English

A. Parts of Speech

1. Nouns

Proper Nouns: Specific names of people, places, or things (e.g., John, London, Coca-Cola).

Common Nouns: General names for a class of objects (e.g., cat, city, drink).

Abstract Nouns: Intangible concepts or ideas (e.g., love, freedom, happiness).

Concrete Nouns: Tangible objects that can be perceived by the senses (e.g., book, apple,
music).

Countable Nouns: Can be counted (e.g..

apple/apples, car/cars).

Uncountable Nouns: Cannot be counted (e.g., water, information, air).

2. Pronouns

Subject Pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, we, they.

Object Pronouns: me, you, him, her, it, us, them.

Possessive Pronouns: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs.

Reflexive Pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves.

Relative Pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, that.

3. Verbs

Action Verbs: Express actions (e.g., run, jump, write).

Linking Verbs: Connect the subject to a subject complement (e.g., am, is, are, was, were).

Helping (Auxiliary) Verbs: Assist the main verb. in a sentence (e.g., have, do, will, can, should).

Transitive Verbs: Require a direct object (e.g..

She writes a letter).

4. Adjectives

Describe or modify nouns (e.g., beautiful, tall, red).

Comparative Adjectives: Compare two things (e.g., taller, more beautiful).

Superlative Adjectives: Compare three or more things (e.g., tallest, most beautiful).

5. Adverbs

Modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs (e.g..

quickly, very, well).

Often end in -ly (e.g., happily, slowly).

6. Prepositions

Show relationships between nouns or pronouns and other words in a sentence (e.g., in, on, at,
between, during).

7. Conjunctions

Coordinating Conjunctions: Connect words, phrases, or clauses of equal rank (e.g., and, but, or,
nor, for, yet, so).

Subordinating Conjunctions: Connect dependent clauses to independent clauses (e.g.,

Correlative Conjunctions: Work in pairs to join words or phrases (e.g., either/or, neither/nor,
both/and).

8. Interjections

Express strong emotions or sudden bursts of feeling (e.g., oh, wow, ouch, hey).

B. Sentence Structure

1. Simple Sentence

Contains one independent clause

2. Compound Sentence

Contains two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon

Ex: She runs every day, and she swims every evening.

3 . Complex Sentence

Contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause

Ex: She runs every day because she wants to

stay healthy.

4. Compound-Complex Sentence

Contains at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause

Ex: She runs every day, and she swims every evening because she wants to stay healthy.

Punctuations

1. Period (.) - Ends a declarative sentence or an indirect question.

Ex: She is going to the market. / He asked where she was going).

2. Comma (.) - Separates items in a list, sets off introductory elements, and separates
independent clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions

Ex: I bought apples, oranges, and bananas. / After dinner, we went for a walk.

3. Semicolon (;) - Joins closely related independent clauses or separates items in a complex list

Ex: She loves reading; he loves writing. / I visited Paris, France; Rome, Italy; and Berlin,
Germany.

4. Colon (:) - Introduces a list, a quotation, or an explanation

Ex: She needs to buy the following: bread, milk, and eggs. / He said: "Welcome to the team!".
5. Question Mark (?) - Ends a direct question

Ex: What time is it?

6. Exclamation Point (!) - Indicates strong feeling or a high volume

Ex: Watch out!

7. Apostrophe (') - Shows possession or forms

contractions

Ex: John's book, don't.

8. Quotation Marks ("") - Enclose direct quotations, titles of short works, or to denote irony or
unusual usage

Ex: "Hello," he said. / She read "The Road Not Taken".

9. Parentheses ()- Enclose supplementary or explanatory material

Ex: He finally answered (after taking five minutes to think) that he did not understand.

10. Dash (-)-Indicates a break in thought or an additional thought

Ex: I will go to the party if I finish my work.

C. Grammar

Common Grammatical Errors

1. Subject-Verb Agreement - Ensure the subject and verb agree in number

Ex: She runs / They run.

2. Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement - Ensure the

pronoun agrees with its antecedent in number and gender

Ex: Everyone should bring their own lunch /Everyone should bring his or her own lunch.

3. Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers - Place modifiers next to the word they modify

Incorrect: She almost drove her kids to school every day.

4. Comma Splices - Avoid joining two independent clauses with a comma

Incorrect: I went to the store, I bought apples. Correct: I went to the store, and I bought apples.

5. Fragments - Ensure every sentence has at least one independent clause Incorrect: Because I
was late.

Correct: I was late because of traffic.

6. Run-On Sentences Avoid combining independent clauses without proper punctuation or

Incorrect: I went to the store I bought apples. Correct: I went to the store, and I bought apples.

Style Guidelines

1. Active vs. Passive Voice - Prefer active voice for clarity and conciseness

Active: The committee approved the proposal.

Passive: The proposal was approved by the committee.

2. Parallelism - Use parallel structure in lists or series for readability

Incorrect: She likes reading, to jog, and movies.

Correct: She likes reading, jogging, and watching movies.

3. Consistency in Tense - Maintain the same tense throughout a piece of writing unless a shift is
necessary

Incorrect: She was running when she sees a deer.

Correct: She was running when she saw a deer.

4. Clear Pronoun Reference - Ensure pronouns

clearly refer to specific nouns

Incorrect: When the dog saw the cat, it ran away.

5. Avoiding Redundancy - Eliminate unnecessary words for clarity

Redundant: He returned back to the office.

Correct: He returned to the office.

6. Correct Word Choice Use the appropriate word

for the context

Ex: affect vs. effect, their vs. there vs. they're).

D. Parallelism

Parallelism, also known as parallel structure or parallel construction, is a rhetorical device that
involves using grammatically similar structures within a sentence or across multiple sentences.
This technique enhances readability and rhythm, making sentences easier to follow and more
persuasive.

Types of Parallelism

1. Single Words:

Parallel: She likes hiking, swimming, and cycling.

Non-parallel: She likes hiking, swimming, and to cycle.

2. Phrases:

Parallel: The coach advised the players to play their best, to stay focused, and to enjoy the
game.

Non-parallel: The coach advised the players to play their best, stay focused, and enjoying the
game.

3. Clauses:

Parallel: He wanted to know why they had left, where they had gone, and when they would
return.

Non-parallel: He wanted to know why they had left, where they went, and the time they would
return.
4. Lists and Series:

Parallel: The candidate's goals include winning the election, reducing crime, and improving
education. Non-parallel: The candidate's goals include winning the election, crime reduction,
and improving education.

5. Comparisons:

Parallel: She is smarter than he is.

Non-parallel: She is smarter than him.

6. Correlative Conjunctions (both/and, either/or, neither/nor, not only/but also):

Parallel: The project will require both time and money.

Non-parallel: The project will require both time and

to spend money.

Parallel: He is not only talented but also hardworking.

Non-parallel: He is not only talented but also he works hard.

How to Achieve Parallelism?

1. Identify Parallel Elements: Find the items in a sentence that should be parallel, such as
actions, qualities, or items in a list.

2. Use Consistent Grammatical Forms: Ensure that each element follows the same grammatical
structure (ex: all gerunds, all infinitives, all clauses).

3. Balance Correlative Conjunctions: When using correlative conjunctions, make sure each part
of the pair is followed by the same grammatical structure.

4. Maintain Consistency in Comparisons: Ensure the elements being compared or contrasted

Examples of Parallelism

1. Correct Parallelism:

"She enjoys reading, writing, and jogging."

- "He was neither prepared nor willing to accept the offer."

2. Faulty Parallelism:

"She enjoys reading, writing, and to jog."

"The company needs to hire staff, upgrading equipment, and improve its processes.

"He was neither prepared nor to accept the offer."

Parallelism in Rhetoric and Literature

Parallelism is not only a tool for clarity and rhythm in everyday writing but also a powerful device
in rhetoric and literature. It can emphasize contrasts, reinforce arguments, and enhance the
aesthetic quality of prose and poetry.

Examples in Literature:

1. Charles Dickens" "A Tale of Two Cities": Dickens uses parallelism to highlight the
contradictions of the era.

Ex: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age
of foolishness..."

2. Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have a Dream"

Speech: King uses repetition and parallel structure

to reinforce his vision for the future.

Ex: "I have a dream that one day... I have a dream that my four little children... I have a dream
today..."

Tips for Using Parallelism

1. Edit Carefully: During revision, specifically check for parallel structure, especially in lists,
comparisons, and paired ideas.

3. Practice: Regularly writing and rewriting sentences to improve parallel structure will help
develop a natural sense for it.
E. Subject and Verb Agreement

Subject and verb agreement is a fundamental aspect of grammar that ensures the subject of a
sentence matches the verb in number (singular or plural).

Basic Rules of Subject-Verb Agreement

1. Singular and Plural Subjects:

Singular Subject: Takes a singular verb.

Example: The cat (singular subject) runs (singular verb) fast.

Plural Subject: Takes a plural verb.

Example: The cats (plural subject) run (plural verb) fast.

2. Compound Subjects:

Joined by "and": Generally take a plural verb.

Example: The cat and the dog (compound subject) are (plural verb) friendly.

Joined by "or" or "nor": The verb agrees with

the part of the subject closest to the verb.

Example: Neither the cat nor the dogs (plural subject closest to the verb) are (plural verb)
outside.

Example: Neither the cats nor the dog (singular subject closest to the verb) is (singular verb)
outside.

3. Indefinite Pronouns:

Always Singular: Each, everyone, someone,

nobody, etc.

Example: Everyone (singular subject) is (singular verb) happy.

Always Plural: Few, many, several, both, etc. Example: Both (plural subject) are (plural verb)
correct.
Singular or Plural Based on Context: All, any, more, most, none, some.

Example: All of the cake (singular) is (singular verb) gone.

Example: All of the cakes (plural) are (plural

verb) gone.

4. Subjects Separated from Verbs by Phrases:

The verb should agree with the main subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase.

Example: The bouquet of roses (singular subject) smells (singular verb) lovely.

Example: The members of the team (plural subject) are (plural verb) meeting today.

5. Collective Nouns:

May take singular or plural verbs depending on whether the group is acting as a single unit or as
individuals.

Example: The team (acting as a unit) wins (singular verb) the game.

Example: The team (acting as individuals) are (plural verb) arguing among themselves.

6. Titles and Names:

Titles of books, movies, etc., are singular even if they are in plural form.

Example: "The Chronicles of Narnia" (title) is (singular verb) a popular series..

Names of organizations or countries take a singular verb.

Example: The United States (country) is (singular verb) large.

7. Inverted Sentences:

In sentences where the subject follows the

verb, ensure that the verb agrees with the

subject.

Example: There are (plural verb) many issues (plural subject) to consider.
Example: Here is (singular verb) the information (singular subject) you requested.

8. Amounts and Quantities:

When referring to amounts of money, time, distance, etc., they typically take a singular verb.

Example: Five dollars (amount) is (singular verb) too much.

Example: Ten miles (distance) is (singular verb) a long walk..

9. Relative Clauses:

The verb in a relative clause should agree with the antecedent of the relative pronoun.

Example: She is one of the students who (plural antecedent) have (plural verb) passed the
exam.

Example: He is the only one of the students who (singular antecedent) has (singular verb)
passed the exam.

Special Cases and Exceptions

1. Expressions of Quantity:

Fractions and percentages: Agreement depends on the noun following "of."

Example: One-third of the pie (singular noun) has (singular verb) been eaten.

Example: Fifty percent of the students. (plural noun) are (plural verb) attending.

2. Words Ending in -s:

Some nouns that end in -s are singular (e.g..

news, mathematics) and take a singular verb. Example: The news (singular subject) is (singular
verb) shocking.

3. "There" and "Here" as Introductory Words:

The subject follows the verb, and the verb agrees with the subject.

Example: There is (singular verb) a problem (singular subject) with the plan.
Example: Here are (plural verb) the keys

(plural subject).

4. Politeness and Formality:

In formal or polite contexts, singular verbs are sometimes used with "you" when referring to a
singular person.
Example: You (singular subject) are (singular verb) invited to the meeting.

Common Mistakes

1. Ignoring intervening phrases or clauses:

Incorrect: The bouquet of roses smell beautiful.

Correct: The bouquet of roses smells beautiful.

2. Misidentifying compound subjects:

Incorrect: Neither the teacher nor the students is prepared.

Correct: Neither the teacher nor the students are prepared.

3. Confusing collective nouns:

Incorrect: The team are winning the game. (Collective noun as a unit)

Correct: The team is winning the game.

Tips for Ensuring Subject-Verb Agreement

1. Identify the Subject: Always identify the true subject of the sentence.

2. Ignore Intervening Phrases: Focus on the main subject, not words in between.

3. Practice with Complex Sentences: Practice identifying subjects and verbs in more complex
sentences.

Strategies

A. Context Clues
1. Definition/Explanation Clues: Sometimes, the meaning of a word or phrase is explained
immediately after its use. Look for phrases like "which means," "that is," or "in other words."

2. Synonym Clues: A synonym for the unfamiliar word is used in the same sentence or nearby
sentences.

3. Antonym Clues: Words like "however," "but," and "unlike" may signal that an opposite idea or
word is. used, helping you infer the meaning of the original word.

4. Example Clues: Examples are given to help define the term. Look for phrases like "such as,"
"for instance," or "including."

5. General Sense of the Sentence or Passage: Use the overall meaning of the sentence or
paragraph to deduce the meaning of the word.

B. Getting the Main Idea

1. Topic Sentence: Often, the main idea is stated in the first or last sentence of a paragraph.
Look for these key sentences.

2. Repeated Ideas: Pay attention to ideas or concepts that are repeated or emphasized
throughout the passage.

3. Summary Statements: Sometimes, the main idea is summarized in the middle of the
paragraph or passage.

4. Ask Yourself: What is the passage mostly about? What point is the author trying to make?

C. Inferences

1. Read Between the Lines: Use the information provided to make logical guesses about what is
not directly stated.

2. Background Knowledge: Combine what you know with the information given in the text to
make inferences.

3. Details and Evidence: Look for specific details and evidence in the text that hint at a deeper
meaning or conclusion.

4. Question the Text: Ask questions like "Why did this happen?" or "What does this imply?" to
guide your inference.

D. Drawing Conclusions
1. Synthesize Information: Combine information from different parts of the text to form a
comprehensive understanding.

2. Identify Patterns: Look for patterns or themes that lead to a logical conclusion.

3. Consider All Information: Make sure to take into account all the details and facts before
drawing a conclusion.

4. Test Your Conclusion: Ensure that your conclusion is supported by the evidence and details
in the text.

E. Figures of Speech

1. Identify the Type: Recognize the figure of speech being used (e.g., metaphor, simile,
personification, hyperbole).

2. Understand the Literal Meaning: Consider what the words mean literally before interpreting
the figurative meaning.

3. Analyze the Effect: Think about why the author used this figure of speech. What effect does it
have on the reader? What does it emphasize or illustrate?

4. Contextual Interpretation: Interpret the figure of speech in the context of the surrounding text
to understand its full meaning.

Overall tip: Read the questions first before reading the passage. Then take into consideration
the main points that you need to find in the passage.