Cell:
The cell is the structural and functional unit of life. It may be also regarded as the basic unit of
biological activity.
The concept of cell originated from the contributions of Schleiden and Schwann (1838). However, it
was only after 1940, the complexities of cell structure were exposed.
In 1965, Robert Hooke observed a section of cork under microscope; he saw numerous chambers
similar to those of beehive. He called the individual chambers as Cells. But he, in fact, observed only
the walls of actual cells as he was viewing dead cells.
The cell theory establishes the following two major points:
(1) The cell is the structure unit of all living organisms, and
(2) All the living cells have structural and functional similarities
cells have the following four main functions
1) All the cells are enclosed by a cell membrane which separates and protects the internal cell contents
from the external environment.
(2) The cell contains and transmits genetic materials to its progeny cells. The genetic material contains
the genetic information to govern the various cell activities and for the synthesis of various cellular
components.
(3) The metabolic activities catalysed by enzymes take place within the cells.
(4) Cells also have the capacity of movement.
Plant cell
Cell Wall
It is a rigid layer which is composed of polysaccharides cellulose, pectin and hemicellulose. It is located
outside the cell membrane. It also comprises glycoproteins and polymers such as lignin, cutin, or
suberin.
The primary function of the cell wall is to protect and provide structural support to the cell. The plant
cell wall is also involved in protecting the cell against mechanical stress and providing form and
structure to the cell.
Cell membrane
It is the semi-permeable membrane that is present within the cell wall. It is composed of a thin layer
of protein and fat.
The cell membrane plays an important role in regulating the entry and exit of specific substances
within the cell.
Nucleus
The nucleus is a membrane-bound structure that is present only in eukaryotic cells. The vital function
of a nucleus is to store DNA or hereditary information required for cell division, metabolism and
growth.
Plastids
They are membrane-bound organelles that have their own DNA. They are necessary to store starch
and to carry out the process of photosynthesis.
Central Vacuole
It occupies around 30% of the cell’s volume in a mature plant cell. Tonoplast is a membrane that
surrounds the central vacuole. The vital function of the central vacuole apart from storage is to sustain
turgor pressure against the cell wall.
Golgi Apparatus
They are found in all eukaryotic cells, which are involved in distributing synthesised macromolecules
to various parts of the cell.
Ribosomes
They are the smallest membrane-bound organelles which comprise RNA and protein. They are the
sites for protein synthesis, hence, also referred to as the protein factories of the cell.
Mitochondria
They are the double-membraned organelles found in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. They
provide energy by breaking down carbohydrate and sugar molecules, hence they are also referred to
as the “Powerhouse of the cell.”
Lysosome
Lysosomes are called suicidal bags as they hold digestive enzymes in an enclosed membrane. They
perform the function of cellular waste disposal by digesting worn-out organelles, food particles and
foreign bodies in the cell. In plants, the role of lysosomes is undertaken by the vacuoles.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) Smooth due to lack of ribosomes The main site of lipid synthesis.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) Rough due to the presence of ribosomes, Site of protein
synthesis.
Plasmodesmata:
Plasmodesmata are the microscopic channels that traverse the cell walls of plant cells and allow
transport and communication between the adjacent cells.
Peroxisomes
They are small vesicles, single membrane-bound organelles found in the eukaryotic cells. They contain
digestive enzymes for breaking down toxic materials in the cell and oxidative enzymes for metabolic
activity.
Difference between plant cell and animal cell
The cells are divided into two major categories on the basis of their subcellular architecture:
(1) Prokaryotic cells and
(2) Eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic Cells:
• Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms belonging to the domains Bacteria and Archaea.
• Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells, have no nucleus, and lack organelles.
• All prokaryotic cells are encased by a cell wall. Many also have a capsule or slime layer made
of polysaccharide.
• Prokaryotes often have appendages (protrusions) on their surface. Flagella and some pili are
used for locomotion, fimbriae help the cell stick to a surface, and sex pili are used for DNA
exchange.
• Most prokaryotic cells have a single circular chromosome. They may also have smaller pieces
of circular DNA called plasmids.
• Many prokaryotic cells have sphere, rod, or spiral shapes (as shown below).
The capsule:
Many prokaryotes have a sticky outermost layer called the capsule, which is usually made of
polysaccharides (sugar polymers).
The capsule helps prokaryotes cling to each other and to various surfaces in their environment, and
also helps prevent the cell from drying out.
The cell wall:
All prokaryotic cells have a stiff cell wall, located underneath the capsule .This structure maintains the
cell’s shape, protects the cell interior, and prevents the cell from bursting when it takes up water. The
cell wall of most bacteria contains peptidoglycan, a polymer of linked sugars and polypeptides.
The plasma membrane:
Underneath the cell wall lies the plasma membrane. The basic building block of the plasma membrane
is the phospholipid, a lipid composed of a glycerol molecule attached a hydrophilic (water-attracting)
phosphate head and to two hydrophobic (water-repelling) fatty acid tails.
Appendages
Prokaryotic cells often have appendages (protrusions from the cell surface) that allow the cell to stick
to surfaces, move around, or transfer DNA to other cells.
Thin filaments called fimbriae (singular: fimbria) are used for adhesion—that is, they help cells stick to
objects and surfaces in their environment. Longer appendages, called pili (singular: pilus), sex pilus
holds two bacterial cells together and allows DNA to be transferred between them in a process called
conjugation.
flagella (singular: flagellum). These tail-like structures whip around like propellers to move cells
through watery environments.
Chromosome and plasmids :
Most prokaryotes have a single circular chromosome, and thus a single copy of their genetic material.
The chromosome of a prokaryote is found in a part of the cytoplasm called a nucleoid.
Plasmids:
Many prokaryotes have plasmids, which are small rings of double-stranded extra-chromosomal
("outside the chromosome") DNA.
Plasmids carry a small number of non-essential genes and are copied independently of the
chromosome inside the cell.
plasmids carry genes that make bacteria resistant to antibiotics. (These genes are called R genes.)
When the plasmids carrying R genes are exchanged in a population, they can quickly make the
population resistant to antibiotic drugs.
Eukaryotic cell
• Eukaryotic cells are larger than prokaryotic cells and have a “true” nucleus, membrane-bound
organelles, and rod-shaped chromosomes.
• The nucleus houses the cell’s DNA and directs the synthesis of proteins and ribosomes.
• Mitochondria are responsible for ATP production; the endoplasmic reticulum modifies
proteins and synthesizes lipids; and the Golgi apparatus is where the sorting of lipids and
proteins takes place.
• Peroxisomes carry out oxidation reactions that break down fatty acids and amino acids and
detoxify poisons; vesicles and vacuoles function in storage and transport.
• Animal cells have a centrosome and lysosomes while plant cells do not.
• Plant cells have a cell wall, a large central vacuole, chloroplasts, and other specialized plastids,
whereas animal cells do not.
Cytoplasmic Membrane:
Description: It is also called plasma membrane or cell membrane. The plasma membrane is a
semi-permeable membrane that separates the inside of a cell from the outside.
Structure and Composition: In eukaryotic cells, the plasma membrane consists of proteins,
carbohydrates and two layers of phospholipids
Functions
The plasma membrane is selectively permeable i.e. it allows only selected substances to pass
through.
It protects the cells from shock and injuries.
The fluid nature of the membrane allows the interaction of molecules within the membrane.
It is also important for secretion, cell growth, and division etc.
It allows transport of molecules across the membrane.
Cell Wall
Description: The cell wall is a non-living, rigid structure outside the plasma membrane in plant
cells and fungi. It is absent in Eukaryotic cells of animals
Structure and composition: It is made of different components in different Eukaryotes:
Cellulose, hemicellulose, proteins, and pectin – in plants.
Cellulose, galactans, mannans and calcium carbonate – in fungi.
Functions
Provides shape to the cell.
Helps in cell-cell interaction.
Protects the cell from injury, undesirable molecules and pathogens.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Description: It is a network of small, tubular structures.
Structure: ER can be of two types –
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
Smooth due to lack of ribosomes Rough due to the presence of ribosomes
The main site of lipid synthesis Site of protein synthesis.
Functions
SER is involved in lipid synthesis and RER is involved in protein synthesis.
RER helps in folding proteins and transports it to the Golgi apparatus in vesicles.
Golgi Apparatus
Description: It is named after the scientist who discovered it, Camillo Golgi. Golgi is made of
many flat, disc-shaped structures called cisternae. It is present in all eukaryotic cells except
human red blood cells and sieve cells of plants.
Structure: The cisternae are arranged in parallel and concentrically near the nucleus as
follows:
Cis face (forming face) – It faces the plasma membrane and receives secreted material in
vesicles.
Trans face (maturing face) – It faces the nucleus and releases the received material into the
cell.
Functions
An important site for packaging material within the cell.
Proteins are modified in the Golgi.
An important site for the formation of glycolipids (i.e. lipids with carbohydrate) and
glycoproteins (i.e. proteins with carbohydrates).
Ribosomes
Description: These structures are not bound by a membrane. Ribosomes are also called
‘Protein factories’ since they are the main site of protein synthesis.
Structure: They are made of ribonucleic acids and proteins. Eukaryotic ribosomes are of the 80S type,
with 60S (large subunit) and 40S (small subunit).
Functions: A Major site for synthesis of proteins and polypeptides (chain of amino acids).
Mitochondria
Description: They are membrane-bound organelles, also known as ‘powerhouses of the cell
Structure: It has two membranes – outer and inner. The inner compartment is called matrix and
outer compartment forms the intermembrane space.
Functions
They produce energy (ATP) and therefore are called the ‘powerhouse of the cell’.
Helps in regulating cell metabolism.
Mitochondria possess their own DNA, RNA and components required for protein synthesis.
Lysosomes
Description: They are membrane-bound vesicles formed in the Golgi apparatus. Lysosomes are also
called ‘suicidal bags’ since they are rich in hydrolytic enzymes such as lipases, proteases,
carbohydrates etc. These enzymes are optimally active at acidic pH (less than 7).
Function: The main function of lysosomes is to digest lipids, proteins, carbohydrates and nucleic acids.
Nucleus
Description: Nucleus is the main organelle of a cell. It is a double membrane structure with all the
genetic information. Therefore, it is also called the ‘brain’ of a cell. The nucleus is found in all
eukaryotic cells except human RBCs and sieve cells of plants.
Functions
It stores genetic information (in the form of DNA) necessary for development and reproduction.
It contains all information necessary for protein synthesis and cellular functions.
Cytoskeleton
Description: It is the filamentous network present in the cytoplasm of a cell.
Function: It provides mechanical support, maintains the shape of the cell and helps in motility.
stem cells and their application
Stem cells are special human cells that are able to develop into many different cell types. This can
range from muscle cells to brain cells. In some cases, they can also fix damaged tissues.
Where do stem cells come from?
Source of stem cell
Human umbilical cord
The cord blood can be collected from the umbilical cord of a baby after its birth and consists of
hematopoietic and mesenchymal stem cells.
Bone marrow
Bone marrow is a soft gelatinous tissue found at the center of bones ,hematopoietic or blood stem
cells were also found in the marrow used for regenerative medicine and therapeutic purposes.
Adipose tissue
The adipose tissue-derived stem cells are mesenchymal cells that have the potential for self-renewal
and multipotency.
Amniotic fluid
Amniotic fluid is the liquid that surrounds the amnion or the sac that encompasses the fetus. Both the
amniotic membrane and amniotic fluid are good sources of embryonic stem cells that can multiply
and form any type of cell.
Types of cells
Embryonic Stem Cells
Adult Stem Cells
Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
Mesenchymal stem cells
Applications of stem cells
Tissue Regeneration
This is the most important application of stem cells. The stem cells can be used to grow a specific type
of tissue or organ. This can be helpful in kidney and liver transplants. The doctors have already used
the stem cells from beneath the epidermis to develop skin tissue that can repair severe burns or other
injuries by tissue grafting.
Treatment of Cardiovascular Disease
A team of researchers have developed blood vessels in mice using human stem cells. Within two weeks
of implantation, the blood vessels formed their network and were as efficient as the natural vessels.
Treatment of Brain Diseases
Stem cells can also treat diseases such as Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s. These can help to
replenish the damaged brain cells. Researchers have tried to differentiate embryonic stem cells into
these types of cells and make it possible to treat diseases.
SOME CURRENT APPLICATIONS OF STEM CELLS
Stem cells are being used in a wide variety of ways ranging from developing artificial organs for
research and transplantation to even mitochondrial therapy. Some of these developments are–
HSC transplantation
Healthy HSCs can be transplanted into patients suffering from various types of bone marrow or blood
disorders such as leukemia, lymphoma, and tumors to replace the dysfunctional bone marrow cells.
Placental stem cell therapy
Placental stem cells have shown promising results and potential in healing and curing diseases in
various parts of the body such as Alzheimer’s, liver diseases, pancreatic diseases, myocardial
infarction, muscle dystrophy, lung fibrosis, and large lytic lesions in bones. They also have applications
in tissue engineering.
Development toward artificial organ engineering
When stem cells are cultured in a 3D environment, in permissive growth conditions without any
external input, they multiply and differentiate into structures like their origin. These structures mimic
organs, including providing the niche for stem cells, and are called “organoids.” Organoids show a level
of organization that is not replicable with current technology, but they show heterogeneity in size,
shape, cell composition, etc., from culture to culture. These organoids are used for various studies
Wound healing
Stem cells promote cell proliferation and cell differentiation at the wound site, help in the control of
immune response, and contain antibacterial properties due to the secretion of antimicrobial factors.
The use of autologous stem cells removes the possibility of immune rejection.
Treatment of burn wounds
Stem cells show better potential and results in treating burn wounds than currently available methods.
Using stem cells by direct injection, tissue-engineered grafts or exosome treatment shows promising
results in burn wound healing.
Cell-free therapy
Cell-derived membrane-bound vesicles and extracellular vesicles (EVs) from stem cells such as
exosomes have been shown to have effects such as neuroprotection, neuroregeneration, neural
development, and improvement in neural function. The use of EVs reduces the risks and limitations of
cell-based therapy, being non-invasive, crossing blood–brain barrier, and being non-tumorous.
Disease modeling and study of differentiation
Since their development, iPSCs have been used by scientists in a variety of ways for studying the
pathogenesis of diseases, for inventing novel ways of iPSC formation, for studying the inheritance of
genetic diseases, for studying neurodegenerative diseases, etc.
