, the reference point at the centre
of the leading edge is taken. For the specimens which twist more than
45o, this method should not be used. Then the bending length can be read
from the scale (template) opposite a datum line engraved on the side of
the platform.
4. Four readings are taken from each specimen, with each side up, first at
one end and then another. Mean values for the bending length in warp
and weft ways are calculated and the flexural rigidity and the bending
modulus are determined.
5. This instrument is used in the finishing departments where the control
of the process is used and to note the effects of varying the process.

Features of Stiffness Tester

P It has a solid aluminium base with nylon foot-rest to keep the base
horizontal.
P The equipment’s parts are made of stainless steel.
P It has a calibrated scale.

Working of Stiffness Tester

P The Stiffness Tester is placed on a level surface and the levels are checked
with the help of the sprit level.
P The fabric specimen has to be cut into a size of 150 x 25 mm, with the
help of Acrylic Specimen Preparing Template.
P The test specimen has to be placed flat on the platform of the instrument.
P The calibrated scale is gently put on the fabric.
P The marking on the acrylic plate of the Stiffness Tester has to be viewed
in the mirror.
P The scale has to be then gently slided till the leading edges of the test
specimen moves away from the scale and bends down till it touches the
two inclined lines.
130 Textile Testing

P In case the leading edge is twisted, make the centre point of the leading
edge coincide with the plane. If the twist is more than 45° disregard the
reading.
P The reading on the scale is noted down.
P The test has to be repeated 4 times and the average bending length has
to be determined.
P All the test samples have to be weighed and their length and width has to
be measured and then their areas have to be calculated and weight per
unit area determined.
P Flexural rigidity and bending modulus are then calculated using the
appropriate formula.

4.11. Crease Resistance and Recovery Test

Crease
This is a fabric defect evidenced by a break line or mark or fold in a fabric
generally caused by a sharp fold. Crease appears when the fabric is distorted in such
a manner that part of it is stretched beyond its elastic recovery. During creasing the
upper surface of fabric goes on extension and lower surface goes on compression.
Crease Resistance
The resistance to creasing of textile material during use is known as crease
resistance.
Amongst the textile materials the decreasing order of crease resistance is wool,
silk, acetate rayon, viscose, rayon, cuprammonium rayon, cotton, flax etc.
Crease Recovery
It is the property of a textile material by which it can return to its former shape
after being creased. The measure of crease resistance is specified quantitatively
in terms of crease recovery angle. The crease recovery of a fabric can be increased
by resin treatment.
Crease Recovery tester determines the property of textiles to recover from
creases by measurement of the recovery angle. The specimen is first creased under
specified load for fixed time and is then transferred to the measurement device,
where one end of the specimen is held in a spring loaded clamp and other is allowed
to fall free under its own weight. Now one need to read the scale fixed to moving
clamp to know the deflection of the clamped end from the horizontal. This angle
gives the measure of the Crease Recovery Angle.
Fabric Testing 131

Shirley Crease Recovery Tester

Figure 4.16: Shirley Crease Recovery Tester.

Construction and Machine Description

1. The instrument consists of a circular dial which carries the clamp for
holding the specimen.
2. Directly under the center of the dial is a knife edge and an index line for
measuring the recovery angle.
3. The scale of the instrument is engraved on the dial.

Features of Crease Recovery Tester

P Made of heavy caste base with all parts of stainless steel
P Imported Acrylic Sheet used for making the Rotating Dial.
P To make the movement smooth the Dial moves in a Brass bush.
P The same base has both the Steel Creasing Load and two Round Steel
Plates for pressing the specimen.
132 Textile Testing

Working Procedure
1. A specimen is cut from the fabrics with a template 2 inch long by 1 inch
wide.
2. It is carefully creased by folding in half placing it between two glass plates
and adding a 2 kg weight.
3. After 1 min the weight is removed and the specimen transferred to the
fabrics clamp on the instrument and allowed to recover from crease.
4. As it recovers, the dial of the instrument is rotated to keep the free edge
of the specimen in line with the knife edge.
5. At the end of the time period allowed for recovery, usually 1 min or 5 min
the recovery angle in degrees is read on the engraved scale.
6. Warp and weft way recovery are reported separately to the nearest degree
from the mean values of ten tests in each direction.

Table 4.3: Difference between Crease Resistance and Crease Recovery

Crease Resistance Crease Recovery

Crease resistance is such a property of fabric Crease recovery is a fabric property that
that resists fabric from creasing. indicates the ability of fabric to go back to its
original position after creasing.
Crease resistance is generally measured by Crease recovery is the measure of crease
bending elasticity. resistance specified quantitatively in terms of
crease recovery angle.
Crease resistance comes into play before the Crease recovery comes into play after the
fabric is creased fabric has been creased
Crease resistance resists the stretching By crease recovery property the stretched
and compression of molecular chain of fibre or compressed polymer chain comes back to
polymer. normal position

Specimen Procedure for Shirley Crease Recovery Tester

P Fold the specimen and if the surfaces of the specimen have a tendency
to stick together, place a piece of paper or aluminium foil, between the
ends of specimen.
P Place the folded specimen between the two leaves of the loading device
and immediately apply the weight.
P Start timing device, and after 5mins quickly but smoothly remove the
weight from the first specimen.
P Using tweezers transfer the folded specimen to the instrument’s circular
specimen holder. Insert one end of the specimen between the clamps on
the specimen holder, leaving the other end to hang freely.
Fabric Testing 133

P While the specimen is in the holder, adjust the instrument to keep the
free hanging end of the alignment with the vertical mark.
P Finally, read and record the recovery angle from the circular scale 5
minutes after inserting the specimen into the clamp.

Considering Points While Testing

1. The specimen should be conditioned and tested in a standard testing
atmosphere.
2. Random sample should be taken.
3. Selvedge, piece ends, creased or folded regions should be avoided.

4.12. Air Permeability Test by Shirley Air Permeability Apparatus

Air Permeability
The air permeability of a fabric is the volume of air measured in cubic
centimeters passed per second through 1 cm2 of the fabric at a pressure of 1 cm
of water.
Air Resistance
The air resistance of a fabric is the time in seconds for 1 cm3 of air to pass
through 1cm2 of the fabric under a pressure head of 1 cm of water.
Air resistance is the reciprocal of air permeability.
Air Porosity
The porosity of a fabric is the ratio of air space to the total volume of the fabric
expressed as a percentage.
Let,
S = total volume of sample in cubic centimeter
F = Total volume of fibre in cubic centimeter
Air porosity P = ((S-F)/S) x 100
Air Permeability and Cloth Cover
The openness of the weave and the rate at which air flows through it are
closely related. The more open the structure the greater the air permeability. Air
permeability is inversely proportional to cover factor.
Cover Factor, K= Threads per inch/√ Yarn count
Air Permeability and Twist Factor
The twist factor in the yarns has a great influence on Air permeability. The yarn
becomes highly twisted with increase in twist factor and therefore more compact,
the air space in the yarn is reduced.
134 Textile Testing

Air Permeability and Thermal Properties

The presence of air space and its distribution in the structure have the great
influence on the warmth of a fabric, which is related to the thermal activity of the
fibres used. The thermal insulation value (TIV) is the percentage saving in heat
loss from a surface due to covering it with the fabric.
TIV = (Ho- Hc)/Ho × 100
where,
Ho = The heat loss per second from the uncovered surface
Hc = The heat loss per second from the covered surface

Measurement of Air Permeability

Air permeability is measured by Shirley air permeability apparatus. This
apparatus consists of the following parts:

A – Suction pump; B – By-pass valve; C – Series valve; D – Draught gauge;

E – Reservoir; F – Safety valve; R – Rota meter; S – Specimen.
Figure 4.17: Shirley Air Permeability Apparatus.
Fabric Testing 135

Test Procedure
1. Suction pump ‘A’ draws air through the test specimen ‘S’ at 20±2oC and
65±2 per cent R.H. The rate of flow is controlled by the by – pass valve
‘B’ and the series valve ‘C’.
2. The rate of flow is adjusted until the required pressure drop across the
fabric is indicated on a draught gauge ‘D’ which is graduated from 0 to
25 head of water.
3. ‘E’ is a reservoir which smoothens out any disturbance due to varying
velocities of the streams of air drawn through the various paths by the
pump.
4. When the required pressure drop, which is normally 1 cm of water, is
attained and the indicator of the draught gauge is steady, the rate of air
flow is read off one the four Rota meters ‘R’, selected according to the
permeability of the test specimen.
5. The Rota meters are calibrated, at 20oC and 760 mm of mercury to indicate
air flow in cm3/sec and they cover the following ranges :
R1: 0.05-0.5
R2: 0.5-3.5
R3: 3-35
R4: 30 – 350
6. The test is commenced with R4 open and the other Rota meters closed.
If the flow is less than 30 cm3/sec, R3 is opened and R4 closed.
7. This procedure is repeated until the most suitable range for the fabric
under test has been selected.
8. To prevent damage to the draught gauge a safety valve F is provided.
9. The test area is 5.07 cm2 and from the readings on the Rota meter either
the air permeability or the resistance can be calculated.
10. The average rate of flow from five specimens is calculated.

4.13. Water Repellency Tester

Water Repellency Tester measures the resistance of fabrics to wetting by
water. Suitable for Table cloth, tapestry, flooring material fabric manufacturer or
processors.
Features of Water Repellency Tester
P The tester is suitable for measuring the water-repellent efficiency of
finishes applied to fabrics, particularly plain woven fabrics.
P Evaluation is accomplished by comparing the wetted pattern with pictures
on a standard chart.
136 Textile Testing

Figure 4.18: Water Repellency Tester.

Figure 4.19: TS EN 29865:1996 Rating Scale.

Working of Water Repellency Tester

Before testing is carried out the specimen shall be conditioned for at least
24hours in the standard atmosphere. Water sprayed against the taut surface of a
test specimen under controlled conditions produces a wetted pattern whose size
depends on the relative repellency of the fabric.
Fabric Testing 137

Figure 4.20: ISO Rating Scale.

P To carry out the test, first of all fasten the test specimens securely in the
metal hoop of the water repellency tester so that it represents a smooth
wrinkle free surface and place it face up on the tester.
P Adjust the metal hoop so that the centre of the spray coincides with the
centre of the metal hoop. Later pour 250 ml of distilled water at normal
temperature into the funnel and spray the whole quantity on the test
specimen for a period of 25 - 30 sec.
P Now detach the metal hoop from the stand. Confirm whether water had
penetrated to the back of the test specimen. With the face side of the test
specimen down, hold the metal hoop by one edge and tap the opposite
edge lightly once against the table.
P Then rotate it 180°C and similarly tap again once on the point previously
held to remove any excess water drop.
P The final step is to compare the wetting of the test specimen with a
photographic rating standard and grade it accordingly.

Bundesmann Water Repellency Test

The Bundesmann test aims to produce the effect of a rainstorm on a fabric
in the laboratory. In the test shown in Figure the fabric is subjected to a shower
of water from a head fitted with a large number of standard nozzles. During the
138 Textile Testing

shower the back of the fabric is rubbed by a special mechanism which is intended
to simulate the flexing effect which takes place when the fabric is worn.
The method is not currently a British standard because considerable variation
has been found between different machines although when tests are carried out
on the same machine the variability can be reduced to acceptable levels. In the test
four specimens are mounted over cups in which a spring loaded wiper rubs the
back of the cloth while the whole cup assembly slowly rotates. They are subjected
for l0 min to a heavy shower whose rate has been adjusted so as to deliver 65ml of
water per minute to each cup. The water flow is maintained at 20°C and between
pH 6 and 8. Because of the large amount of water consumed the equipment has to
be connected to the mains water supply which leads to difficulties in keeping the
water temperature constant. The shower is calculated to have a kinetic energy 5.8
times that of a cloudburst 90 times that for heavy rain, 480 times that for moderate
rain and 21,000 times that for light rain.

A – Wiper Arms; C – Cups; S – Specimen; N – Nozzle; W – Water supply

Figure 4.21: Bundesmann Water Repellency Test.

Two fabric parameters are determined from the test:

Penetration of Water through the Fabric
The water collected in the cups is measured to the nearest ml.
Absorption of Water by the Fabric
In order to do this the specimen is weighed before the test and then after the
Fabric Testing 139

shower. To remove excess water the fabric is shaken ten times using a mechanical
shaker and then weighed in an airtight container.
Absorption = (Mass of Water Absorbed/Original Mass) x 100
In each case the mean of four values is calculated.

4.14. Shrinkage Template and Scale

Shrinkage Template and Scale is used for finding accurate Shrinkage in fabric
and Garments. Shrinkage Template and Scale also measures the dimensional
changes in fabrics after laundering, dry cleaning etc.

Figure 4.22: Shrinkage Template.

Features of Shrinkage Template and Scale

P To determine directly the per cent dimensional change (shrinkage) in all
types of fabrics.
P Fine calibrated Shrinkage Template with 18” x 18” and 10” x 10”
benchmarks length-wise and width-wise.
P Calibrated scale to evaluate shrinkage and stretch directly Up to 15 per
cent.
P Two fine tipped black and yellow fabric markers are supplied for accurate
marking on light and dark colour fabrics.

Working of Shrinkage Template and Scale

P The marking template should be placed on the specimen to be tested,
making sure that the fabric is in flat position before marking.
140 Textile Testing

P Hold the template firm, and carefully mark the fabric through the eight
slots of the template, to ensure that it does not move.
P Now put the fabric in the washing machine or Dry Cleaning.
P Dry the sample as per any of the method. It can either be Line Dry or Flat
Dry or Tumble Dry.
P To find the dimensional change read the Shrinkage/Stretch on 3 points
on the Wrap side and 3 points on Weft Side.
P Get the mean value of wrap-wise and weft wise readings to get the
Accurate Shrinkage or Stretch.

Important Locations for different Garments to be Tested

P Shirt – Collar, Collar Band, Body Lengths, Sleeve Lengths, Width at chest
and Cuffs
P Trousers – Front rise, Back rise, Inseams, Outseams, Waist and Seat
P Pajama Top – Lengths, Sleeves, Hem and Chest
P Pajama Bottom – Inseams, Lengths, Hip and Waist
P Uniform/Dress – Bodice lengths, Skirt lengths, Sleeve lengths, Shoulders,
Chest, Waist, Hip and Hem
P Blouse – Lengths, Sleeve Lengths, Shoulders, Chest and Waist
P Skirt – Lengths, Hem, Hip and Waist

Test Method
ISO 3759/ISO 6330/ISO 5077/AATCC 150/AATCC 135
Specimen Fabric Preparation
P The minimum size for stability square is 50 x 50cm. testing on smaller
pieces is not acceptable.
P Lay the fabric to relax for 4 hours on a bench in ambient conditions so
that it is smooth and tension free.
P Do not use the fabric within 5cm of the selvedge.
P Place the template on the fabric with the side of the template parallel to
the length (warp) direction.
P Mark the three width and length marks in pairs 35cm apart, (see
additional notes below for different fabric types). Draw around the edge
of the template; do not round off the corners.
P Draw an arrow outside the measurement area, to denote the length (warp)
direction prior to cutting from the main piece.
Fabric Testing 141

Woven Fabrics
Use a single layer of fabric. Use the slots in the template to mark the fabric
with an indelible pen.
Warp Knit Fabrics
Use a single layer of fabric. Use the holes in the template to mark. Use a marker
rather than a pen, as this prevents the fabric being dragged.
Weft Knit Fabrics
Fold the fabric into a double layer, with the fold parallel to the Wales. Use the
holes in the template. To prevent the fabric being dragged by a pen, use a marker.
Crinkle Effect Fabrics
P Lay the fabric piece on a smooth surface and allow relaxing naturally.
Without placing the stability template on the fabric remove a specimen
approximately 50x50cm.
P Place 3 warp and 3 weft measurement points on the specimen using the
shrinkage/extension ruler in approximately the same areas of the stability
template.
P Note: When placing the ruler across the crinkle effect do not allow the
ruler to press out the crinkle effect. This may have to be done manually
to ensure that the measurement points are 35cm apart.

Trims/Elastics
P Cut three specimens 450mm in length
P Using the stability ruler mark one set of gauge marks 350mm apart on
each of the three samples, ensuring that they are approximately 5cm in
from the end of the sample.
P Sew the three test specimens onto a pre-shrunk stability square; ensure
that the samples are not under any tension and also allowing enough slack
for any shrinkage that may occur. Ensure that the sewing line is outside
the area of measurement.

Calculation
P Wash and dry the sample 3 times for AATCC and once for ISO as per the
procedure
P Condition the sample.
P After conditioning lay each test specimen without tension on a flat smooth
horizontal surface.
P Measure and record distance between each pair of benchmarks.
142 Textile Testing

P Calculate the difference between the before wash and after wash measures
and report in per cent.
DC per cent = 100 (B – A)/A
DC = Dimensional Change
A = Original Dimension
B = Dimension after Laundering

Shrinkage is denoted as ‘-’ which is decrease in dimensions Elongation

is denoted as ‘+’ which is increase in dimensions.
 Chapter 5

Colour Fastness in Textiles

5.1. Color Fastness

Color fastness is a term which is used in the dyeing of textile materials, We
can define colorfastness as, having color that will not run or fade with washing
or wear. There are many properties of textile fabrics among them colorfastness
property is most important. It is a property of a colorant which allows it to retain
its different characteristics despite degradation conditions such as exposure to
light and dry cleaning.
One of the major sources of consumer complaints relating to dyed fabric is
their variable and non- acceptable fastness. Dyed fabrics behave differently when
they are in contact with various conditions like rubbing, washing, perspiration,
and exposure to light during the fabric/garment’s life. Fabric can be fast to one
condition but can easily exhibit poor fastness in another condition. Therefore, it
is necessary to test the fabric as per the required end use, and that test method
needs to be mentioned clearly to avoid any complications. Typically, the class of
dye, subtype of dye, color of dye, shade depth, and dyeing process impart significant
effects on the final fastness rating of the fabric.
It is also very important to mention how the fastness rating is given. Typically,
there are two ways to do this. One is the subjective assessment of the observer by
using the standard gray scales under standard light conditions as shown in Figures
5.1 and 5.2. The rating is given by assessing the difference on the gray scale rating
and comparing it with the obtained similar difference on the tested and non-tested
fabric. The final rating is given on the basis of the similar level of difference on the
gray scale. However, different ratings can be given by different observers on the
same tested fabric.
144 Textile Testing

Figure 5.1: Standard Gray Scale for Staining.

Figure 5.2: Standard Gray Scale for Coloring.

A second rating can be given by the use of an instrument called a

spectrophotometer, which is based on ∆E as shown in Table 5.1. The rating is still
given on the basis of the standard gray scale, which is fed into the computer system,
but it is given by using ∆E and so human error and bias can easily be avoided.
Colour Fastness in Textiles 145

Table 5.1: Perceive Color of Visible Spectral Light

Wavelength (nm) Color

380-400 Violet
400-435 Indigo
435-480 Blue
480-490 Greenish blue
490-500 Bluish green
500-560 Green
560-580 Yellow green
580-595 Yellow
595-605 Orange
605-740 Red

Table 5.2: Gray Scale Rating of Spectrophotometer Based on ∆E

∆E Gray Scale
≥0 <0.4 5
≥0.4 <1.25 4–5
≥1.25 <2.10 4
≥2.10 <2.95 3–4
≥2.95 <4.10 3
≥4.10 <5.80 2–3
≥5.80 <8.20 2
≥8.20 <11.60 1–2
≥11.60 1

Table 5.3: Acceptable Limit of Color Difference

Score Evaluation Symbol

Up to 1 No color difference Right
+1 Very little color difference 0
+2 Little color difference Delta
+3 Considerable color difference X
+4 Remarkable color difference xx

5.2. Color Fastness to Rubbing

This test exhibits the amount of color that is transferred from the dyed sample
onto the white fabric under specific conditions of rubbing. It is performed by using
crock meter equipment, which can be operated manually or motorized. There are
146 Textile Testing

two main types of test methods that are used to determine the effect of rubbing;
one is BS EN ISO-105-X12, while the second is the AATCC crock meter method,
test method 8. With the BS EN ISO-105-X12 test method, dyed fabric dimensions
should not be less than 50 mm. 140 mm. However, with the AATCC-8 specimen,
dimensions should be at least 50 mm. 130 mm.
The AATCC also developed another method, the rotary vertical crock meter
AATCC-116, which is used for smaller samples as well as for printing fabrics. A dyed
fabric sample is locked onto the base of the crock meter, while white bleached fabric,
whose dimensions are 5 cm. 5 cm, is mounted onto the finger and rubbed against
the dyed fabric. The finger is rubbed against the dyed fabric at the speed of one
turn per second (10. 10 s). Then the white finger cloth is removed and evaluated
by using the gray scale shown in Figure.5.1.
A rating is given on a scale of 1–5. The procedure for wet rubbing fastness is
exactly similar to that of the dry one, apart from the fact that the finger cloth is
wet prior to rubbing. It is very important to keep the pick-up of the fabric at 65 per
cent, otherwise significant variations can be reported. This test method is equally
good at determining the rubbing rating for a range of solely dyed fabrics as well
as for after-treated dyed fabrics.
Method of Testing Color Fastness to Rubbing:
Principle
This test is designed to determine the degree of color which may be transferred
from the surface of a colored fabric to a specific test cloth for rubbing (dry + wet).
Equipment
P Crock meter
P Cotton rubbing cotton
P Grey scale
P Stop watch
P Color matching cabinet

Size of Fabric
4×5 cm two pieces of sample (one warp direction/wale direction and another
weft/course direction).
Sample Preparation
P A 5x5cm sample is taken and stitched to a mono fibre having 40sx40s,
80x70 of cotton fibre.
P The GSM of mono fibre used is 115-120g, and whiteness index is 80-85.
Colour Fastness in Textiles 147

A – Instrument Base; B – Fabric fixed on the base; C – Specimen clips;

D – Rubbing finger; E – Rubbing fabric (cotton); F – Rubbing Track;
G – Weight on the rubbing finger.
Figure 5.3. Rubbing Fastness Tester.
148 Textile Testing

Procedure for Dry Method

P For dry method both ISO and AATCC method are same.
P The fabric is to the flat bed.
P Swatch is attached to the rubbing finger and within 10 seconds, 10 times
stroke is given.

Procedure for Wet Method

P In wet method swatch is dipped in distilled water having 0 hardness and
TDS with pH=5.5-7.5.
P For ISO method pick up per cent should be 95-100 per cent and for AATCC
method pick up per cent should be 65 per cent.

Assessment of Rubbing Fastness

P Ratings are assigned for the staining of the cotton cloths with the grey
scale.
P In each warp-way and weft-way directions the fabric is tested for dry test
and wet test.
P This scale consists of nine parts (from 5-1).
P The differences in colour between the chips of each pair are given a rating.

5.3. Color Fastness to Washing

This method is used for assessing the resistance of the color of the dyed
fabric to all kinds of wash in water with soap and detergent. There are numerous
methods and sub methods for assessing dyed fabric fastness to washing as washing
conditions vary from country to country as well as from consumer to consumer.
Therefore, various test methods have been developed. Two major ones that are
adopted by many international organizations are discussed below. The first is the
BS EN ISO 105-C06:2010, Textiles-Tests for Color Fastness (Part C06: Color Fastness
to Domestic and Commercial Laundering). The second is the AATCC Test Method
61-2003, Colorfastness to Laundering, Home and Commercial: Accelerated. There
are various methods to assess the color fastness to washing as per ISO methods
ranging from C01 to C06. A different soap percentage, temperature, time of washing,
and level of washing are used in methods from C01 to C06 as shown in Table 5.4.
In BS EN ISO 105-C06:2010, dyed fabric having dimensions of at least 10 cm.
4 cm are sewn together with standard multi-fiber strip. There are two types of
multi-fiber strip containing six types of fibers; type DW has wool, while type TV is
without wool. Loose dyed fibers can also be assessed by compressing the samples
through padding and then sewing it between the multi-fiber strip. To test, the
colored yarns can be converted to knitted fabric, or the above mentioned approach
for loose fibers can also be repeated for yarns as well. The sample is washed in
a washing machine at a speed of 40 revolutions per minute using one of the sets
Colour Fastness in Textiles 149

Table 5.4: Conditions of Color Fastness for C01–C06

Test Liquor Temperature Time Reproduces Action of

(°C) (min)
C01 0.5 per cent soap 40 30 Hand washing
C02 0.5 per cent soap 50 45 Repeated hand washing
C03 0.5 per cent soap 60 30 Medium cellulosic wash
0.2 per cent soda ash Severe wool wash
C04 0.5 per cent soap 95 30 Severe cellulosic wash
0.2 per cent soda ash
C05 0.5 per cent soap 95 240 Very severe cellulosic wash
0.2 per cent soda ash
C06 4 g/L reference Various Various Domestic laundering
detergent + perborate

of conditions. A washing solution is prepared by dissolving 4 g of detergent per

liter of water. The reference detergent may be AATCC 1993, WOB (without optical
brightener) or ECE (European Colorfastness Establishment) detergent with
phosphates. Sixteen different subtests can be adopted as per requirement. These
test methods have a different liquor volume, washing temperature, chlorine level,
Perborate level, quantity of steel balls as well as pH. Abrasive action on the dyed
fabric is achieved by a low liquor level and by using a high number of steel balls.
The gray scale rating for change of color and staining can be given by using the
respective gray scales. A rating can be given on a scale of 1–5. The C06 method is
equally effective for all type of dyes whether synthetic or natural. A similar washing
machine is used as in ISO C06; however, the sample size and washing conditions
are different. The sample size is 50 mm. 100 mm for Test No. 1A and 50 mm. 150
mm for Test Nos 2A, 3A, 4A, and 5A.
Method of Testing Color Fastness to Wash
Color fastness to wash is very important for lab-dip. There are varieties of
testing procedure, because:
P Washing condition may vary from one country to another.
P The methods depend on the use of dyed goods.
P To evaluate repeated washing accelerated test methods are used.

The degree of fading and staining of dyed goods for washing depends upon
the following factors:
P Temperature range may be from 40-95°C.
P The type and amount of detergent added to the washing bath. In many
testing procedure a standard detergent is used.
150 Textile Testing

P The extent of mechanical action which can be varied by changing the

agitation speed in a washing machine or by adding steel ball to revolving
the bath.
P The washing liquor to goods ratio is 50:01
P The hardness of water
P The rinsing, drying, or pressing methods used to restore the sample after
the washing test.

Principle of Wash Fastness

A specimen (lab-dip) in contact with specified adjacent fabric or fabric or
fabric is laundered, rinsed and dried. The specimen/composite sample is treated
under appropriate condition in a chemical bath for short time. The abrasive action
is accomplished by the use of a liquor ratio and an appropriate number of steel
balls. The change in color of the specimen (dyed sample) and the staining of the
adjacent fabric is assessed by recommended Grey scale (1-5).
Apparatus and Materials
P Wash –wheel with a thermostatically controlled water bath and rating
speed of (40±2) rpm.
P Stainless steel container (capacity 55±50 ml)
P Stainless steel ball (dia=0.6cm, weight=1 gm)
P SDC, Multifibre fabric (Acetate, cotton, nylon, polyester, acrylic, wool)
P ISO Scales.

Reagents
P Reference detergent.
P Sodium Carbonate/Soda ash.
P Distilled water (Grade-3)

Test Specimen
Test specimen cut a sample of dyed goods 10 x 4cm and sew it with same size
multifibre fabric. This is the composite test sample.
Test Procedure: (ISO recommendation NO. 1-5)
ISO-105-CO1: Composite sample is treated in a wash wheel for 30 minute at
(40±2) °C with 5gm/l standard soap.
Evaluation of Wash Fastness
Compare the contrast between the treated and untreated sample with Grey
Scale for changing color of dyed sample and staining of adjacent fabric in a color
matching cabinet. Numerical rating for color changing is the shade and staining to
adjacent fabric. Number of method used.
Colour Fastness in Textiles 151

Figure 5.3: Rubbing Fastness Tester.

Table 5.4: Condition for Washing

Test Temperature °C Time (minute) Steel Ball Chemicals

ISO-105-CO 1 40 30 00 Soap (5g/l)

Table 5.5: Assessment of Color Fastness

Grey Scale
Numerical Rating For Wash and Rubbing Fastness
1 Poor/Little
2 Moderate
3 Average
4 Good
5 Excellent

5.4. Color Fastness to Perspiration

This test is used to assess the change in color of the fabric when exposed
to perspiration. Tested samples are dipped in a solution that mainly consists of
histidine. The sample is then placed in the Perspirometer equipment, where it is
treated with histidine solution; a standard sample is separately dried. A gray scale
can be used to determine the change in color and staining. Two significant test
methods in this area are the AATCC Test Method 15 and the BS EN ISO 105-E04. Two
major types of perspiration are based on the solution pH. In an alkaline solution,
152 Textile Testing

a pH of 8 is maintained by using NaOH; other ingredients are 0.5 g of histidine

monohydrochloride monohydrate, 5 g of sodium chloride, and 2.5 g of disodium
hydrogen orthophosphate per liter. For acidic pH, a pH of 5.5 is maintained; other
ingredients of the recipe are kept the same as above.

A – Heavy Hammer; B – Spring Pressure Frame; C – Set screws;

D – Plywood; E – Stand.
Figure 5.4: Perspirometer Apparatus.

The fabric is thoroughly wetted with the desired acidic or basic pH solution,
having a liquor ratio of 50:1, by dipping the sample in the solution for half an hour
at ambient temperature. To remove the extra liquor, the sample is wiped through
two glass rods and then placed in between the two plates of the Perspirometer
under the recommended pressure of 12.5 kPa. The sample is dried in an oven at
37°C for 4 h. The rating is given as 1–5 by using the gray scale.
Table 5.6: Choices of Standard Single Fiber Adjacent Cloth

First Piece Second Piece First Piece Second Piece

Cotton Wool Sticky Fiber Wool
Wool Cotton Vinegar Fiber Sticky Fiber
Silk Cotton Polyamide Fiber Wool/Sticky Fiber
Linen Wool Polyester, Polyacrylonitrile Fiber Wool/Cotton
Colour Fastness in Textiles 153

Preparation of Test Apparatus and Materials

Test Apparatus (Figure.5.4), Stained Cup (200mL), Gray Cards evaluating
discoloration, Stained Cards, Sodium Chloride (C.P.), Sodium Hydroxide (C.P.),
Sodium Dihydrogen Phosphate Dihydrate (C.P.), Disodium Hydrogen Phosphate
Dodecahydrate (C.P.) or Disodium Hydrogen Phosphate Dihydrate (C.P.), L-histidine
hydrochloride-hydrate (C.P.), Multi-fiber adjacent fabric or single fiber adjacent
fabric, Sample to be Tested.
Operating Procedure
To make up artificial perspiration as request of Table 5.7, and do acidity and
basicity perspiration fastness test respectively.
Table 5.7: Artificial Perspiration Configuration Table

Reagents 1# 2#
Acid Liquid Alkaline Liquid
(g/L) (g/L)
L-histidine hydrochloride-hydrate 0.5 0.5
(C_6 H_9 O_2 N_3∙HCl∙H_2 O)
Sodium Chloride (NaCl) 5 5
Disodium Hydrogen Phosphate --- 5 or 2.5
Dodecahydrate (Na_2 HPO_4∙12H_2 O)
or Disodium Hydrogen Phosphate Dihydrate
(Na_2 HPO_4∙2H_2 O)
Sodium Dihydrogen Phosphate Dihydrate (Na_2 H_2 2.2 ---
PO_4∙2H_2 O)
0.1 mol/L Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH), adjust PH 5.5 8.0

Procedure
P To prepare two combined samples as prescribed requests, and weigh;
take acid liquid and alkaline liquid as bath rate at 1:50.
P To put two combined sample into acid liquid and alkaline liquid
respectively, soak them completely, then place them at room temperature
for 30min.
P Take combined sample out, and use two glass rods to remove excess liquid
of it; then place it on sample board, use the other sample board to scrape
excess liquid, and place in between two sample board, adding pressure of
12.5kPa and maintain. Using the same method to place another combined
sample, but the apparatus of acid liquid and alkaline liquid test should
be separate used.
P To place the apparatus with acid and alkaline sample in temperature
chamber of 37oC±2oC for 4 hours.
154 Textile Testing

P Take apart suture of combined sample but keep one short edge, unfold
it, and drape and dry it in air with no more than 60oC.
P Use gray cards to evaluate discoloration of original sample and staining
of adjacent cloth.

5.5. Color Fastness to Light

This test is used to assess color fading when the sample is kept under a specific
light source. The test samples are exposed to light for a certain time (24, 36, 48,
72 hrs, etc.) or to customer demand, under certain conditions of light source,
temperature, and humidity, and compared with standard samples. A blue scale is
used to determine the color change. This test is quite important for the dyestuff
manufacturer, the dyeing units, and the retailer. Certain products like carpets,
curtains, and upholstery require excellent light fastness due to their end use
performance requirement.
The two most commonly used standard test methods are (1) BS EN ISO 105-
B02:2014; Textiles, Tests for Color Fastness: Color Fastness to Artificial Light:
Xenon Arc Fading Lamp Test and (2) AATCC Test Method 16. Typically a xenon
arch-based light source exhibits similar spectral content to that of daylight and
therefore is much preferred. In addition, an effective filter needs to be used between
the lamp and specimen to control the intensive light. These variables can easily
lead to significant changes in the light fastness rating. Therefore, it is important to
mention which conditions have been used to expose the sample.
The tested samples as well as the standard blue wool reference are kept in
a specific light source under the standard conditions. A certain portion of the
samples is partially covered as per the standard and the remainder is exposed to
the specific light source. A comparative subjective rating is given depending on
the equal color change between exposed and non-exposed samples and standard
specimens. A rating will be given on a scale of 1 (lowest) to 8 (highest). Half-a-scale
rating such as 3–4 can also be given. The American and European scales use two
different sets of reference standards. The European scale rating is given from 1
to 8, while for the American it is given from L2 to L9. It is important to note that
these scales are not interchangeable and that the scale on which the rating is based
should be mentioned.
Specimen Preparation
P Avoid specimens within 5cm of the selvedges.
P Cut a specimen not less than 45mmx 20mm
P For multi-coloured fabrics, prints or stripes, all the colours of the design
should be included. This may require cutting a larger specimen or several
specimens.
P Cut the OBA Free card to exactly fit the specimen holder, or use pre cut
card.
Colour Fastness in Textiles 155

Staple the specimens face side up onto the OBA free card.
P With each batch of specimens to be tested, mount one set of blue wool
standards in sequential order from 1 to the light fastness performance
requirement.
P Each blue wool standard should be no less than 20mm x 45mm
P The same card can be used for both the specimens and standards.

For Example
1. For specimen fastness requirement to grade 4, use blue standards 1-4
2. For specimen fastness requirement to grade 5, use blue standards 1-5
3. For specimen fastness requirement to grade 6, use blue standards 1-6

Test Procedure
Light Fastness to required blue wool standard – Intermediate Exposure/Final
Exposure
P Large numbers of specimens can be tested simultaneously against a single
set of Blue Wool Reference standards
P Place the card mounted with specimens into the specimen holder and
cover with the exposure mask which covers the centre one-third portion.
P Place the card with the blue standards into the specimen holder and cover
with the exposure mask which covers the centre one-third portion. Refer
Figure 5.5.

Figure 5.5: Blue Wool Standard.

156 Textile Testing

P Place the holders into the light fastness tester. Fill empty holders with
OBA free card.
P Expose the specimens and blue standards, and frequently inspect in a
colour matching cabinet under D65 light using the grading mask, until
the exposed area compared with the unexposed area of the second
highest numbered blue standard has faded equivalent to grey scale 4.
(Intermediate Exposure)

For Example
P For light fastness performance of 4, expose blue standards 1-4 until blue
standard 3 has faded to grey scale 4
P For light fastness performance 5, expose blue standards 1-5 until blue
standard 4 has faded to grey scale 4
P For light fastness performance of 6, expose the blue standards 1-6 until
blue standard 5 has faded to grey scale 4.
P Re-cover the specimens and blue wool standards with the mask which
covers the left two thirds. See diagram Figure 5.6.

Figure 5.6: Blue Standards in a Colour Matching Cabinet under D65 Light.
Colour Fastness in Textiles 157

P Continue to expose and frequently inspect in a colour assessment

cabinet under D65 light using a grading mask, until the 2nd exposed area
compared with the unexposed area of the highest blue standard has faded
equivalent to grey scale 4. (Final Exposure)
P At this point remove the specimens from the light fastness tester for
assessment in the colour assessment cabinet under D65 light, using the
grading mask.

Figure 5.7: (A) Sample mounted on card

(B) Card mounted on air cooled Xenon arc Machine.

Important Note
1. The above method of exposure is the preferred, most frequently used
method. However, the use of alternative masks which allow intermediate/
final ratings to be made is acceptable.
2. SDC Blue Wool Standards are NOT equivalent to light fastness standards
L2-L9 produced in the U.S.A. The results obtained are not interchangeable.

Assessment of the Specimens

P To avoid misrating of specimen due to photochromism, it has to be
conditioned at least 24 h in the dark at room climate.
P The assessment has to be done by 2 independent persons; as final result
take the average of both ratings the assessment (D) has to be done
1. Defined grey scale
2. Grey frame same grey colour as background or black frame
3. White paper as background
158 Textile Testing

Figure 5.8: Black Frame for Assessment.

P Under defined light D65 with defined angle of 45°

P Compare the specimen with the blue wool references
P The grade of specimen is the number of the blue wool reference which
corresponds in changes of colour between exposed and unexposed part
of the specimen
P Use a grey or black frame for assessment

5.6. Color Fastness to Sublimation

The color fastness of a dyed article is not only affected by washing, water, or
rubbing but also by heat in many forms, such as by pressing, dry heat, or heat with
moisture. Some dyes are sensitive to heat and hence can fade/bleed due to the effect
of heat. This test is intended to assess resistance of color to the action of dry heat
only and not by pressing. Mostly, there are two methods to evaluate color fastness
to dry heat: ISO 105–P01, Color Fastness to Dry Heat (Excluding Pressing) and
AATCC Test Method 117-2004-Color Fastness to Heat: Dry (Excluding Pressing).
The methods are applicable to textiles of all kinds and can be conducted at different
temperatures depending upon the stability of fibers, which can be influenced by
chemicals used during dyeing, printing, chemical processing, and by physical factors
involved in color change and staining. Undyed fabric attached to tested samples is
exposed to heat. The rating is given using the gray scale.
A specimen of the sample under test is treated with dry heat for 30 s under a
specified temperature and pressure. Three temperature options are 150°C ± 2°C,
180°C ± 2°C, and 210°C ± 2°C, and it is important to mention the temperature at
which the sample is exposed as it can significantly alter the results. A pressure
of 4 ± 1 kPa is applied to the sample during testing. The treated specimens are
conditioned and evaluated using the gray scale for color change and staining on
adjacent fabric.
 References

A Practical Guide to Textile Testing, K. Amutha, CRC Press, 2016.

Advanced Characterization and Testing of Textiles, 1st Edition Editors: Patricia
Dolez Olivier Vermeersch Valério Izquierdo, Woodhead Publishing, Book, 2017 .
Advanced Textile Testing Techniques, 1st Edition, by Sheraz Ahmad, Abher Rasheed,
Ali Afzal, Faheem Ahmad, CRC Press, Book, 2017.
Chemical Testing of Textiles, 1st Edition, Editors: Q Fan, Woodhead Publishing,
book, 2005.
Fabric Testing, Edited by: Jinlian Hu, A volume in Woodhead Publishing Series in
Textiles, Book, 2008.
Handbook of Textile Testing and Quality Control by Elliot B. Grover and D.S. Hamby.
Performance Testing of Textiles-Methods, Technology and Applications, Edited by:
Lijing Wang, A volume in Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles, Book, 2016.
Physical Properties of Textile Fibres, 4th Edition, Authors: J. W. S. Hearle W E Morton,
Woodhead Publishing, 2008.
Physical Testing of Textiles, Authors: B.P. Saville, A volume in Woodhead Publishing
Series in Textiles, Book, 1999.
Principles of Textile Testing: An Introduction to Physical Methods of Testing Textile
Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics, J. E. Booth, 1986.
 Index

A F
Abrasion 120 Fibre fineness 35
Air flow method 48 Fibre length 25
Air permeability 133 G
Arealometer 49 Grab strength 111
ATIRA fineness tester 40 Gravimetric method 47
Atmospheric conditions 3 GSM cutter 107
B H
Bundesmann test 137 Hairiness
C I
Colour fastness 143 ICI pill box 122
Conditioning 3
Core sampling 9
M
Moisture content 16
Crease recovery 130
Moisture regain 16
Crease resistance 130
O
E
Oven dry weight 20
Evenness testing 93
162 Textile Testing

P T
Perspiration 151 Tensorapid 69
Pilling 111 Thermogravimetric 51
Polarized microscope 47 Twist contraction 84
Pressley strength tester 55 U
Projection microscope 37 USTER tensojet 69
Q W
Quadrant balance 67 Water repellency 135
S WIRA 39
Sampling 4 Y
Seam strength 1 Yarn sampling 13
Shirley moisture meter 22
Z
Standards 2
Zoning technique 7
Stiffness 127
Sublimation 158
Swelling method 41