MODULE 3 - BASIC STRUCTURE OF COMPUTERS

(Summary Notes)

1. Functional Units of a Computer

A computer has five main functional units:
1. Input Unit: Used to enter data and instructions into the computer. Example: Keyboard, Mouse.
2. Memory Unit: Stores data, programs, and results.
- Primary memory: Fast and temporary.
- Secondary memory: Slow but permanent.
3. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): Performs arithmetic operations (add, subtract, multiply,
divide) and logic operations (AND, OR, NOT).
4. Output Unit: Displays the processed results to the user. Example: Monitor, Printer.
5. Control Unit: Controls and coordinates all other units by sending control signals.

In short: Input → gives data, Memory → stores, ALU → processes, Output → shows result, Control
Unit → controls all.

2. Basic Operational Concepts

- A computer executes instructions stored in memory.
- Each instruction has two parts:
1. Opcode – specifies the operation.
2. Operand – specifies the data or its address.
- The processor fetches, decodes, and executes each instruction.
- Example instruction: ADD LOCA, R0
1. Fetch instruction from memory.
2. Fetch operand from LOCA.
3. Add operand with R0.
4. Store result in R0.
- Important Registers:
- ALU: Performs calculations.
- PC (Program Counter): Holds address of next instruction.
- IR (Instruction Register): Holds current instruction.
- MAR (Memory Address Register): Holds memory address.
- MDR (Memory Data Register): Holds data read/written from memory.

In short: Instruction is fetched → decoded → executed → result stored → next instruction.

3. Steps to Execute an Instruction

1. PC holds address of first instruction.
2. Address is sent to MAR.
3. Control Unit sends a Read signal to memory.
4. Instruction is fetched into MDR.
5. MDR content is moved to IR.
6. IR decodes the instruction.
7. Operand address (if any) is sent to MAR.
8. Data is fetched into MDR, then to ALU.
9. ALU performs the required operation.
10. If result is to be stored, it is sent to MDR and written to memory.
11. PC increments to point to next instruction.

In short: Fetch → Decode → Execute → Store → Next instruction.

4. Bus Structure
- A Bus is a set of wires or lines that connects different parts of the computer.
- It transfers data, addresses, and control signals between CPU, memory, and I/O devices.
- It acts like a common highway for communication.

Types of Bus Structures:

1. Single Bus Structure:
- Only one bus is used for all data transfers.
- Only two devices can use the bus at a time.
- Uses control lines to manage access.
- Advantages: Low cost and easy to connect devices.

2. Multiple Bus Structure:

- Uses more than one bus for parallel operations.
- Allows multiple transfers at the same time (more speed).
- Advantages: Better performance.
- Disadvantages: Higher cost and complex design.

- Devices connected to the bus may work at different speeds, so buffer registers are used to
match their speeds.

In short: A Bus is a common path for data movement. Types – Single Bus (cheap, simple) and
Multiple Bus (fast, costly).