UNIT - IV

PROJECT MANAGEMENT RESOURCE ACTIVITIES

In Software Project Management (SPM), resource activities encompass planning,
allocation, scheduling, optimization, and tracking of resources to ensure project
success. These activities are crucial for managing people, equipment, materials,
time, and money. Effective resource management ensures efficient project
execution, on-time delivery, and budget adherence.
Resource Activities in SPM:
Resource planning
The process of determining what resources (people, tools, equipment, time, and
budget) are needed, in what quantity, and when they are required during the project
lifecycle.
Steps in Resource Planning:
1. Identify Project Activities:
o Break down the project into tasks using a Work Breakdown Structure
(WBS).
2. Estimate Resource Needs:
o Determine how many and what types of resources are needed per task.
3. Determine Resource Availability:
o Check if the needed resources are available internally or must be
acquired.
4. Assign Resources:
o Allocate specific resources to specific tasks or roles.
5. Schedule Resource Usage:
o Plan when and for how long each resource will be used.
6. Track & Adjust:
o Monitor actual usage vs. planned and make adjustments as needed.

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Resource Allocation

Resource allocation in SPM refers to the strategic assignment of available

resources to various project tasks based on task priority, resource skills,
availability, and project timeline.

Key Steps in Resource Allocation:

1. Identify Project Tasks and Requirements:

Use a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) to list all activities.

2. Define Available Resources:

Know who (human), what (tools, budget), and when (time) is available.

3. Match Resources to Tasks:

Allocate resources based on skillset, availability, and priority of tasks.

4. Schedule Resource Usage:

Determine when each resource is needed to avoid conflicts.

5. Monitor and Adjust:

Track performance and reallocate if there are delays, overloads, or

changes.

Resource Scheduling
The process of determining when and for how long each resource will be used
during the course of a project, with the goal of optimizing productivity and
minimizing delays or resource conflicts.

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Benefits of Resource Scheduling:

 Improves time management.

 Enhances resource efficiency.
 Reduces project costs.
 Prevents burnout and over-allocation.
 Makes project tracking easier.

Resource Tracking
Resource tracking in SPM involves continuously monitoring the use,
performance, and availability of resources throughout the project lifecycle to
identify issues, control costs, and optimize project execution.

 Element  What It Tracks

 Human Resources  Hours worked, task completion, workload

 Tools & Equipment  Usage, availability, downtime

 Time  Planned vs. actual task duration

 Budget  Planned vs. actual cost of resource usage

 Performance Metrics  Productivity, velocity (in Agile), delays

Balancing Workloads

Balancing workloads in SPM involves distributing project tasks evenly

among team members based on their skills, availability, and capacity, to
ensure optimal productivity and prevent burnout or delays.

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Advantages of Balancing Workloads in SPM

Advantage Description
Tasks are distributed evenly, which boosts
1. Improved Efficiency
productivity.
Prevents overworking individuals, improving team
2. Reduced Burnout
well-being.
3. Better Time
Resources are used optimally, avoiding delays.
Management
Fair distribution of work leads to higher satisfaction
4. Increased Team Morale
and motivation.
5. Improved Quality of Balanced workloads allow team members to focus
Work better, reducing errors.
6. Early Detection of Makes it easier to identify and fix overloads before
Bottlenecks they cause delays.
7. Enhanced Resource Prevents idle time and makes the most of available
Utilization skills

Disadvantages of Balancing Workloads in SPM

Disadvantage Description
Constant monitoring and adjusting of
1. Time-Consuming
workloads requires effort and time.
It becomes difficult to track and balance in
2. Complex in Large Teams
large or cross-functional teams.
3. Skill Gaps May Limit Some tasks can’t be reassigned due to skill
Flexibility specialization.
Team members might resist frequent changes
4. Resistance to Change
in task assignments.
5. Over-Focus on Balance May Trying to make workloads “perfectly balanced”
Delay Progress might waste valuable time.
Effective balancing often requires advanced
6. Tool Dependency
tools or software.

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Risk Management

The process of systematically identifying, assessing, and controlling risks

throughout the project lifecycle to minimize their impact on project
objectives.

Objectives of Risk Management

 Minimize the impact of negative risks (threats)

 Maximize the opportunity from positive risks (opportunities)
 Improve decision-making and planning
 Increase the likelihood of project success

Phases of Risk Management in SPM

1. Risk Identification
o Identify potential risks that could affect the project.
o Tools: Brainstorming, Checklists, Expert Judgment, SWOT Analysis
2. Risk Analysis
o Qualitative Analysis: Assess likelihood and impact using scales (e.g.,
High/Medium/Low)
o Quantitative Analysis: Use data or simulations to measure risk
impact (e.g., cost increase, schedule delay)
3. Risk Prioritization
o Rank risks based on their probability and impact using a Risk Matrix.
4. Risk Response Planning
o Decide how to handle each risk:
 Avoid: Eliminate the risk
 Mitigate: Reduce the likelihood or impact
 Transfer: Shift risk to another party (e.g., insurance)
 Accept: Acknowledge the risk and plan contingency
5. Risk Monitoring and Control
o Track identified risks, identify new ones, and adjust plans as needed.
o Use a Risk Register to log and update risks regularly.

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Communication and Collaboration

Communication in SPM is the process of exchanging information (written, verbal,

or digital) among stakeholders to support decision-making and project progress.
Collaboration is the act of working together effectively as a team to achieve shared
project objectives.
Why Communication and Collaboration Matter:

Benefit Description

Reduces misunderstandings about goals, tasks,

Clarity
and expectations.

Alignment Keeps stakeholders on the same page.

Faster Problem Teams resolve issues quickly through real-time

Solving communication.

Increased Reduces duplicate work and

Productivity miscommunications.

Stronger Team
Promotes trust and shared ownership of success.
Morale

ORGANIZATION FORM AND STRUCTURE

Introduction
In Software Project Management (SPM), the organization’s form and structure are
fundamental elements that define how a project is planned, executed, and controlled.
The organizational structure specifies the hierarchy, communication flow, roles, and
authority among team members and departments. A well-designed structure
enhances efficiency, accountability, and coordination, which are critical for the
success of software projects.This document explores the various organizational

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structures used in SPM, their advantages and disadvantages, the roles involved, and
practical guidance on selecting and implementing the appropriate structure to suit
different project needs.

Importance of Organization Structure in SPM

The structure of an organization impacts every phase of software development. It
influences:
 Communication flow: How information travels vertically and horizontally.
 Authority and responsibility: Who makes decisions and who executes tasks.
 Resource allocation: How human and technical resources are assigned.
 Coordination: The level of collaboration between departments and teams.
 Flexibility and adaptability: Ability to respond to project changes and
challenges.
Common Organizational Structures in Software Project Management
Functional Organization Structure
Description:
In this traditional model, the company is divided into departments based on
specialization, such as development, testing, design, and support. Each department
operates independently and reports to a functional manager.
Characteristics:
 Employees grouped by specialty.
 Project managers have limited authority.
 Vertical communication predominates.
Advantages:
 Strong specialization and skill development.
 Clear lines of authority within departments.
 Efficient use of resources within functions.
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Disadvantages:
 Poor communication between departments.
 Slow decision-making due to multiple approval layers.
 Difficulty in managing cross-functional projects.
 Project manager often acts as a coordinator rather than decision-maker.
Example:
A large software company where developers report to a development manager,
testers to a QA manager, and project managers coordinate between departments.
Projectized Organization Structure
Description:
This structure revolves around projects. Teams are formed specifically for each
project, and the project manager has full authority over resources and decision-
making.
Characteristics:
 Teams dedicated full-time to projects.
 Project managers control budget, schedule, and resources.
 Communication is primarily horizontal within project teams.
Advantages:
 Strong focus on project goals.
 Faster decision-making due to centralized authority.
 Clear accountability.
 Better team cohesion and motivation.
Disadvantages:
 Resource duplication across projects.
 Potential idle time between projects.
 Difficulties in resource sharing and long-term skill development.
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Example:
A consultancy firm that assembles dedicated teams for each client project, with
project managers fully controlling schedules and staffing.
Matrix Organization Structure
Description
Matrix structure blends functional and projectized forms. Team members report both
to functional managers (for technical skills) and project managers (for project tasks).
There are three variants: weak, balanced, and strong matrix.

PM Functional Manager
Type Characteristics
Authority Authority

Functional manager leads; PM acts

Weak Matrix Low High
more like coordinator.

Balanced Shared authority between PM and

Medium Medium
Matrix functional managers.

Strong PM has most authority; functional

High Low
Matrix managers provide support.

Advantages
 Efficient resource utilization.
 Maintains functional expertise.
 Enhances communication between departments.
 Flexibility in assigning resources.
Disadvantages
 Dual reporting can cause conflicts.
 Role confusion among team members.

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  Complex management and communication overhead.
 Requires strong negotiation skills by project managers.

Dependencies in Software Project Management (SPM)

Introduction
In Software Project Management (SPM), dependencies refer to relationships
between tasks, activities, or deliverables where one task relies on another to start or
finish. Properly identifying and managing dependencies is essential for accurate
scheduling, risk management, and smooth project execution.Understanding
dependencies helps project managers build realistic timelines, allocate resources
efficiently, and anticipate potential bottlenecks or delays.
Types of Dependencies in Software Project Management (SPM)
Dependencies in software projects define the relationships between tasks,
determining how and when tasks can be started or completed relative to one another.
Understanding these dependencies is crucial for effective scheduling, resource
management, and risk mitigation
1. Mandatory Dependencies (Hard Dependencies)
Definition
Mandatory dependencies, also known as hard dependencies, are relationships that
cannot be changed because they are dictated by the nature of the work, technical
requirements, or contractual obligations. These dependencies are essential for
logical or legal reasons.
Characteristics
 Fixed and unavoidable.
 Often related to physical or technical constraints.
 Typically, sequential—one task must finish before the next can start.
Examples
 You cannot test a software module before the module has been developed.
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  A database must be installed before the application can access it.
 Code cannot be deployed before passing quality assurance.
Implications:
 These dependencies must be respected in the project schedule.
 Ignoring them will cause project failure or rework.
 Often form the backbone of the project’s critical path.
2. Discretionary Dependencies (Soft Dependencies)
Definition
Discretionary dependencies, also known as soft dependencies or preferential
dependencies, are based on best practices, conventions, or project-specific
preferences rather than absolute technical constraints. They are often imposed by the
project team or management to optimize workflow.
Characteristics
 Flexible and can be modified or reordered.
 Based on experience or organizational standards.
 May be altered to accelerate the schedule or improve quality.
Examples
 UI design is completed before backend development to maintain clarity.
 Documentation is prepared before user training starts, though training could
begin with partial documentation.
 Developers review requirements before starting coding, though sometimes
parallel work is possible.
Implications
 Can be adjusted or removed to improve project efficiency.
 Important to document and communicate changes.
 Careful handling can shorten timelines or reduce resource conflicts.
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3. External Dependencies
Definition
External dependencies involve tasks or deliverables outside the control of the project
team. These dependencies rely on third parties, vendors, government agencies, or
other external entities.
Characteristics
 Outside direct control of the project manager.
 Often subject to uncertainties like delays or quality issues.
 Can cause project risk and require contingency planning.
Examples
 Delivery of a third-party API needed for integration.
 Approval from regulatory authorities before software release.
 Availability of hardware or cloud infrastructure from an external supplier.
Implications
 Need proactive monitoring and communication with external parties.
 Contingency plans are essential to manage risks.
 Contractual agreements or service-level agreements (SLAs) can help mitigate
risks.

4. Internal Dependencies
Definition
Internal dependencies exist within the project and are under the project team’s
control. These dependencies govern how internal tasks relate and influence each
other.

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Characteristics
 Managed by the project team.
 Result from task sequencing, resource allocation, or technical constraints.
 Can be optimized by the project manager.
Examples
 Testing depends on coding completion.
 Code review cannot start until the developer finishes coding.
 User acceptance testing depends on integration testing results.
Implications
 Can be optimized for efficiency.
 Close collaboration within the team is essential.
 Effective planning and communication help reduce delays.
5. Logical Dependencies
Definition
Logical dependencies are based on natural relationships between tasks, where one
logically precedes another. They are a subset of mandatory dependencies but focus
on cause-effect or sequential logic.
Characteristics
 Determined by the nature of the work.
 Common in sequential workflows.
 Cannot be skipped without jeopardizing project integrity.
Examples
 Design must precede development.
 Integration testing can only happen after all modules are developed.
 Deployment happens after successful testing.

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Implications
 These dependencies define the project workflow.
 Key to identifying the critical path.
 Must be carefully mapped in scheduling.
6. Resource Dependencies
Definition
Resource dependencies arise when tasks compete for limited resources such as
personnel, equipment, or tools. Tasks cannot proceed simultaneously if they require
the same constrained resource.
Characteristics
 Result from resource availability constraints.
 Can cause delays or resource bottlenecks.
 Often require careful resource leveling.
Examples
 Two coding tasks needing the same senior developer cannot run at the same
time.
 Testing requires a shared testing environment.
 Deployment depends on a limited number of system administrators.
Implications
 Require effective resource allocation and scheduling.
 May lead to re-sequencing or task delays.
 Tools like resource leveling and smoothing are essential.

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 Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a method used to solve problems and generate innovative ideas
through creative thinking. This technique involves bringing together individuals or
groups to generate a wide range of solutions or new concepts that can help a brand
or project stand out. By encouraging open and unrestricted thinking, brainstorming
creates an environment where new and creative ideas can emerge and be explored.

Importance of Brainstorming
Creates Unique Identity:
Brainstorming helps brands develop a distinct identity that sets them apart from
competitors, giving them a competitive advantage.
Effective Problem-Solving:
When a problem is too challenging for an individual, a team can combine their
unique perspectives to find the best solution.
Encourages Diverse Approaches:
The flexibility of brainstorming allows for various approaches and ideas, leading to
innovative and unique solutions.
Enhances Team Collaboration:
Fosters teamwork and collective thinking, improving overall team dynamics and
productivity.
Promotes Innovation: Encourages out-of-the-box thinking, driving fresh and
creative ideas that can propel the brand forward.

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 Improves Decision Making:
By considering multiple viewpoints, brainstorming helps in making more informed
and well-rounded decisions.
Boosts Engagement:
Engages team members by valuing their input and ideas, leading to higher morale
and motivation.
Increases Efficiency:
Rapid idea generation during brainstorming sessions saves time and accelerates the
problem-solving process.

SCHEDULING FUNDAMENTALS PERT AND CPM

PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique)
o A probabilistic technique used when activity durations are uncertain.
o Employs three time estimates for each activity: optimistic, most likely,
and pessimistic.
o Calculates an expected time for each activity using the formula:
(Optimistic + 4 * Most Likely + Pessimistic) / 6.
o Focuses on time management and identifying potential delays.
CPM (Critical Path Method)
o A deterministic technique used when activity durations are known.
o Focuses on identifying the critical path, the sequence of activities that
directly impacts the project's completion time.
o Emphasizes time-cost tradeoffs and resource optimization.

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 DIFFERENCIATE BETWEEN PERT VS CPM

LEVELING RESOURCE ASSIGNMENTS

Resource leveling in project management involves adjusting task start and end dates
to balance resource allocation and prevent over-allocation, ensuring that resources
are used effectively throughout the project.
Resource Leveling
 Balancing workloads:
Resource leveling aims to distribute work evenly among team members,
preventing some from being overloaded while others have too little to do.
 Addressing over-allocation:
It specifically tackles the issue of resources being assigned to more tasks than
they can handle within a given timeframe.

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  Optimizing resource utilization:
By leveling resources, project managers can make the most of available
resources, minimizing waste and maximizing efficiency.
 Maintaining project timelines:
Resource leveling helps avoid delays and ensures that projects stay on track
by addressing potential bottlenecks and resource conflicts.
MAP AND SCHEDULE TO A REAL CALENDER
 Buffers and contingencies can be added as per critical chain or project
buffer principles (not shown here for simplicity).
 Real-world projects often add holidays and account for resource availability
which might shift dates.
 Tools like Microsoft Project, Primavera, or online Gantt tools automate this
mapping and calendar visualization.
Schedule Tasks on Real Calendar (Excluding Weekends)

Task Start Date End Date Duration (Days)

Requirements Tue, Jul 1, 2025 Mon, Jul 7, 2025 5 (working days)

Design Tue, Jul 8, 2025 Wed, Jul 16, 2025 7 (working days)

Implementation Thu, Jul 17, 2025 Wed, Jul 30, 2025 10 (working days)

Testing Thu, Jul 31, 2025 Thu, Aug 7, 2025 6 (working days)

Deployment Fri, Aug 8, 2025 Tue, Aug 12, 2025 3 (working days)

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 CRICTICAL CHAIN SCHEDULING
WHAT IS CRICTICAL CHAIN SCHEDULING:
Critical Chain Scheduling is an advanced method for project management that
builds on the traditional Critical Path Method (CPM). It not only considers task
dependencies but also incorporates resource constraints, then adds time buffers
to protect the schedule from delays

Example Walk-Through
Imagine these tasks:
 A → B → C (critical chain)
 D → E feeds into B
 Resources shared: B & C use the same specialist
CCS Steps:
1. Identify CPM path: A–B–C.

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 2. Add resource link between B and C → defines true critical chain.
3. Remove task-level padding; compute and insert a project buffer.
4. Insert feeding buffer before B for the D–E branch.
5. Track buffer status as project proceeds; adjust if burn-rate signals risk.
Why It Works
 Reduces multitasking: Resources focus on one critical chain task at a time.
 Eliminates student syndrome: Backward scheduling fosters urgency.
 Time protection: Buffers allow flexibility without pushing deadlines.
 Early warning: Fevers charts reveal potential slippage in time to act.

CCS Element Purpose

Longest sequence considering dependencies +

Critical Chain
resources

Project Buffer Shields the final deadline

Feeding Buffer Prevents delays from non-critical paths

Resource Buffer Ensures timely resource allocation

Buffer Monitoring Tracks risk & drives proactive management

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