CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

1.1 History of Communication

A time chart showing the historical development of communications is given in Table 1.1. The
reader is encouraged to spend some time studying this table to obtain an appreciation for the
chronology of communications.
Table 1.1 History of Communication
Year Event
1834 Carl F. Gauss and Ernst H. Weber build the electromagnetic telegraph
1838 William F. Cooke and Sir Charles Wheatstone build the telegraph
1844 Samuel F. B. Morse demonstrates the Baltimore, MD, and Washington, DC, telegraph line
1858 The first transatlantic cable is laid, and fails after 26 days
1864 James C. Maxwell predicts electromagnetic radiation
1871 The society of telegraph Engineers is organized in London
1876 Alexander Graham Bell develops and patents the telephone
1887 Heinrich Hertz verifies Maxwell’s theory
1889 The Institute of Electrical Engineers (IEE) forms from the society of Telegraph Engineers in London
1894 Oliver Lodge demonstrates wireless communication over a distance of 150 yards
1900 Guglielmo Marconi transmits the first transatlantic wireless signal
1905 Reginald Fessenden transmits speech and music by radio
1915 Bell system completes a U.S. transcontinental telephone line
1918 Edwin H. Armstrong invents the super-heterodyne receiver circuit
1920 KDKA, Pittsburgh, PA, begins the first scheduled radio broadcasts
1920 J.R. Carson applies sampling to communications
1926 J.L. Baird, England and C.F. Jenkins, United States, demonstrate television
1931 Teletypewriter service is initiated
1933 Edwin H. Armstrong invents FM
1935 Robert A. Watson-Watt develops the first practical radar
1936 The British Broadcasting corporation (BBC) begins the first television broadcasts
1937 Alex Reeves conceives pulse code modulation (PCM)
1941 John V. Atanasoff invents the computer at Iowa State College.
1947 Steve O. Rice develops statistical representation for noise at bell laboratories
1948 Claude E. Shannon publishes his work on information theory
1950 Time-division multiplexing is applied to Telephony
1950 Microwave telephones and communication links are developed
1953 NTSC color television is introduced in the United States
1953 The first transatlantic telephone cable (36 voice channels) is laid
1957 The first Earth satellite, Sputnik I, is launched by USSR
1961 Stereo FM broadcast begin in the United States
1962 The first active satellite, Telstar I, relays television signals between the U.S. and Europe
1963 Bell system introduces the touch-tone phone
1964 The electronic telephone switching system is placed into service
1965 The first commercial communication satellite, Early Bird, is placed into service
1968 Cable television systems are developed
1972 Motorola demonstrates the cellular telephone to the FCC
1980 Bell system FT3 fiber optic communication is developed
1985 Fax machines become popular
1989 Pocket cellular telephone is introduced by Motorola
1990--- Era of digital signal processing with microprocessors, digital oscilloscopes, digitally tuned receivers,
ISDN, digital satellite systems and high definition television (HDTV), etc.

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1.2 Communication Process
The term communication covers very broad fields of study ranging from the use of symbols to
large social implications and effects. Shortly, communication means the transmission of
information from one point to another. At one time, it would have been called
telecommunications, using the Greek prefix tele-, meaning far. Applications of communication
enable us to communicate with people all over the globe by the help of mobile phones, radios,
televisions, and computers connected to internet in our offices. Thus, communication affects our
daily life in so many different ways that it is easy to overlook several of its aspects.
Communication provides information to ships on seas, aircraft in flight, rockets and satellites in
space. It also keeps a weather forecaster informed of environmental conditions measured by a
multitude of sensors. Indeed, a list of applications involving the use of communication in one
way or another is almost endless.

Communication system may be divided into a small number of components as shown in Fig. 1.1.
Communication Systems

Source of Transmitter Channel Receiver Information

Information Sink

Figure 1.1 Elements of a communication system

• Source of information: examples of information that we may communicate includes

voice, music, pictures, videos, or data.
• Transmitter is a generic term for the processing of information in the form provided by
the source into a form that is suitable for transmitting over the channel.
• Channel is a transmission medium which can be a cable, optical fiber, or free space.
• Receiver is also a generic term for the process of converting the signal transmitted over
the channel back to a form that may be understood at the intended destination.
• Information sink is the intended destination.

1.3 Communication Networks

A communication network or simply network, shown in Figure 1.2, consists of an
interconnection of a number of nodes made up of intelligent processors like microcomputers.
The primary purpose of these nodes is to route data through the network. Each node has one or
more stations attached to it; stations refer to devices wishing to communicate. The network is
designed to serve as a shared resource for moving data exchanged between stations in an
efficient manner and also to provide a framework to support new applications and services. The
traditional telephone network is an example of a communication network in which circuit
switching is used to provide a dedicated communication path or circuit between two stations.
The circuit consists of a connected sequence of links from source to destination. The links may
consist of time slots in a time-division multiplexed (TDM) system or frequency slots in a
frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) system. The circuit, once in place, remains uninterrupted

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for the entire duration of transmission. Circuit switching is usually controlled by a centralized
hierarchical control mechanism with knowledge of the network’s organization. To establish a
circuit-switched connection, an available path through the network is seized and then dedicated
to the exclusive use of the two stations wishing to communicate. In particular, a call-request
signal must propagate all the way to the destination, and be acknowledged, before transmission
can begin. Then the network is effectively transparent to the users. This means that, during the
connection time, the bandwidth and resources allocated to the circuits are essentially owned by
the two stations, until the circuit is disconnected.

Boundary
of subnet

Stations

Nodes

Figure 1.2 Communication Network

In circuit switching, a communication link is shared between the different sessions using that
link on a fixed allocation basis. In packet switching, on the other hand, the sharing is done on a
demand basis and, therefore, it has an advantage over circuit switching in that when a link has
traffic to send, the link may be more fully utilized.
The basic network principle of packet switching is store and forward. Specifically, in packet-
switched network, any message larger than a specified size is subdivided prior to transmission
into segments not exceeding the specified size. The segments are commonly referred to as
packets. The original message is reassembled at the destination on a packet-by-packet basis. The
network may be viewed as a distributed pool of network resources (i.e. channel bandwidth,
buffers, and switching processors) whose capacity is shared dynamically by a community of
computing users (stations) wishing to communicate. In contrast, in circuit-switched network,
resources are dedicated to a pair of stations for the entire period they are in session. Accordingly,
packet switching is far better suited to a computer-communication environment in which bursts
of data are exchanged between stations on an occasional basis. The use of packet switching,
however, requires that careful control be exercised on user demands; otherwise, the network may
be seriously abused.
1.4 Communication Channels
The transmission of information across a communication network is accomplished in the
physical layer by means of a communication channel. Depending on the mode of transmission
used, we may distinguish two basic groups of communication channels: channels based on
guided propagation and those based on free propagation. The first group includes telephone
channels, coaxial cables and optical fibers. The second group includes wireless broadcast
channels, mobile radio channels, and satellite channels.
a) Atypical telephone network uses circuit switching to establish an end-to-end
communication link on a temporary basis. The primary purpose of the network is to

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 ensure that the telephone transmission between a speaker at one end of the link and a
listener at the other end is an acceptable substitute for face-to-face conversation. In this
form of communication, the message source is the sound produced by the speaker’s
voice, and the ultimate destination is the listener’s ear. The telephone channel, however,
supports only the transmission of electrical signals. Accordingly, appropriate transducers
are used at the transmitting and receiving ends of the system. Specifically, a microphone
is placed near the speaker’s mouth to convert sound waves into electrical signal, and the
electrical signal is converted back into acoustic form by means of a moving-coil receiver
placed near the listener’s ear. The telephone channel is built using twisted pairs for signal
transmission. A twisted pair consists of two solid copper conductors, each of which is
encased in a polyvinylchloride (PVC) sheath. Typically, each pair has a twist rate of 2 to
12 twists per foot, and a characteristic impedance of 90 to 110 ohms. Twisted pairs are
usually susceptible to electromagnetic interference (EMI), the effects of which are
mitigated through twisting the wires.

b) A coaxial cable consists of an inner conductor and an outer conductor, separated by a

dielectric insulating material. The inner conductor is made of a copper wire encased
inside the dielectric material. As for the outer conductor, it is made of copper, tinned
copper, or copper-coated steel. Typically, a coaxial cable has a characteristic impedance
of 50 to 75 ohms. Compared to a twisted-pair cable, a coaxial cable offers a greater
degree of immunity to EMI. Moreover, because of their much higher bandwidth, coaxial
cables can support the transmission of digital data at much higher bit rates than twisted
pairs. Rates up to 20 Mb/s are feasible using coaxial cables, with 10 Mb/s being the
standard. Whereas the use of twisted pair has been confined mainly to point-to-point
services, a coaxial cable can operate as a multiple-access medium by using high
impedance taps. A common application of coaxial cable is as the transmission medium
for local area networks in an office environment and cable-television system, also known
as community-antenna television (CATV) system. In the later application, coaxial cables
are used to distribute television, audio, and data signals from head end to the subscribers.
The head end is the central originating unit of the CATV system, where all signals are
carried and processed.

c) An optical fiber is a dielectric wave guide that transports light signals from one place to
another just as a twisted-wire pair or coaxial cable transports electrical signals. It consists
of a central core within which the propagating electromagnetic field is confined and
which is surrounded by a cladding layer, which is itself surrounded by a thin protective
jacket. The core cladding is both made of pure silica glass, while the jacket is made of
plastic. Optical fibers offer the following unique characteristics:
• Enormous potential bandwidth
• Low transmission losses
• Immunity to EMI
• Small size and weight
• Ruggedness and flexibility
d) Wireless broadcast channels support transmission of radio and television signals. The
information bearing signals, representing speech, music or pictures, is mounted onto a
carrier frequency that identifies the transmitting station.

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 e) A mobile radio channel extends the capability of the public telecommunications network
by introducing mobility into the network by virtue of its ability to broadcast. The term
mobile radio is usually meant to encompass terrestrial situations where a radio transmitter
or receiver is capable of being moved, regardless of whether it actually moves or not. The
radio propagation takes place mainly by way of scattering from the surfaces of the
surrounding buildings and by diffraction over and/or around them. The end result is that
energy reaches the receiving antenna via more than one path. In a mobile radio
environment, we thus speak of a multipath phenomenon in that the various incoming
radio waves reach their destination in different directions and with different time delays.
Indeed, there may be multitudes of propagation paths with different electrical lengths,
and their contributions to the received signal could combine in a variety of ways.
Consequently, the received signal strength varies with location in a very complicated
fashion, and a mobile radio channel may be viewed as a linear-time variant channel that
is statistical in nature.

f) A satellite channel adds another invaluable dimension to the public telecommunications

network by providing broad-area coverage in both a continental and an intercontinental
sense. Moreover, access to remote areas not covered by conventional cable or fiber
communication is also a distinct feature of satellites. Communications satellites in
geostationary orbit offer the following unique system capabilities:
• Broad-area coverage
• Reliable transmission links
• Wide transmission bandwidth
In terms of services, satellites can provide fixed point-to-point links extending over long
distances and into remote areas, communication to mobile platforms (e.g., air-craft, ships), or
broadcast capabilities. Indeed, communication satellites play a key role in the notion of the
whole world being viewed as a global village.
To summarize, a communication channel is central to the operation of a communication system.
Its properties determine both the information carrying capacity of the system and the quality of
the service offered by the system. We may classify communication channels in different ways:

• A channel may be linear or nonlinear; a wireless channel is linear, whereas a satellite

channel is usually (but not always) nonlinear.
• A channel may be time invariant or time varying; an optical fiber is time invariant,
whereas a mobile radio channel is typically time variant.
• A channel may be bandwidth limited or power limited; a telephone channel is
bandwidth limited, whereas an optical fiber link and a satellite channel are both
power limited.

1.5 Analog vs. Digital Communication

In electrical and electronics engineering, communication is defined as the process of

broadcasting, transmitting, storing or viewing the data and information using electronic devices
and circuits.

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Based on the nature of signals and devices used for processing the information, the electronic
communication can be classified into two types:

• Analog Communication
• Digital Communication

Let us take a look at the major differences between analog communication and digital
communication by considering various parameters such as basic definition, cost, hardware
technology, noise, power requirement, need of modulation, applications, etc. Also, a short
description of analog communication and digital communication is added for your reference.
Analog Communication is a type of communication in which the data and information is
transferred with the help of analog signals in between transmitter and receiver. Therefore, analog
communication uses continuous time signals for transmission of information.

Transmitter Input
Modulator
(Analog Input) Transducer

Channel

Receiver Output
Demodulator
Transducer

Fig. 1.3 Typical Analog Communication

The process involved in analog communication is illustrated in Figure-1.3. Where, the

information in the form of analog signal is input to a transducer, which supplies it to the
modulator. The modulator broadcast the modulated information on a communication channel. At
receiver end, a demodulator circuit is employed for extracting the information from the
modulated signal to produce the output message.
On the other hand, Digital Communication is the communication in which the information is
transferred by using digital signals in between transmitter and receiver. Hence, in case of digital
communication, discrete time signals are used for carrying the information from one point to
another. The block diagram shown in Figure-1.4 illustrates the digital communication system.

Transmitter
Encoder Modulator
(Digital Input)

Channel

Receiver Decoder Demodulator

Fig. 1.4 Typical Digital Communication

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Here, the information is first encoded in digital signals (binary form) and modulated. The
modulator then broadcast the information in digital form (in the form of data packets) on the
communication channel. On the receiver end, the demodulator recovers the information and
supplies it to the decoder, so that output message can be obtained.
The following table highlights the fundamental differences between analog communication and
digital communication.

Basis of
Analog Communication Digital Communication
Difference

The method of information transmission The communication in which digital

between transmitter and receiver in which signals are used for transferring
Definition analog signals are used for conveying the information between transmitter and
information is known as analog receiver is known as digital
communication. communication

Type of signals Analog communication uses continuous Digital communication uses discrete
used time signals. time signals.

The main components used for analog The components of digital

communication are: transmitter, communication are: transmitter,
Major components
transducers, modulator, channel, encoder, modulator, channel,
demodulator and receiver. demodulator, decoder and receiver.

In analog communication, the sinusoidal In digital communication, the signals

Signal
waveforms represent the signals used for used for information transmission are
representation
transferring information. represented by square waveforms.

Analog communication needs low High bandwidth is required in digital

Bandwidth
bandwidth. communication.

Analog communication is less immune to The immunity to noise of digital

Noise
noise. communication is good.

Separation of In analog communication, it is not In digital communication, the noise can

noise possible to separate the noise signal from be easily separated from the message

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Basis of
Analog Communication Digital Communication
Difference

message signal. signal.

The probability of error in analog Digital communication has less

Error
communication is high. probability of errors.

Analog communication involves The hardware design of digital

Hardware design complicated and less flexible hardware communication is simple and more
design. flexible than analog communication.

The modulation techniques used in analog The modulation techniques used in

communication are: ‘pulse amplitude digital communication are ‘amplitude
Modulation
modulation (PAM)’, ‘pulse width shift keying (ASK)’, ‘frequency shift
techniques
modulation (PWM)’, ‘pulse position keying (FSK)’, ‘phase shift keying
modulation (PPM)’. (PSK)’.

Multiplexing Analog communication uses frequency Digital communication uses time

technique division multiplexing (FDM). division multiplexing (TDM).

Power Analog communication involves high Digital communication consumes less

consumption power consumption. power.

Analog communication is comparatively Digital communication is highly

Security
less secured. secured.

In case analog communication,

The synchronization is easier in case of
Synchronization synchronization of difference components
digital communication.
is hard.

The accuracy of digital communication

Accuracy Analog communication is less accurate.
is high.

Number of In analog communication, there is a In digital communication, a large

broadcasting limited number of communication number of communication channels

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Basis of
Analog Communication Digital Communication
Difference

channels channels that can be broadcasted can be broadcasted simultaneously.

simultaneously.

The components used for analog Digital communication involves

Portability of
communication are heavy, hence are less compact components, hence their
components used
portable. portability is high.

Analog communication involves less cost The cost of digital communication is

Cost
for information transmission. comparatively high.

In conclusion, while analog communication is simpler and cheaper, it suffers from noise, limited
security, and lower accuracy. Digital communication, though costlier and bandwidth-intensive,
offers higher reliability, security, and efficiency-making it the dominant choice in modern
systems.

1.6 Shannon’s Information Capacity Theorem

The goal of a communication designer is to configure or design a system that transports a
message signal from a source of interest to a user both efficiently and reliably, subject to certain
design constraints: allowable transmit power, available channel bandwidth and affordable cost of
building the system.

In the case of digital communication system, reliability is commonly expressed in terms of bit
error rate (BER) or probability of bit error measured at the receiver output. The smaller the BER,
the more reliable the communication system is. A question that comes to mind in this context is
whether it is possible to design a communication system that operates with zero BER even
though the channel is noisy. In an ideal setting, the answer to this question is an emphatic yes.
The answer is embodied in one of Shannon’s celebrated theorems, which is called the
information capacity theorem.

Let B denote the channel bandwidth, and SNR denotes the received signal-to-noise ratio. The
information capacity theorem states that ideally these two parameters are related as

𝐶 = 𝐵𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (1 + 𝑆𝑁𝑅) 𝑏/𝑠 … … … … … … … … … … … … . (1)

Where, C is the information capacity of the channel. The information capacity is defined as the
maximum rate at which information can be transmitted across a channel without error; measured
in bit per second (b/s). For a prescribed channel bandwidth B and received SNR, the information

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capacity theorem tells us that a message signal can be transmitted through the system without
error even when the channel is noisy, provided that the actual signaling rate R in bits per second,
at which data are transmitted through the channel, is less than the information capacity C.

Shannon’s information capacity theorem does not tell us how to design the system. Nevertheless,
from a design point of view, the theorem is very valuable for the following reasons.

1. The information capacity theorem provides a bound on what rate of data transmission is
theoretically attainable for prescribed values of channel bandwidth B and received SNR.
On this basis we may use the ratio
𝑅
𝜂=
𝐶
as a measure of the efficiency of the digital communication system under study. The
closer 𝜂 is to unity, the more efficient the system is.
2. Equation (1) provides a basis for the trade-off between channel bandwidth B and received
SNR. In particular, for a prescribed signaling rate R, we may reduce the required SNR by
increasing the channel bandwidth B, hence the motivation for using a wideband
modulated scheme (e.g., pulse-code modulation) is for improved noise performance.
3. Equation (1) provides an idealized framework for comparing the noise performance of
one modulation scheme against another.

1.7 Electrical Noise

Electronic communication systems are made up of circuit elements such as R, L and C, and
devices like diodes, transistors, etc. All these components give rise to what is known as internal
circuit noise. It is this noise that sets the fundamental limits on communication of acceptable
quality. Two of the important internal circuit noises are: i) Thermal noise ii) Shot noise

The random motion of the free electrons in a conductor caused by thermal agitation gives rise to
a voltage V(t) at the open ends of the conductor and is present whether or not an electrical field
is applied.

Noise signals are random and must be treated by statistical means. Even though we cannot
predict the actual noise waveform, we can predict the statistics such as the mean (average) and
variance.
Consistent with the central limit theorem, V(t) is a Gaussian process with zero mean and the
variance is a function of R and T, where R is the value of the resistance and T is the temperature

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of R. It has also been found that the spectral density of V(t) in (Volts 2/Hz), denoted Sv(f) is
essentially constant for ǀfǀ ≤ 1012 Hz, if T is 290 K. 1012 Hz is already in the infrared region of
EM spectrum. This constant value of Sv(f) is given by:

Sv(f) = 2 RKT watts/Hz (9.18)

where T: the temperature of R, in degrees Kelvin (oK = oC + 273)

k: Boltzman’s constant = 1.37 × 10− 23 Joules /oK.

It is to be remembered that Eq. 9.18 is valid only up to a certain frequency limit. However, this
limit is much higher than the frequency range of interest to us.

1.7.1 White Noise Process

Eq. 9.18 indicate that we have noise source with a flat spectral density with frequencies
extending up to the infrared region of the EM spectrum. The concept of white noise is an
idealization of the above. Any noise quantity (thermal or non-thermal) which has a flat power
spectrum (that is, it contains all frequency components in equal proportion) for − ∞ < f < ∞ is
called white noise, in analogy with white light. We denote the PSD of a white noise process W(t)
as:

Sw(f) = No/2 watts/Hz

where the factor ½ has been included to indicate that half the power is associated with the
positive frequencies and half with negative frequencies. In addition to a flat spectrum, if the
process happens to be Gaussian, we describe it as white Gaussian noise.W(t) is said to be a white
noise process if

No No
RWW (t1 , t2 ) =  (t1 − t2 ) =  ( ).
2 2
If W(t) is also a Gaussian process (white Gaussian process), then all of its samples are
independent random variables (why?). Eq. 9.19 implies that any two samples of white noise, no
matter how closely together in time they are taken, are uncorrelated. (Note that RW(τ) = 0 for τ ≠
0). The noise waveform is totally unpredictable as a function of time. In addition, if, the noise
process is Gaussian, we find that any two samples of WGN are statistically independent. In a
sense, WGN represents the ultimate in randomness!

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 White noise, whether Gaussian or not, must
be fictitious (as is the case with everything
that is "ideal") because its total mean power is
infinity.

Note: White noise need not be Gaussian.

“White” and “Gaussian” are two different
concepts!

1.7.2 Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN)

Additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) is a basic noise model used in information theory to
mimic the effect of many random processes that occur in nature. The modifiers denote specific
characteristics:
Additive because it is added to any noise that might be intrinsic to the information system.
White refers to the idea that it has uniform to power across the frequency band for the
information system. It is an analogy to the color white which has uniform emissions at all
frequencies in the visible spectrum.
Gaussian because it has a normal distribution in the time domain with an average time domain
value of zero.

Wideband noise comes from many natural noises, such as the thermal vibrations of atoms in
conductors (referred to as thermal noise or Johnson–Nyquist noise), shot noise, black-body
radiation from the earth and other warm objects, and from celestial sources such as the Sun. The
central limit theorem of probability theory indicates that the summation of many random
processes will tend to have distribution called Gaussian or Normal.

AWGN is often used as a channel model in which the only impairment to communication is a
linear addition of wideband or white noise with a constant spectral density (expressed as watts
per hertz of bandwidth) and a Gaussian distribution of amplitude. The model does not account
for fading, frequency selectivity, interference, nonlinearity or dispersion. However, it produces
simple and tractable mathematical models which are useful for gaining insight into the
underlying behavior of a system before these other phenomena are considered.

The AWGN channel is a good model for many satellite and deep space communication links. It
is not a good model for most terrestrial links because of multipath, terrain blocking, interference,
etc. However, for terrestrial path modeling, AWGN is commonly used to simulate background
noise of the channel under study, in addition to multipath, terrain blocking, interference, ground
clutter and self-interference that modern radio systems encounter in terrestrial operation.

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1.8 Link Budget
A link budget is an accounting of all of the power gains and losses that a communication signal
experiences in a telecommunication system; from a transmitter, through a medium (free space,
cable, waveguide, fiber, etc.) to the receiver. It accounts for the attenuation of the transmitted
signal due to propagation, as well as the antenna gains and feedline and other losses, as well as
the amplification of the signal in the receiver or any repeaters it passes through. A link budget is
a design aid, calculated during the design of a communication system to determine the received
power, to ensure that the information is received intelligibly with an adequate signal-to-noise
ratio. Randomly varying channel gains such as fading are taken into account by adding some
margin depending on the anticipated severity of its effects. The amount of margin required can
be reduced by the use of mitigating techniques such as antenna diversity or frequency hopping.
A simple link budget equation looks like this:
Received Power (dB) = Transmitted Power (dB) + Gains (dB) − Losses (dB)
Note that decibels are logarithmic measurements, so adding decibels is equivalent to multiplying
the actual numeric ratios.

1.9 The 7 Layers of OSI Model

From the top, or the layer closest to the user, down, these layers are:
Layer 1 – Physical: The Physical layer defines the electrical and physical specifications for the
networking media that carry the data bits across a network.
Layer 2 – Data Link: This layer is concerned with the linkages and mechanisms used to move
data about the network, including the topology, such as Ethernet or Token Ring, and
deals with the ways in which data is reliably transmitted.
Layer 3 – Network: This is the layer on which routing takes place, and, as a result, is perhaps
the most important OSI layer. The Network layer defines the processes used to route
data across the network and the structure and use of logical addressing.
Layer 4 – Transport: The functions defined in this layer provide for the reliable transmission of
data segments, as well as the dis-assembly and assembly of the data before and after
transmission.
Layer 5 – Session: This layer establishes, maintains, and manages the communication session
between computers.
Layer 6 – Presentation: This layer is concerned with data representation and code formatting.
Layer 7 – Application: The Application layer provides services to the software through which
the user requests network services. Your computer application software is not on the
Application layer. This layer isn’t about applications and doesn’t contain any
applications. In other words, programs such as Microsoft Word or Corel are not at
this layer, but browsers, FTP clients, and mail clients are.
Table 1.2 Typical OSI Model
OSI Layer Function Example PDU Name
Services that are used with end
Application (7) SMTP Data
user applications
Presentation (6) Formats data so that it can be JPG, GIF, HTTPS, Data

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 viewed by the user. SSL, TLS
Encrypt and decrypt
Establishes/ends connections
Session (5) NetBIOS, PPTP Data
between two hosts
Responsible for the transport
Transport (4) TCP, UDP Segment
protocol and error handling
Reads the IP address from the Routers, Layer 3
Network (3) Packet
packet Switches
Reads the MAC address from
Data Link (2) Switches Frame
the data packet
Physical (1) Send data on to the Physical wire Hubs, NICS, Cable Bits

PDU Names on the Layers of the OSI Model

Each layer of the OSI model formats the data it receives to suit the functions to be performed on
that layer. In general, the package of data that moves through the layers is called a Protocol Data
Unit (PDU). However, as the data is reformatted and repackaged, it takes on unique names on
certain layers. Table 1 lists the name each layer uses to refer to a message. Absolutely memorize
the information in Table 1.2 above to the point that you can recite the data unit name associated
with each of the OSI model’s layers.

1.10 Spectrum Regulation

The International Telecommunication Union defines frequency allocation as being of "a given
frequency band for the purpose of its use by one or more terrestrial or space radio
communication services or the radio astronomy service under specified conditions".
Frequency allocation is also a special term, used in national frequency administration. Several
bodies set standards for frequency allocation, including:
• International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
• European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT)
• Inter-American Telecommunication Commission (CITEL)
To improve harmonization in spectrum utilization, most service allocations are incorporated in
national Tables of Frequency Allocations and Utilizations within the responsibility of the
appropriate national administration. Allocations are: primary, secondary, exclusive or shared
utilization, within the responsibility of national administrations.
Allocations of military usage will be in accordance with the ITU Radio Regulations. In NATO
countries, military mobile utilizations are made in accordance with the NATO Joint
Civil/Military Frequency Agreement (NJFA). Some examples of frequency allocations are listed
in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3 Sample of frequency allocation
Typical radiated
Source Frequency (MHz)
power (kW)
Longwave BCB (EU) 0.150–0.285 320
AM BCB (EU & J) 0.525–1.605 500
AM BCB (US) 0.530–1.710 50

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 TV low VHF 54–88 100
FM BCB (US & EU) 88–108 105
Aircraft 108–136 1
TV high VHF 174–216 316
TV UHF 470–806 5000
Cellular AMPS 806–947 0.003
Cellular PCS 1700–2000 0.003
ISM, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi 2400–2500 0.0000025

1.11 Designer’s Dilemma

If you have ever worked on a design project or any other open-ended, ill-defined problem, you're
familiar with the designer’s dilemma.
It works like this: at the beginning of a project you have a lot of freedom to take the design or
project in many, possibly infinite, directions. But you also don’t know that much about the
problem or the potential solutions, so making decisions during those early phases of the project is
challenging because your level of knowledge is low.
Fast forward to the end (or near-end) of the project: your knowledge about the problem and the
solution is at its best. But unfortunately, because of the decisions and commitments made
throughout the whole process leading up to that point, you're now more constrained than at any
previous time in the project, so you have the least amount of freedom to act on that knowledge.

That’s the designer’s dilemma-you have the

most freedom to make decisions when you
know the least about the problem. But as
you learn more, you become increasingly
constrained in your decision-making and
ability to change course.

Figure 1.3 knowledge versus design freedom

If you’ve ever said, “If I had known then what I know now, I sure would have done things
differently,” then you have experienced it.
Why does the designer’s dilemma exist? Part of the reason is that solving design problems (and
similar problems that are open-ended and ill-defined) requires, to a significant extent, a
discovery process. We have a lot of learning to do in order to understand all the ins and outs of
problem, its social and environmental context, interfaces, technical possibilities, and the like. So
necessarily we have to grow our knowledge in order to solve the problem. And because we do
not have infinite capacity or time in which to solve the problem, we have to pick and choose
where to focus our discovery efforts. In other words, we make decisions that take us in a certain
direction. Those decisions lead to other decisions and so forth... and next thing we know, we’ve
invested a lot in a given solution path, making it difficult to change course.

Fraol B. 15 October. 2025