Module 2

Electrical Properties of Metals and Semiconductors:

1.​ Introduction:
Metals are known to be good conductors of electricity and heat. The reason lies
in the presence of a large number of free electrons. To explain this, Paul Drude
proposed the Classical Free Electron Theory (CFET) in 1900, also called the

e
Drude Model.

or
Drude applied the kinetic theory of gases to conduction electrons in a metal.
Just as gas molecules move randomly inside a container, electrons were
assumed to move randomly within the metallic crystal. An external field

al
organizes this random motion and produces an electrical current.

g
Although later refined by quantum mechanics, CFET marks the first theoretical
attempt to explain conduction in metals.
an
2.​Assumptions of CFET
The theory is built on the following assumptions:
,B

3.​ Free electrons in metals​

Only the outermost valence electrons of atoms are weakly bound. In a
TE

metallic solid, these electrons leave their parent atoms and move freely
inside the crystal lattice, forming an electron gas.
4.​ Ionic lattice is stationary​
Positive ion cores are considered fixed in place, forming a uniform
SA

background. They only scatter electrons during collisions but do not

move.
5.​ Random motion in absence of field​
Without an applied electric field, electrons move randomly due to
JS

thermal energy. As a result, the net current is zero.

6.​ Electron–ion collisions​
Electrons collide with lattice ions or defects. Between collisions, they
move in straight lines with constant velocity. Collisions randomize their
velocity.
7.​ Classical statistics​
The distribution of electron velocities is assumed to follow the

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Department of Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore

 Maxwell–Boltzmann law (like gas molecules), not quantum statistics.​

2.1. Motion of Electrons under Electric Field:

When an electric field E is applied:
●​ Each electron experiences a
force: 𝐹 = 𝑒𝐸

e
●​ This produces an
acceleration:​

or
𝐹 −𝑒𝐸
𝑎= 𝑚
= 𝑚
●​ Electrons gain velocity

al
between collisions. On
average, the steady-state drift

g
velocity is: 𝑣𝑑 = −𝑒𝐸τ
𝑚
an
The negative sign indicates motion opposite to the applied field.
2.2. Current Density and Conductivity
,B

If there are n free electrons per unit volume, then the current density is:
2
−𝑒𝐸τ −𝑛𝑒 𝐸τ
TE

𝐽 =− 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑 = 𝑛𝑒 𝑚
= 𝑚

Thus, the electrical conductivity (σ) is:

SA

2
−𝑛𝑒 τ
σ= 𝑚

2.3. Mobility of Electrons

JS

Mobility (μ) is the drift velocity per unit electric field:

𝑣𝑑 −𝑒𝐸τ −𝑒τ
µ= 𝐸
= 𝑚𝐸
= 𝑚

2.4. Successes of CFET:

1.​ Explains Ohm’s Law naturally.
2.​ Derives an expression for electrical conductivity.

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Department of Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore

 3.​ Explains the relationship between thermal and electrical conductivity.
4.​ Introduces useful concepts: relaxation time, mean free path, mobility.
5.​ Provides a foundation for later quantum theories.
3. Electron Scattering Mechanism in Solids:
In solids, conduction electrons do not move freely for indefinite distances. Their
motion is interrupted by scattering events, which randomize their velocity and
limit conductivity. The frequency of such collisions determines the resistivity of

e
the material. The total resistivity of a solid arises from several independent
scattering mechanisms, the most important being lattice vibrations (phonons),

or
impurities, and structural defects.

g al
3.1. Scattering Mechanisms an
(a) Electron–Phonon (Lattice) Scattering
At finite temperatures, atoms in a crystal vibrate around their equilibrium
,B

positions. These vibrations are quantized as phonons. Electrons scatter by

interacting with phonons. At high temperatures, resistivity increases almost
linearly with temperature:
TE

ρ𝑃ℎ∝ 𝑇

At very low temperatures, resistivity decreases sharply since phonon

SA

vibrations freeze out.​

(b) Impurity Scattering:
Real crystals contain impurities (foreign atoms of different size or valence).
JS

Impurities disturb the periodic potential and scatter conduction electrons. Its
resistance is temperature independent,rRemains even at 0 K and proportional
to the impurity concentration.
ρ𝑖𝑚𝑝∝ 𝑁𝑖𝑚𝑝

(c) Defect (Dislocation/Grain Boundary) Scattering

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Department of Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore

Structural imperfections such as dislocations, vacancies, and grain boundaries
scatter electrons. Impact on resistivity is usually temperature independent.
Important in polycrystalline and mechanically deformed samples.
(d) Electron–Electron Scattering (less dominant)
At very high electron densities, collisions among electrons can also contribute
to resistance typically weaker compared to phonon and impurity scattering.

e
3.2. Matthiessen’s
Rule

or
Since multiple
scattering processes

al
are usually
independent, their

g
contributions to
resistivity are additive.
This is expressed by
an
Matthiessen’s Rule:
,B

ρ = ρ𝑃ℎ(𝑇) + ρ𝑖𝑚𝑝 + ρ𝑑𝑒𝑓

Thus, resistivity at a
given temperature can
TE

be separated into a temperature-dependent part and a residual part.

At very low temperatures
SA

ρ = ρ𝑖𝑚𝑝 + ρ𝑑𝑒𝑓

At high temperatures:
JS

ρ = ρ𝑃ℎ(𝑇)

4. Failures of Classical Free Electron Theory: Although the Drude model

(Classical Free Electron Theory) successfully explained Ohm’s law and
introduced useful concepts like drift velocity, relaxation time, and mobility, it
fails to account for several key experimental observations. These failures
highlight the need for quantum corrections (Sommerfeld theory).

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Department of Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore

1. Specific Heat of Metals
Prediction (Classical Theory)
From kinetic theory, each degree of freedom contributes 1
2
𝐾𝐵𝑇 energy per
particle. For 3D electrons:
3
𝑈= 2
𝑁𝐾𝐵𝑇

e
Heat capacity per mole: 𝐶𝑣 = 32 𝑅 ,where R is the gas constant.​

or
This means electrons should contribute a large specific heat, comparable to
that of lattice vibrations (phonons).

al
Observation (Experiment)

g
●​ The measured specific heat of metals is close to the Dulong–Petit value
(3R) from phonons. an
●​ Electronic contribution is very small, about 10−2 times the predicted
value.
Reason for Failure
,B

●​ CFET assumes electrons obey Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics.

●​ In reality, electrons obey Fermi–Dirac statistics due to the Pauli
TE

exclusion principle.
●​ At ordinary temperatures, only electrons near the Fermi energy can be
excited. Thus, the electronic contribution is negligible compared to
phonons.
SA

2. Temperature Dependence of Resistivity

Prediction (Classical Theory)
JS

According to σ = −𝑛𝑒𝑚 τ , resistivity depends only on collision time (τ).

2
●​
●​ The classical model predicts weak or no systematic dependence of
resistivity on temperature.
Observation (Experiment)

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Department of Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore

 ●​ In real metals:​
○​ At high temperatures, resistivity increases almost linearly with
temperature.
○​ At low temperatures, resistivity tends to a constant (residual
resistivity due to impurities).
Reason for Failure
CFET ignores lattice vibrations (phonons) and their role in scattering

e
●​
electrons.

or
●​ Temperature dependence can only be explained by including
electron–phonon scattering (a quantum effect).

al
3. Electron Concentration vs Conductivity

g
Prediction (Classical Theory)
●​ Conductivity is:​
2
an
−𝑛𝑒 τ
σ= 𝑚
CFET suggests metals with higher electron concentration (n) should
,B
●​
always have higher conductivity.
Observation (Experiment)
TE

Actual conductivity does not scale simply with electron concentration. For
example:​
Silver (1 conduction electron/atom) has higher conductivity than Aluminum (3
SA

conduction electrons/atom). This contradicts the simple prediction.​

Reason for Failure
●​ Conductivity also depends strongly on relaxation time (τ) and electron
JS

scattering mechanisms, not just electron density.

●​ CFET oversimplifies by ignoring quantum restrictions on allowed electron
states and effective masses.

4. Quantum Free Electron Theory – Assumptions: Quantum free

electron theory of Metal: Sommerfeld proposed this theory in 1928 retaining
the concept of free electrons moving in a uniform potential within the metal as
in the classical theory, but treated the electrons as obeying the laws of

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Department of Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore

quantum mechanics. Based on the de-Broglie wave concept, he assumed that a
moving electron behaves as if it were a system of waves. (Called matter
waves-waves associated with a moving particle).According to quantum
mechanics, the energy of an electron in a metal is quantized. He realized the
role played by the Pauli Exclusion Principle in restricting the energy values of
electrons. The theory proposed is known as Quantum Free Electron Theory.
The main assumptions of quantum free electron theory are

a.​ The free electrons in a metal can have only discrete energy values. Thus

e
the energies are quantized.
b.​ The electrons obey Pauli’s Exclusion Principle, which states that there

or
cannot be more than two electrons in any energy level.
c.​ The distributions of electrons in various energy levels obey the
Fermi-Dirac quantum statistics.

al
d.​ Free electrons have the same potential energy everywhere within the
metal, because the potential due to ionic cores is uniform throughout the

g
metal.
e.​ The force of attraction between electrons & lattice ions and the force of
an
repulsion between electrons can be neglected.
f.​ Electrons are treated as wave-like particles.
5. Density of States: It is
,B

defined as “number of quantum

states available per unit energy
interval, per unit volume of the
TE

crystal, at a given energy.” For a

free electron gas in three
dimensions, the DOS increases
with energy and follows a
SA

square-root dependence.
Mathematically, the expression
is
JS

3 1
8 2π 2 2
𝑔(𝐸) = 3 (𝑚) 𝐸
ℎ

where V is the volume of the

system, m the electron mass,
and h Planck’s constant. This
result shows that in three dimensions, the number of states per unit energy
grows as the square root of energy.

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Department of Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore

The functional form of the DOS depends on the dimensionality of the system.
In one dimension, the DOS diverges at certain energies, while in two
dimensions it becomes independent of energy. In contrast, the
three-dimensional case leads to the familiar square-root dependence. These
differences in dimensional behavior are central to modern nanoscience, where
quantum wires (1D), quantum wells (2D), and quantum dots (0D) exhibit
strikingly different electronic and optical properties compared to bulk (3D)
solids as shown in figure. Thus, the density of states not only provides a
fundamental description of how electrons populate energy levels but also

e
explains why low-dimensional materials display novel phenomena that cannot
be understood through bulk three-dimensional behavior alone.

or
6. Fermi Energy:
Fermi Energy is a fundamental concept in the study of the electrical properties

al
of solids, especially in the context of solid-state physics and materials science.
It refers to the energy level that separates occupied electronic states from

g
unoccupied ones at absolute zero temperature (0 Kelvin). Ideally for a metal
containing N free electrons, there will be N allowed energy levels, which are
an
separated by energy differences that are
characteristic of the material. As per the Pauli
Exclusion Principle, each energy level can
accommodate a maximum of two electrons, one
,B

with spin up and the other one with spin down

(Figure). This concept plays a crucial role in
understanding the behavior of electrons in
solids, which is essential for their electrical
TE

conductivity, optical properties, and more.

It is defined as the highest energy level
occupied by electrons at absolute zero
temperature. At 0 Kelvin, all states below the
SA

Fermi energy are filled, and all states above are

empty.
6.1. Fermi factor: When the temperature is not at absolute zero, the material
JS

will be receiving thermal energy from surroundings. At ordinary temperature,

electrons near the Fermi Level are capable of being excited. During thermal
excitation (i.e., T >0), the electrons which absorb the thermal energy move into
higher energy levels which were unoccupied at zero degree absolute (i.e., T= 0).
Though such excitations seem to be random, the occupation of various energy
level obey a statistical distribution called Fermi-Dirac distribution, once the
system is in thermal equilibrium (i.e., at a steady temperature state). The

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Department of Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore

statistical distribution is the probability occupation of electron to a particular
energy level. It is given by
1
𝑓(𝐸) =
𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( 𝐸−𝐸𝐹
𝐾𝑇 )+1

Where f(E) is called Fermi-Dirac distribution function or Fermi factor, EF is the

Fermi energy, K is the Boltzmann constant and T is the temperature of metal
under thermal equilibrium.

e
6.2. Variation of Fermi factor with Energy and Temperature:

or
Fermi factor is the distribution function which gives the probability of
occupation of a given energy state for material in thermal equilibrium in terms
of the Fermi energy, Boltzmann constant and the temperature.

al
The dependence of Fermi factor on temperature and the effect on occupancy of
energy level is shown in Figure below

g
Let us consider the different cases of distribution
an
a.​ Probability of occupation for E < EF at T = 0
When T = 0 and E < EF
1 1
,B
𝑓(𝐸) = −∞ = 0+1
= 1
𝑒 +1

Thus, f(E) =0 at foe E<EF at T=0

TE

This implies that at absolute zero temperature,

all the energy levels below EF are 100%
occupied which is true from the definition of
SA

Fermi energy.
b.​ Probability of occupation for E > EF at
T= 0 K
JS

When T = 0, and E > EF

1 1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = ∞ = ∞+1
= ∞
= 0
𝑒 +1

This implies that at absolute zero temperature, all the energy levels above EF
are unoccupied (completely empty) which is true from the definition of Fermi
energy

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Department of Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore

 c.​ Probability of occupation for E = EF at T>0 K
When T >0, and E = EF
1 1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = 0 = 1+1
= 2
= 50%
𝑒 +1

Thus, If E < EF, the probability starts decreasing from 1 and reaches 0.5 at E =
EF and for E > EF, it further falls off as shown in figure. In conclusion, the
Fermi energy is the most probable or average energy of the electrons in a solid.

e
The above discussion on the variation f(E) with E, brings forth the point that

or
the Fermi energy is the most probable, or the average energy of the electron
across which the energy transitions occurs at temperature above zero degree

al
absolute, which result in the conductivity of the metal. This may be considered
as the physical basis for the concept of Fermi energy.

g
6. 3 Career Concentrations: The number of electrons per unit volume in a
an
given energy interval is calculated by summing the product of the density of the
state’s g(E) and the occupancy probability F(E).
,B
𝑛𝑐 = ∫ 𝑔(𝐸)𝑓(𝐸)𝑑𝐸

Substituting the values of g(E) and f(E), we get

TE

3 1
8 2π 2 2 1
𝑛𝑐 = ∫ 3 (𝑚) 𝐸 . 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 𝑑𝐸
ℎ 𝑒 𝐾𝑇
+1
For a metal at absolute zero temperature, the upper most occupied level is EF
and all the levels are completely filled below EF. Thus, for a material at
SA

absolute zero F(E) = 1.

𝐸𝐹 3 3
𝐸𝐹 3 3 𝐸𝐹 3
JS

(𝑚) 𝑥⎡⎢𝐸 2 ⎤⎥ =
8 2π 2 1/2 8 2π 2 1/2 3 8 2π 2 3 8 2π
𝑛𝑐 = ∫ 3 (𝑚) 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 = 3 (𝑚) ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 = 2 3 2 3 (𝑚) 2 𝐸𝐹 2
0 ℎ ℎ 0 ℎ ⎣ ⎦0 ℎ

This equation is used to calculate the carrier concentration in metals and

semiconductors.

7. Electrical Conductivity in the Quantum Free Electron

Theory (QFET)
Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Department of Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore
In Quantum Free Electron Theory, the expression for electrical conductivity is
derived using the Fermi–Dirac distribution instead of the classical
Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics. The conductivity of a metal is given by
2
−𝑛𝑒 τ
σ= *
𝑚

Where m∗ is the effective mass of the electron,

The crucial difference in QFET lies in the determination of n. Unlike the
classical free electron theory (CFET), which assumes that all electrons in the

e
conduction band are available for conduction, QFET recognizes that, at

or
ordinary temperatures, the electron occupation follows the Fermi–Dirac
distribution. Since the Fermi energy is typically a few electron-volts above the
conduction band minimum, and thermal energy kBT is only about 0.025 eV at

al
room temperature, only those electrons lying within an energy range of order
kBT around the Fermi level are effectively perturbed and contribute to

g
conduction.
an
This refinement explains why the actual number of conduction electrons is
much smaller than the total electron density and why conductivity does not
vary strongly with electron concentration in metals.
,B

7.1 Success of QFET

Quantum Free Electron Theory was able to successfully address the
TE

inconsistencies that the classical theory could not resolve. The main successes
are:
1.​ Specific Heat of Metals: QFET explains why the electronic contribution
SA

to the specific heat is very small compared to the classical prediction,

since only electrons near the Fermi surface can be thermally excited.​
2.​ Temperature Dependence of Conductivity: In CFET, resistivity should
JS

have been temperature-independent, which contradicts experiment.

QFET explains that with increasing temperature, the relaxation time τ
decreases due to enhanced electron–phonon scattering, leading to the
observed increase of resistivity with temperature.​
3.​ Conduction Electron Density: QFET correctly accounts for the effective
number of electrons that actually participate in conduction. The classical
assumption of all valence electrons being free is replaced with the idea of

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Department of Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore

 “active” electrons near the Fermi level.​

8. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors

A semiconductor is a
material whose electrical
conductivity lies between
that of conductors and

e
insulators, and it can be
modified significantly by

or
temperature or by the
addition of impurities.

al
An intrinsic semiconductor
is a perfectly pure semiconductor without any intentional impurity atoms.

g
Examples are pure silicon and germanium. In such a crystal, the number of
electrons in the conduction band is exactly equal to the number of holes in the
an
valence band, since both are generated in pairs when covalent bonds are
thermally broken. The carrier concentration in an intrinsic semiconductor is
given by
,B

𝑛𝑖 = 𝑛𝑝 = 𝑁𝑐𝑁𝑣 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )
−𝐸𝑔𝑔
2𝐾𝐵𝑇
TE

where Nc​ and Nv​ are the effective density of states in the conduction and
valence bands, Eg is the
bandgap energy, and kBT is
the thermal energy. The
SA

conductivity of an intrinsic
semiconductor is therefore
highly temperature-dependent
JS

and typically very low at room

temperature.
In practice, most
semiconductors are made
extrinsic by doping, i.e., by
the deliberate introduction of small amounts of impurity atoms. Doping
modifies the carrier concentration drastically. If the impurity donates extra
electrons to the conduction band, the semiconductor becomes n-type, with

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Department of Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore

electrons as majority carriers and holes as minority carriers. Conversely, if the
impurity creates empty states close to the valence band, it accepts electrons
and creates additional holes, resulting in a p-type semiconductor. In extrinsic
semiconductors, the carrier density is dominated by the dopant atoms and can
be controlled across many orders of magnitude, which makes them extremely
useful for device applications.
Thus, intrinsic semiconductors are governed only by their crystal structure
and temperature, whereas extrinsic semiconductors achieve practical

e
conductivity control through doping, forming the basis of modern electronic
devices.

or
8.1. Derivation of electron concentration in an intrinsic semiconductor:

al
Let dn be the number of electrons whose energy lies in the energy interval E
and E + dE in the conduction band. Then

g
𝑑𝑛 = 𝑔(𝐸)𝑓(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 −−−−−− (1) an
where g(E)dE is the density of states in the energy interval E and E +dE and
f(E) is the probability that a state of energy is occupied by an electron. The
electron density in the conduction band is given by integrating equation (1)
,B

between the limits Ec and ∞. Ec is the energy corresponding to the bottom edge
of the conduction band and ∞ is the energy corresponding to the top edge of
the conduction band. As the probability of electrons occupying upper levels of
TE

conduction band f(E) readily approaches zero for higher energies, the upper
limit namely the top of the conduction band is taken as ∞ . Thus
∞ ∞
SA

∫ 𝑑𝑛 = ∫ 𝑔(𝐸)𝑓(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 −−−− (2)

𝐸𝑐 𝐸𝑐

The density of states in conduction band between the energy range E and E +
dE is given by,
JS

3
1

𝑔(𝐸) =
8 2π
ℎ
3 ( )
𝑚𝑒
* 2
𝐸 2 𝑑𝐸 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐸 > 𝐸𝑐 −−−− (3)
The bottom edge of conduction band Ec corresponds to the potential energy of
an electron at rest. Therefore, (E − Ec) will be the kinetic energy of conduction
electrons at higher energy levels. Thus,
3

𝑔(𝐸) =
8 2π
ℎ
3 (𝑚 ) (𝐸 − 𝐸 )
*
𝑒
2

𝑐
1/2
𝑑𝐸 −−−− (4)

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Department of Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore

The probability of an electron occupying an energy level is given by the Fermi
distribution function.
1
𝑓(𝑒) =
1+𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( 𝐸−𝐸𝐹𝑐
𝐾𝑡 )
When the number of particles is very small compared to the available energy
levels, the probability of an energy state being occupied by more than one
electron is very small. Such a situation is valid when (E − Ef ) » 3kT. Under this
circumstance, the number of available states in the conduction band is far
larger than the number of electrons in the band. Then Fermi - Dirac function

e
can be approximated to Boltzmann function

or
𝐸−𝐸𝐹𝑐
− 𝐾𝑡
𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒 −−−− (5)
Using the equations (4) and equation (5) in equation (2), we have

al
3 ∞ 𝐸−𝐸𝐹𝑐

𝑛=
8 2π
3 (𝑚 ) * 2
(
∫ 𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 ) 1/2 −
𝑒 𝐾𝑡
𝑑𝐸 −−−−− (6)

g
ℎ 𝑒
𝐸𝑐

Since, e −(E−EF )/kT = e (EF −Ec)/kT × e −(E−Ec)/kT

an
3 ∞
𝑛=
8 2π
3 ( )
𝑚𝑒
* 2
𝑒
(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐)/𝑘𝑇
(
∫ 𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 )1/2𝑒−(𝐸−𝐸𝑐)/𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝐸 −−−−− (8)
,B
ℎ 𝐸𝑐

Let 𝑎 = 1
𝐾𝑇
and x = (E − Ec), so that dE=dx
TE

whenE=Ec, x=o
When E= ∞, x= ∞-Ec= ∞
SA

3 ∞ 𝑥

𝑛=
8 2π
ℎ
3 ( ) 𝑚𝑒
* 2
𝑒
(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐)/𝑘𝑇
∫ (𝑥)
0
1/2 −
𝑒 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 −−−−− (8)

We know the special integrant

JS

∞ 𝑥
1/2 − 𝑎 √π
∫ ( 𝑥) 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑎 √ 𝑎
−−− (9)
0

Thus, equation (9) can be given as

3 3

( ) ( )
3/2
8 2π * 2 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐)/𝑘𝑇 √π 8 2π * 2 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐)/𝑘𝑇 π (𝐾𝑇)
𝑛= 3 𝑚𝑒 𝑒 1 1 = 3 𝑚𝑒 𝑒 2
ℎ 2 𝐾𝑇 √ 𝐾𝑇 ℎ

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Department of Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore

 3/2

( )
*
2π𝑚𝑒 𝑘𝑇 −(𝐸𝐹−𝐸𝐶 )/𝑘𝑇
𝑛 =2 2 𝑒 −−−− (10)
ℎ

3/2

( )
*

Let, 𝑁𝐶 = 2
2π𝑚𝑒 𝑘𝑇
2
ℎ

−(𝐸𝐹−𝐸𝐶 )/𝑘𝑇
𝑛 = 𝑁𝐶 𝑒 −−−− (10)

e
Here Nc is temperature dependent material constant known as the effective
density of states in conduction band. In Si, at 300K, Nc = 2.8 × 1025/m3 .

or
8.2. Expression for electron and hole concentration in extrinsic
semiconductor:

al
In an n-type semiconductor, pentavalent impurities such as phosphorus or

g
arsenic introduce energy levels very close to the conduction band. These are
called donor levels (ND), because only a small thermal energy is enough to
an
excite the loosely bound fifth electron into the conduction band, thereby
donating a free electron and increasing conductivity.
,B
In a p-type semiconductor, trivalent impurities such as boron or aluminum
create energy levels just above the valence band. These are called acceptor
levels (NA), since they can accept an electron from the valence band, leaving
behind a hole which acts as the majority carrier.
TE

Thus, donor levels supply electrons while acceptor levels create holes, making
extrinsic semiconductors much more conductive than intrinsic ones.
SA

The electron concentration in n-type semiconductor is

JS

The hole concentration in P-type semiconductor is

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Department of Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore

Fermi level for intrinsic semiconductor (derivation): In an intrinsic
semiconductor, the number of electrons in the conduction band is exactly
equal to the number of holes in the valence band. To satisfy this condition, the
Fermi level lies approximately at the midpoint of the forbidden energy gap,

e
halfway between the conduction band edge Ec​ and the valence band edge Ev​.

or
This central position ensures equal probability of electron occupation in both
bands at thermal equilibrium. However, in materials where the effective masses
of electrons and holes are different, the Fermi level shifts slightly from the

al
exact mid-gap position, but it still remains close to the center.
Mathematical expression:

g
In an intrinsic semiconductor,
an
i.e., Density of electrons ( Ne ) = Density of holes ( Nh )
,B
TE
SA
JS

Taking log on both sides

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Department of Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore

 e
or
Rearrangings the terms we get

g al
an
,B
TE
SA

8.3. Fermi Level extrinsic semiconductor:

In an extrinsic semiconductor, the position of the Fermi level depends on the
JS

type and concentration of impurities introduced. In an n-type semiconductor,

donor atoms add extra electrons, raising the electron concentration in the
conduction band. As a result, the Fermi level shifts upward, lying closer to the
conduction band edge EcE_cEc​. Conversely, in a p-type semiconductor,
acceptor atoms create holes in the valence band, and the Fermi level moves
downward, lying closer to the valence band edge EvE_vEv​. The higher the
doping concentration, the nearer the Fermi level approaches the respective

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Department of Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore

band edge. At very high temperatures, however, intrinsic behavior dominates
and the Fermi level tends back toward the mid-gap position.
The Fermi Level for n-type semiconductor at T=0K:

The Fermi Level for p-type semiconductor at T=0K

e
or
g al
an
,B
TE
SA
JS

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor, Department of Physics, JSSATE, Bangalore