Chapter 1

Study of functions

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 I- Limits - asymptotes
1) When a function admits a limit, that limit is unique.
2) Here are the rules for calculating limits for algebraic expressions. The letter "a" denotes either a
real number or one of the symbols + ∞ , − ∞ .
 f ( x) 
lim f ( x ) lim g ( x ) lim  f ( x ) + g ( x )  lim  f ( x ) × g ( x )  lim  
x→a x→a x→a x→a x→a g ( x )
 
l
l l′ ≠ 0 l + l′ l + l′
l′
l≠0 0 l 0 ∞ (*)
0 0 0 0 I.F
l≠0 ∞ ∞ (*) ∞ (*) 0
∞ l'≠ 0 ∞ (*) ∞ (*) ∞ (*)
0 ∞ ∞ (*) I.F 0
∞ 0 ∞ (*) I.F ∞ (*)
+∞ +∞ +∞ +∞ I.F
−∞ −∞ −∞ +∞ I.F
+∞ −∞ I.F −∞ I.F
−∞ +∞ I.F −∞ I.F

Notes:
• (*): We apply the rules of signs to find if it is + ∞ or − ∞ .
• I.F: Indeterminate form.

3) Limits by comparison:
• If the functions f and g defined over an interval I (a ∈ I ) such that f ( x ) ≥ g ( x ) and if
lim g ( x ) = +∞ , then lim f ( x ) = +∞ .
x→a x→a

• If the functions f and g defined over an interval I (a ∈ I ) such that f ( x ) ≤ g ( x ) and if

lim g ( x ) = −∞ , then lim f ( x ) = −∞ .
x→a x→a

• If the functions f , g and h defined over an interval I ( a ∈ I ) are such that

f ( x ) < g ( x ) < h ( x ) and if lim
= f ( x ) lim
= h ( x ) l , then lim g ( x ) = l .
x→a x→a x→a

4) A polynomial function behaves at infinity like its highest degree term.

5) A rational function behaves at infinity as the ratio of its two highest degree terms.

6) Asymptotes
Let f be a function of representative curve ( C ) in an orthonormal coordinate system.
• If lim f ( x ) = +∞ or −∞ , ( C ) admits the line of equation x = a as a vertical asymptote.
x→a

• If lim f ( x ) = b (constant), ( C ) admits the line of equation y = b as a horizontal asymptote at + ∞

x →+∞
( or −∞ )

(or – ∞).
• The line ( D ) of equation =
y ax + b is an oblique asymptote to ( C ) at +∞ (or −∞ ) if
lim f ( x ) = +∞ (or −∞ ) and if lim  f ( x ) − ( ax + b )  =
0.
x →+∞ x →+∞
( or −∞ ) ( or −∞ )

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 II- Derivatives
1) Derivative number of a function at a point
a) Definition: Let f be a function of domain of definition D f and let a ∈ D f . Denote by ( C f )
 
the representative curve of f in an orthonormal coordinate system O ; i ; j . ( )
f ( x) − f (a)
• If the limit lim+ exists, we denote it by f ′r ( a ) , and we call it the derivative
x→a x−a
to the right of f at a .
f ( x) − f (a)
• If the limit lim− exists, we denote it by f ′l ( a ) , and we call it the derivative
x→a x−a
to the left of f at a .
• If f ′r ( a ) =′
f l ( a ) , we say that f is differentiable at a and we denote the derivative
number of f at a by : f ′ ( a ) =f ′r ( a ) =f ′l ( a ) .
b) Geometric interpretation of the derivative number of a function at a point a
The equation of the tangent (T ) to the representative curve ( C f ) of the function f at a point
A ( a ; f ( a ) ) is given by: (T ) : y = f ′ ( a )( x − a ) + f ( a ) .
Particular cases:
0 , then the representative curve ( C f
• If f ′ ( a ) = ) of f admits at the point A ( a ; f ( a ) ) a
horizontal tangent of equation y = y A = f ( a ) .
f ( x) − f (a)
• If lim = + ∞ or − ∞ , then f is not differentiable at a and the representative
x→a x−a
curve ( C f ) of f admits at the point A ( a ; f ( a ) ) a vertical tangent of equation =
x x=
A a.
• If f ′r ( a ) ≠ f ′l ( a ) , then f is not differentiable at a and the representative curve ( C f ) of
f admits at the point A ( a ; f ( a ) ) two semi tangents of equations:
(T1 ) : y = f ′r ( a )( x − a ) + f ( a ) and (T2 ) : y = f ′l ( a )( x − a ) + f ( a ) . The curve is said to
have an angular point at this point.
c) Property: every function differentiable at a point is continuous at that point.

2) Derivative of a function over an interval

a) Definition: A function f defined over an interval I is said to be differentiable over I , if it is
differentiable at every point of I .
b) Theorem: We admit that:
• The polynomial functions are differentiable over  .
• The rational, trigonometric functions, their sums, their differences, their products, and
their quotients, are differentiable over any interval contained within their domain of
definition.
• The irrational functions (of the form x  P ( x ) ) are differentiable over their domain of
definition, except at points that makes P ( x ) equal to zero.

3) Derivative function
If a function f is differentiable over an interval I , then for every point x of I corresponds the
derivative number f ′ ( x ) of f at x . We have thus defined a new function defined over I , denoted
f ′ and called the derivative function of f over I .
The following table summarizes the formulas for the differentiation of the usual functions.
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 U and V are two functions of x , differentiable over I , k is a constants and n a rational number.
Function f defined by f ( x ) Derivative function f ′ defined by f ′ ( x )
k 0
xn nx n −1
1 1
( x ≠ 0) − 2
x x
1
x x>0 2 x

U n ( x) nU n −1 ( x ) U ′ ( x )
1 U ′( x)
U ( x)
(U ( x ) ≠ 0 ) −
U 2 ( x)
U ′( x)
U ( x ) (U ( x ) > 0 )
2 U ( x)
U ( x) +V ( x) U ′( x) +V ′( x)
U ( x) ⋅ V ( x) U ′ ( x )V ( x ) + V ′ ( x )U ( x )
U ( x) U ′ ( x )V ( x ) − V ′ ( x )U ( x )
V ( x)
(V ( x ) ≠ 0 ) V 2 ( x)

4) Applications to derivatives
a) Sense of variation of a function
Let f be a function defined and differentiable over an interval I .
• If for every x ∈ I , f ′ ( x ) =
0 , then f is constant over I .
• If for every x ∈ I , f ′ ( x ) > 0 , then f is strictly increasing over I .
• If for every x ∈ I , f ′ ( x ) < 0 , then f is strictly decreasing over I .
b) Extremum of a function
Let f be a function defined and differentiable over an interval I .
• If f ′ ( x ) equals to zero at a point a and passing from positive to negative, then f ( a ) is a
local maximum for f .
• If f ′ ( x ) equals to zero at a point a and passing from negative to positive, then f ( a ) is a
local minimum for f .
Note: The tangent to the curve of a function f at the point where a local extremum exists is
horizontal.

III- Symmetry elements of the representative curve of a function

Let f be a function of domain of definition D f and ( C f ) its representative curve in an orthonormal
 
(
coordinate system O ; i ; j . )
1) Axis of symmetry: The curve ( C f ) admits the line of equation x = a as an axis of symmetry if
and only if:
• D f is centered at a .
• f ( 2a − x ) =f ( x ) , for every x in D f .
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2) Center of symmetry: The curve ( C f ) admits the point I ( a ; b ) as a center of symmetry if and
only if:
• D f is centered at a .
• f ( 2a − x ) + f ( x ) =
2b , for every x in D f .

Problems (recall)

x −3
1 Let f be the function defined by f ( x ) = 2
.
x −x−2
 
(
Denote by ( C ) the representative curve of f in an orthonormal coordinate system O ; i ; j . )
1) Determine the domain of definition D f of the function f .
2) Determine the limits of f at the open boundaries of D f . Deduce the existence of three asymptotes
to the curve ( C ) .
− x2 + 6x − 5
3) Justify that f ′ ( x ) = and set up the table of variations of the function f .
( x2 − x − 2)
2

4) Solve the equation f ( x ) = 0 and interpret graphically the result.

5) Draw the curve ( C ) .
6) Discuss according to the values of the real parameter m the number of solutions of the equation
( E ) : mx 2 − ( m + 1) x + 3 − 2m =0 .
1
7) Let g be the function defined by g ( x ) = .
f ( x) −1
Determine the domain of definition of g .

x2 − x −1
2 Let f be the function defined over ]−∞ ; 2[ ∪ ]2 ; + ∞[ by f ( x ) = .
x−2
 
(
Denote by ( C ) the representative curve of f in an orthonormal coordinate system O ; i ; j . )
1) Calculate lim+ f ( x ) and lim− f ( x ) , and deduce the equation of an asymptote ( d ) to ( C ) .
x→2 x→2

2) a) Calculate lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ) .

x →+∞ x →−∞

b) Prove that the line ( D ) of equation y= x + 1 is an asymptote to ( C ) at +∞ and at −∞ .

c) Study the relative position of ( C ) and the line ( D ) .
x2 − 4 x + 3
3) Justify that, for every x in ]−∞ ; 2[ ∪ ]2 ; + ∞[ , f ′ ( x ) = and set up the table of
( x − 2)
2

variations of f .
4) Show that the point I ( 2 ; 3) is a center of symmetry of the curve ( C ) .
5) Draw the lines ( d ) and ( D ) and the curve ( C ) .
6) Determine graphically, according to the values of the real number m , the number of solutions of
the equation f ( x ) = m .

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 1
7) Let g be the function defined by g ( x ) = .
f ′( x)
Determine the domain of definition of the function g .

3 The adjacent curve ( C ) is the

representative curve, in an orthonormal system
 
( O ; i ; j ) , of a function f .
The lines ( d ) and ( D ) are the asymptotes of
(C ) .
Part A
By graphical reading:
1) Determine the domain of definition D f of
the function f .
2) Determine lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ) , and
x →1 x →1
x <1 x >1

write an equation of the line ( d ) .

3) Determine: f ( 0 ) , f ( 3) , f ′ ( −1) and
f ′ ( 3) .
4) Solve each of the following inequalities:
a) f ( x ) > 0 .
b) f ( x ) ≤ 1 .
c) f ′( x) > 0 .
5) Write an equation of the line ( D ) .
6) Set up the table of variations of the function f .

Part B
b
In this part, suppose that the function f is defined by f ( x ) = ax + 1 + , where a , b and c are real
x−c
numbers.
1) Show that a = −1 , b = −4 and c = 1 .
2) Find an equation of the tangent (T ) to the curve ( C ) at its point A of abscissa 0.
1
3) Let g be the function defined by g ( x ) = . Set up the table of variations of the function g .
f ( x)

2
4 The table below is the incomplete table of variations of a function f defined by f ( x ) = x − x + b
x+a
( a and b are real numbers).

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 x –∞ 1 3 5 +∞

0 0 

1
 
(
Denote by ( C ) the representative curve of f in an orthonormal system O ; i ; j . )
1) Determine the domain of definition of f .
2) Justify that a = −3 and b = −2 .

x2 − x − 2
In the following, suppose that f ( x ) = .
x −3
1) a) Verify that the ( d ) line of the equation x = 3 is an asymptote to the curve ( C ) .
b) Calculate: lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ) .
x→ + ∞ x→ − ∞

c) Show that the line ( D ) of equation y= x + 2 is an asymptote to the curve ( C ) .

d) Study the relative position of ( C ) and the line ( D ) .
( x −1 )( x − 5) .
2) a) Show that, for every x ≠ 3 , f ′ ( x ) =
( x − 3)
2

b) Set up the table of variations of the function f .

3) Determine the abscissas of the points of intersection of the curve ( C ) with the x-axis.
4) Write an equation of the tangent (T ) to the curve ( C ) at its point of abscissa 0 .
5) Draw ( d ) , ( D ) , (T ) and the curve ( C ) .
6) Solve graphically the inequality f ( x ) > 2 .

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 IV- Continuous function over an interval
1) Definitions
Intuitive definition
A function is continuous over an interval if its representative curve can be drawn without lifting the
pencil. We say that the representative curve does not present any jumps over this interval.
Examples
It is required to study graphically the continuity of the functions f and g defined and represented
below over the interval [ −2 ; 2] by the curves ( C f ) and ( C ) respectively.
g

• The curve of the function f can be drawn without lifting the pencil, so it appears continuous over
the interval [ −2 ; 2] .
• The curve of the function g cannot be drawn without lifting the pencil, it has a jump at the point of
abscissa 1 and g is therefore not continuous over the interval [ −2 ; 2] .
However, it seems to be continuous over [ −2 ; 1] and over ]1 ; 2] .

Theoretical definition
Let f be a function defined over an interval I .
• Let a ∈ I . We say that f is continuous at a when lim f ( x ) = f ( a ) or if
x→a

lim
= f ( x ) lim
= f ( x) f (a) .
x→a+ −
x→a

• The function f is continuous over I if, for every real number a belonging to I , f is continuous
at a .

Examples

1) f is defined over  by: f ( x ) = x 3 − 3 x + 2 .

f is continuous over  .

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 − x 2 − 2 x if x ≤ −1
2) f is defined over  by: f ( x ) =  .
− x if x > −1
f is continuous at –1.
In fact:
f ( −1) =− ( −1) − 2 ( −1) =
2
1;
lim − f (=
x) lim − ( − x 2 − 2=
x ) 1;
x →( −1) x →( −1)

lim + f (=
x) lim + ( −=
x) 1 .
x →( −1) x →( −1)

Since lim − f ( x=
) lim + f ( x=
) f ( −1) therefore f is
x →( −1) x →( −1)

continuous at –1.
3 − x 2 if x ≤ 1

3) f is defined over  by: f ( x ) =  2 .
 x − 2 x + 2 if x > 1

f is not continuous at 1.
x ) lim+ ( x 2 − 2 x +=
In fact: On the one hand, lim+ f (= 2) 1 .
x →1 x →1

On the other hand, lim− f ( x )= lim− ( 3 − x 2 )= 2 .

x →1 x →1

Since lim+ f ( x ) ≠ lim− f ( x ) , therefore f is not continuous at

x →1 x →1
1, therefore f is not continuous over  .

2) Properties
Properties
• The affine functions, the polynomial functions and the square root function are continuous over
their definition set.
• The sums, products, quotients and composites of continuous functions are continuous functions
over each of the intervals forming their definition set.

Example 1
x2 − 2 x + 3
The function f , defined over ]−∞ ; 1[ ∪ ]1 ; + ∞[ by f ( x ) = , is continuous over each of
x −1
the intervals ]−∞ ; 1[ and ]1 ; + ∞[ since it’s a quotient of two polynomial functions.

Example 2
 − x + 2  if x < 3   

Consider the function f defined over  by f ( x ) =  x − 4  if 3 ≤ x < 5 .
−2 x + 13 if x ≥ 5

Is the function f continuous over  ?
The functions x  − x + 2 , x  x − 4 and x  −2 x + 13 are polynomial functions and therefore they
continuous over  .
So the function f is continuous over ]−∞ ; 3[ , over [3 ; 5[ and over [5 ; + ∞[ .
Let’s then study the continuity of f at 3 and at 5:

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lim f ( x ) =lim− ( − x + 2 ) =−3 + 2 =−1 .
x →3− x →3

lim f ( x ) =lim+ ( x − 4 ) =3 − 4 =−1 .

x →3+ x →3

f ( 3) =3 − 4 =−1 .
Then: lim
= −
f ( x ) lim
= +
f ( x ) f ( 3) .
x →3 x →3
And then the function f is continuous at 3.
lim− f ( x ) = lim− ( x − 4 ) = 5 − 4 = 1 .
x →5 x →5

lim+ f ( x ) =lim+ ( −2 x + 13) =−2 × 5 + 13 =3 .

x →5 x →5

Since lim+ f ( x ) ≠ lim− f ( x ) , then the function f

x →5 x →5
is not continuous at 5.
The function f is continuous over ]−∞ ;5[ and over [5 ; +∞[ but is not continuous over  .
By representing the function f , we can graphically observe the previous result.

Application exercises

5 For each of the functions represented below, tell on which interval(s) it is continuous.

3 + x if x ≤ −1
6 Let f be the function defined over  by: f ( x ) =  2
 x + x if x > −1
1) Represent graphically the function f .
2) Is f continuous over  ? Justify.

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 − x 2 − 2 x if x ≤ −1
7 Let f be the function defined over  by f ( x ) =  .
− x if x > −1
1) Draw the curve representing the function f in an orthonormal system.
2) Study the continuity of the function f :
a) over the interval ]−∞ ; − 1] .
b) over the interval ]−1 ; + ∞[ .
3) What can be concluded?

 x 2 + 2 x if x ≥ 1
8 1) Let f be the function defined by f ( x ) =  .
4 x − 1 if x < 1
Study the continuity and differentiability of f at 1.
ax 2 + 1 if x ≤ 2
2) Let g be the function defined by g ( x ) =  where a and b are two real numbers.
bx if x > 2
Calculate a and b so that g is continuous and differentiable at 2.

V- Image of an interval by a function

Definition
Let f be a function defined over an interval I . The image of I by f , denoted f ( I ) , is the set of all
real numbers f ( x ) with x ∈ I . We write f ( I ) = { f ( x) ∈  / x ∈ I} .
Theorem
Let f be a function defined over an interval I .
If f is continuous and strictly monotonic over I then the image of I by f , denoted f ( I ) , is an
interval of the same nature as I .

The table below summarizes the different cases according to the nature of the interval I ( a and b are
two real numbers such that a < b ).
If f is continuous and strictly increasing If f is continuous and strictly decreasing
Interval I
over I over I
I = [ a ; b] f ( I ) =  f ( a ) ; f ( b )  f ( I ) =  f ( b ) ; f ( a ) 

I = ]a ; b[ f ( I ) =  lim+ f ( x ) ; lim− f ( x )  f ( I ) =  lim− f ( x ) ; lim+ f ( x ) 

 x→a x →b   x →b x→a 
I = [ a ; b[ f ( I ) =  f ( a ) ; lim− f ( x )  f ( I ) =  lim− f ( x ) ; f ( a ) 
 x →b   x →b 
I = ]a ; b ] f ( I ) =  lim+ f ( x ) ; f ( b )  f ( I ) =  f ( b ) ; lim+ f ( x ) 
 x→a   x→a 

Example
Let f be the function defined over  by f ( x ) = x 2 − 4 x + 3 .
It is required to determine the image of each of the following intervals by f : I = [ −1 ; 0] , J = ]3 ; 5[
and K = ]−2 ; 3] .
In fact: f is continuous over  since it is a polynomial function.

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We study the sense of variations of f over  :
f is differentiable over  and f ′ ( x ) = 2 x − 4 .
Table of variations of f :
x −∞ 2 +∞
f ′( x) – 0 +
+∞ +∞
f ( x)
−1

• Over I = [ −1 ; 0] , f is continuous and strictly decreasing then= ( −1) [3 ; 8] .

f ( I )  f ( 0 ) ; f =
• Over J = ]3 ; 5[ , f is continuous and strictly increasing then
f ( J ) =lim f ( x ) ; lim f ( x )  ]0 ; 8[ .
 x →3 +
x →5 −

• Over K = ]−2 ; 3] , f is not strictly monotonic then we cut the interval K into two intervals where
the function f is strictly monotonic then we determine the image of each interval by f and the
image of K is the union of these two image intervals.
Over ]−2 ; 2] , f is continuous and strictly decreasing then
 
f ( ]−2 ; 2]) =
 f ( 2) ; [ −1 ; 15[ .
lim + f ( x )  =
 x →( −2 ) 
Over [ 2 ; 3] , f is continuous and strictly increasing then f ([ 2 ; 3]) =  f ( 2 ) ; f ( 3)  = [ −1 ; 0] .
Finally, f ( K ) = f ( ]−2 ; 2]) = [ −1 ; 15[ ∪ [ −1 ; 0] = [ −1 ; 15[ .

Application exercises

9 f is the function defined by f ( x ) = x 4 + x 2 + 1 .

3) Set up the table of variations of f .
4) Determine the image by f of each of the following intervals: I = ]−∞ ; 0]=
, J [ 0 ; +∞[ and
K= [ −1 ; 2] .

10 The table below is the table of variations of a function f defined over [ −2 ; +∞[ .
x −2 0 2 +∞
f ′( x) + 0 – 0 +
5 1
f ( x)
−2 −5
Use this table to determine the image by f of each of the following intervals: I = [ −2 ; 0] , J = ]0 ; 2[ ,
K= ]−2 ; 2] and=L [ 0 ; +∞[ .

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11 The opposite curve ( C f ) is the curve representing a
function f in an orthonormal system.
Use the curve to determine the image of each of the following
intervals by f : I = [1 ; 3] , J = ]−1 ; 1[ , K = [ −1 ; 3[ and
L= [ −2 ; 4] .

VI- Intermediate value theorem

Theorem
y

Let f be a continuous function over an interval [ a ; b ] .

For every real number k between f ( a ) and f ( b ) , the equation
f ( x ) = k admits at least one solution in the interval [ a ; b ] . k
This means that when x varies from a to b , f ( x ) takes all the a
intermediate values between f ( a ) and f ( b ) . c1 O c2 c3 b x

Solutions

Example
Consider the function f defined over  by f ( x ) =x 3 − 4 x 2 + 6 .
It is required to prove that the equation f ( x ) = 2 admits at least one solution on the interval [ −1 ; 4] .
In fact:
• f is a polynomial function so it is continuous over  and in particular over [ −1 ; 4] .
f ( −1) =( −1) − 4 ( −1) + 6 =1 < 2 and f ( 4 ) = 43 − 4 × 42 + 6 = 6 > 2 , so 2 ∈  f ( −1) ; f ( 4 )  .
3 2
•
Using the intermediate value theorem, we deduce that the equation f ( x ) = 2 admits at least one
solution on the interval [ −1 ; 4] .

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Special case of the intermediate value theorem
Let f be a continuous and strictly monotonic function over an interval [ a ; b ] .
For every real number k between f ( a ) and f ( b ) , the equation f ( x ) = k admits a unique solution in
the interval [ a ; b ] .
Case where f is strictly increasing Case where f is strictly decreasing
y y

k
k

x x
a c b O a c b
O
Unique solution
Unique solution
x a c b x a c b
f (b) f (a)
f ( x) k f ( x) k
f (a) f (b)

Consequence: Solving equations

To prove that the equation f ( x ) = 0 admits a unique solution over the interval [ a ; b ] , we prove that:
1) f is continuous over [ a ; b ] .
2) f is strictly monotonic over [ a ; b ] .
3) f changes sign over [ a ; b ] .

Example
Consider the function f defined over  by f ( x ) = x3 + x − 1 .
1) Prove that the equation f ( x ) = 0 admits a unique solution α over the interval [ 0 ; 1] .
2) Using the calculator, give a frame to the nearest hundredth of the solution α .

Solution
1) The function f is a polynomial function so it is continuous over  and in particular over the
interval [ 0 ;1] .
f ′ ( x )= 3 x 2 + 1 > 0 for every x in [ 0 ;1] .
The function f is therefore strictly increasing over the interval [ 0 ;1] .
f ( 0 ) =03 + 0 − 1 =−1 < 0 and f ( 2 ) = 13 + 1 − 1 = 1 > 0 . Then the function f changes sign over the
interval [ 0 ;1] .

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 Using the intermediate value theorem, then the equation f ( x ) = 0 admits a unique solution α on
the interval [ 0 ;1] .
2) Using the calculator, it is possible to perform successive "sweeps" increasing the precision.
The solution lies between 0.68 and 0.69.
In fact: f ( 0.68 ) ≈ −0.005 < 0 and f ( 0.69 ) ≈ 0.0185 > 0 .

Note
The intermediate value theorem can be extended to intervals of the form: ]a ; b[ , [ a ; b[ , ]a ; b ] ,
[ a ; +∞[ , ]−∞ ; b] …
Application exercises

12 Let f be the function defined by f ( x ) = x5 − 3x + 1 . Prove that the equation f ( x ) = 0 admits at

least one root between 0 and 1.

13 Let f be the function defined over  by f ( x ) = x5 + 2 x3 + 2 x + 1 .

1) Prove that the equation f ( x ) = 0 admits a unique solution α on  .
2) Justify that −0.5 < α < −0.4 .

14 We denote by f the function defined over the interval [ −10 ; 8] , whose table of variations is as
follows.
x −10 −4 5 8
f ′( x) + 0 – 0 +
10 15
f ( x)
−1 −5
Determine the number of solutions on the interval [ −10 ; 8] of each of the following equations:
1) f ( x) = 0 .
2) f ( x ) = 11 .
3) f ( x ) = −7 .

15 Consider the function f defined over  by: f ( x=

) x5 + x3 .
1) Determine the limits of f at +∞ and at −∞ .
2) Set up the table of variations of f .
3) Prove that the equation f ( x ) = 1 admits a unique solution α in  .
4) Justify that 0.836 < α < 0.838 .

16 Let f be the function defined over  by f ( x ) = 4 x3 − 3x 2 − 6 x + 2 .

1) Calculate f ′ ( x ) , study its sign and set up the table of variations of f .
2) Calculate f ( −2 ) , f ( −1) , f ( 0 ) , f (1) , f ( 2 ) and deduce that the equation 4 x 3 − 3 x 2 − 6 x + 2 =0
admits three roots α , β and γ such that: −2 < α < −1 , 0 < β < 1 and 1 < γ < 2 .

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 9 5
3) Prove that <β < .
32 16

17 Let ( E ) be the equation x3 − 2 x 2 + x =3 with x ∈  .

1) g is the function defined over  by g ( x ) =x3 − 2 x 2 + x .
Calculate g ′ ( x ) and set up the table of variations of g .
 4
2) a) Explain why the equation ( E ) has no solution in the interval  −∞ ;  .
 3
4 
b) Explain why the equation ( E ) admits a unique solution α in the interval  ; + ∞  .
3 
c) Verify that 2.17 < α < 2.18 .
VII- Concavity (convexity) of a function and second derivative
1) Convex and concave functions
Definition
Let f a function be defined over an interval I and ( C f ) be its representative curve in a coordinate
system.
• f is convex (or concave upward) over I if, • f is concave (or concave downward) over I
for every distinct points A and B of ( C f ) , if, for every distinct points A and B of ( C f ) ,
the segment [ AB ] is above the curve ( C f ) the segment [ AB ] is below the curve ( C f )
between A and B . In this case the curve between A and B . In this case the curve
( C f ) turns its concavity towards the positive ( C f ) turns its concavity towards the negative
ordinates. ordinates.

2) Inflection point of a curve

Definition

Let f be a function defined over an interval I

and ( C f ) be its representative curve in a Inflexion point
coordinate system. Let a be a point of I . We say A is convex
that the curve ( C f ) of the function f admits an
is concave
inflection point A ( a ; f ( a ) ) when f passes from
convex to concave at a and vice versa.
O a
We say that at the inflection point A the curve
( C f ) crosses its tangent (T ) . The curve ( C f ) is below the tangent (T ) at A
then above.
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3) Second derivative

Definition
Let f be a function differentiable over an interval I and f ′ be its derivative function.
The function f is two times differentiable over I if f ′ is itself differentiable over I .
We denote f ′′ the derivative of f ′ . It is called the second derivative of f .
Example
Let f be the function defined over  by f ( x ) = x3 − 2 x 2 + 3 x − 5 .
f is differentiable over  being the sum of differentiable functions over  and f ′ ( x ) = 3 x 2 − 4 x + 3 .
f ′ is differentiable over  being the sum of differentiable functions over  and ( f ′ ) ′ ( x )= 6 x − 4 .
f is therefore two times differentiable over  and its second derivative is defined by f ′′ ( x=
) 6x − 4 .
4) Second derivative and concavity (convexity)
Property
Let f be a function two times differentiable over an interval I .
• f is convex (concave upward) over I if, and only if, for every real numbers x of I , f ′′ ( x ) ≥ 0 .
• f is concave (concave downward) over I if, and only if, for every real numbers x of I ,
f ′′ ( x ) ≤ 0 .

Examples
It is required to study the concavity (convexity) It is required to study the concavity (convexity) of
of the function f defined over  by f ( x ) = x 2 . the function f defined over  by f ( x ) = − x2 + 3 .
The function f is two times differentiable over The function f is two times differentiable over  ,
 and f ′ ( x ) =
2 x and f ′′ ( x )= 2 > 0 for every −2 x and f ′′ ( x ) = −2 < 0 for every
and f ′ ( x ) =
x ∈  , so f is convex over  . x ∈  , so f is concave over  .

Property
Let f be a function two times differentiable over an interval I , ( C f ) be its representative curve in a
coordinate system and a ∈ I .
The point A ( a ; f ( a ) ) is an inflection point of ( C f ) if, and only if, f ′′ equals to zero at a and
changing its sign.

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Example
Let f be the function defined over  by f ( x ) = x 3 and
( C ) be its representative curve in a coordinate system.
f

It is required to determine the inflection point of the curve

(C f ) .
The function f is two times differentiable over  .
f ′( x) =
3 x 2 and f ′′ ( x ) = 6 x .
Sign of f ′′ ( x ) :
x −∞ 0 +∞
f ′′ ( x ) – 0 +
f ′′ ( x ) equals to zero at x = 0 changing its sign, so the
curve ( C f ) admits an inflection point with coordinates
( 0 ; f ( 0 ) ) or ( 0 ; 0 ) , so it is the origin O of the system.
We can clearly see that at the point O the curve ( C ) f

crosses the tangent which in this case is the abscissa axis.

Application exercises

18 Let f be the function defined over  by f ( x ) =

−2 x3 − 3 x 2 − 12 x + 4 and let ( C ) be its
representative curve in a coordinate system.
1) Determine the sign of f ′′ ( x ) over  .
2) Study the concavity (convexity) of f over  and specify the possible inflection points of ( C ) .

19 Let f be a function two times differentiable over  such that f ′′ ( =

x) (x 2
+ x − 2 ) ( −2 x + 1) .
2

1) Determine the sign of f ′′ ( x ) over  .

2) Study the concavity (convexity) of the function f over  and specify the abscissas of the possible
inflection points of its representative curve ( C ) .

20 Here is the table of sign of the second derivative function f ′′ of a function f two times
differentiable over the interval [ −2 ; 6] .
x −2 0 4 6
f ′′ ( x ) + 0 – 0 +
1) Study the concavity (convexity) of the function f .
2) Specify the abscissas of the possible inflection points of the curve ( C ) representing function f .

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21 The opposite curve ( C ′′ ) is the representative curve of
the function f ′′ second derivative of a function f over
the interval [ −1 ; 6] .
Tell whether each of the following statements is true or
false with justification:
1) The function f is convex over the interval [ 0 ; 1] .
2) The function f is concave over the interval [1 ; 6] .
3) The representative curve of f admits a unique inflection point.

22 The curve opposite ( C ′ ) is the representative curve of the function

f ′ the derivative of a function f over  .
Use the curve ( C ′ ) to study the concavity (convexity) of the function
f over  and to determine the possible inflection points of the curve
( C ) of f if they exist (we can set up the table of variations of the
function f ′ ).

23 In each of the following cases, study the concavity (convexity) of the function f over  and
specify the possible inflection points of its representative curve ( C ) :
2
1) f ( x ) = x 4 − 2 x 3 − 12 x 2 + 8 x + 6 2) f ( x ) = 2
.
x +2

VIII- L’Hôpital’s Rule

Property
f and g are two numerical functions differentiable over an interval I , vanishing at a point a of I
( a ) g=
( f= ( a ) 0 ) and such that: for every x in I such that x ≠ a we have g ( x ) ≠ 0 and g ′ ( x ) ≠ 0 .
We admit the following property, known as “L’Hôpital’s rule”:
f ′( x) f ( x) f ( x) f ′( x)
If lim exists, then lim exists and lim = lim .
x→a g ′ ( x ) x→a g ( x ) x→a g ( x ) x→a g ′ ( x )

Remarks
• This limit can be +∞ or −∞ .
• This rule is also applicable in the case where a is +∞ or −∞ , or when lim f ( x ) = lim g ( x ) = +∞
x→a x→a

or −∞ .
0
• We could use L’Hôpital’s rule to calculate the limits, in the case of the indeterminate forms and
0
±∞
.
±∞
0 ±∞
• If, after applying L’Hôpital’s rule, we still obtain one of the indeterminate forms or , then we
0 ±∞
could apply it successively.

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Examples
x 2 − 8 x + 16
1) It is required to calculate the limit lim .
x→4 x 2 − 16
x 2 − 8 x + 16 42 − 8 × 4 + 16 16 − 32 + 16 0
lim = = = which is an indeterminate form.
x→4 x 2 − 16 42 − 16 16 − 16 0

Using L’Hôpital’s rule: lim

x 2 − 8 x + 16
= lim
( x 2 − 8 x + 16 ) ′
= lim
2x − 8 2 × 4 − 8 0
= = = 0.
x→4 2
x − 16 x→4
( x − 16 ) ′ x→4 2 x
2
2× 4 8
2x − 3
2) It is required to calculate the limit lim .
x →+∞ x + 5

2 x − 3 2 ( +∞ ) − 3 +∞
lim
= = which is an indeterminate form.
x →+∞ x + 5 +∞ + 5 +∞
2x − 3
Using L’Hôpital’s rule: lim = lim
( 2 x=
− 3) ′
= 2.
lim
2
x →+∞ x + 5 x →+∞ ( x + 5 ) ′ x →+∞ 1

x2 + 4x + 3
3) It is required to calculate the limit lim .
x →+∞ x2 − 5
x 2 + 4 x + 3 +∞ + ∞ + 3 +∞
lim = = which is an indeterminate form.
x →+∞ x2 − 5 +∞ − 5 +∞

Using L’Hôpital’s rule: lim =

x2 + 4 x + 3
lim
( x 2 + 4 x + 3) ′
= lim
=
2 x + 4 +∞
which is also an
x →+∞ 2
x −5 x →+∞
( x − 5) ′ x→+∞ 2 x +∞
2

indeterminate form.
Applying L’Hôpital’s rule a second time we obtain:
lim
x2 + 4x + 3
= lim
( 2 x=+ 4) ′
= 1.
lim
2
x →+∞ 2
x −5 x →+∞ ( 2x)′ x →+∞ 2

Application exercises

24 By applying L’Hôpital’s rule, calculate the following limits:

x2 − 4 x +1 −1 x3 − 2 x 2 − x + 2 2 x3 + 2 x 2 + 4
1) lim 2) lim 3) lim 4) lim
x→2 x − 2 x →0 x x →1 x3 − 7 x + 6 x →+∞ x 2 + 5 x + 1

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 Problems

25 Let f be the function defined over  by f ( x ) =x3 − 3x 2 − 1 .

1) Justify that f is continuous over  .
2) Set up the table of variations of the function f .
3) Determine the image of each of the following intervals by the function f :
a) I = [ 2 ; 3] .
b) J = ]−2 ; 0[ .
c) K = [ −1 ; 3] .
d)=L [0 ; +∞[ .
4) Prove that the equation f ( x ) = 0 admits a unique solution α over  . Justify that 3.1 < α < 3.2 .
5) Determine with justification the number of solutions of the equation f ( x ) = −2 .

26 Part A
Let g be the function defined over  by g ( x ) = x3 − 3 x − 3 .
1) Calculate lim g ( x ) and lim g ( x ) .
x →+∞ x →−∞

2) Set up the table of variations of g .

3) Prove that the equation g ( x ) = 0 admits a unique solution α on  . Justify that 2.1 < α < 2.2 .
4) Study the sign of g ( x ) according to the values of x in  .

Part B
Let f be the function defined over  by f ( x ) =x 4 − 6 x 2 − 12 x + 1 .
 
Denote by ( C f ) the representative curve of ( )
f in an orthonormal system O ; i ; j .
1) Calculate lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ) .
x →−∞ x →+∞

2) Prove that, for every x in  , f ′ ( x ) =

4g ( x) .
3) Set up the table variations of f .
4) Prove that the curve ( C f ) admits two inflection points I and J whose coordinates will be
determined.
5) Find the image of each of the following intervals by the function f : K = [ 0 ; 2] , L = ]3 ; 4[ and
M
= [0 ; +∞[ (take f (α ) ≈ −31 ).

27 Part A
Let g be the function defined over  by g ( x ) = x3 + 3 x 2 + 3 x − 1 .
1) Calculate lim g ( x ) and lim g ( x ) .
x →+∞ x →−∞

2) Set up the table of variations of g .

3) Prove that the equation g ( x ) = 0 admits a unique solution α on  . Justify that 0.2 < α < 0.3 .
4) Study the sign of g ( x ) according to the values of x in  .

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Part B
x3 + 3x 2 + 3x + 2
Let f be the function defined over ]−∞ ; − 1[ ∪ ]−1 ; + ∞[ by f ( x ) = .
( x + 1)
2

 
Denote by ( C f ) the representative curve of (
f in an orthonormal system O ; i ; j . )
1) a) Calculate lim − f ( x ) and lim + f ( x ) . Interpret the result graphically.
x →( −1) x →( −1)

b) Calculate lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ) .

x →−∞ x →+∞

c) Prove that the line ( D ) with equation y= x + 1 is an oblique asymptote to ( C f ) .

d) Study the relative position of ( C f ) and ( D ) .
3
2) Justify that f (α ) = , then give a framing of f (α ) .
(α + 1)
2

g ( x)
3) Prove that, for every x in  , f ′ ( x ) = 3 .
( x + 1)
4) Set up the table of variations of the function f .
6
5) Verify that, for every x in  , f ′′ ( x ) = and study the concavity (convexity) of the
( x + 1)
4

function f . Does the curve ( C f ) have inflection point? Justify.

6) Write an equation of the tangent (T ) to ( C ) at its point of abscissa 0.
f

7) Calculate f ( −2 ) and draw the lines ( D ) and (T ) and the curve ( C ) . f

8) Discuss graphically according to the values of the real parameter m the number of solutions of the
equation f ( x ) = m .

28 Part A
Let g be the function defined over  by g ( x ) = x 3 − x 2 + 3 x + 1 .
The adjacent curve (C ′) is the curve representing the function g in an
orthonormal system.
The curve (C ′) i ntersects the x-axis at a point of abscissa α .
1) Justify that −0.3 < α < −0.2 .
2) Study the sign of g ( x ) according to the values of x in  .

Part B
x3 + x − 2
Let f be the function defined over  by f ( x ) = .
x2 + 1
Designate by ( C f ) the representative curve of f in an orthonormal
 
(
system O ; i ; j . )
1) a) Calculate lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ) .
x →−∞ x →+∞

2
b) Justify that f ( x )= x − 2 .
x +1

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 c) Prove that the line ( D ) of equation y = x is an oblique asymptote to ( C f ) .
d) Study the relative position of ( C f ) and ( D ) .
e) Justify that −2.2 < f (α ) < −2.1 .
( x + 1) g ( x ) .
2) Prove that, for every x in  , f ′ ( x ) =
( x 2 + 1)
2

3) Set up the table of variations of the function f .

4 ( −3 x 2 + 1)
4) We admit that, for every x in  , f ′′ ( x ) = . Deduce that the curve ( C f ) admits two
(x + 1)
2 3

inflection points of which the coordinates to be determined.

5) Write an equation of the tangent (T ) to ( C f ) at its point of abscissa 0. What can we say about the
lines ( D ) and (T ) ?
6) Draw the lines ( D ) and (T ) and the curve ( C f ) .
7) Discuss graphically according to the values of the real parameter m the number of solutions of the
( )
equation m x 2 + 1 + 2 =0.

29 Part A
Let g be the function defined over  by g ( x ) = x 3 + 6 x + 12 .
The following table represents the table of variations of the function g .

x −∞ +∞
g ′( x) +
+∞
g ( x)
−∞

1) Prove that the equation g ( x ) = 0 admits a unique solution α over  . Justify that
−1.48 < α < −1.47 .
2) Study the sign of g ( x ) according to the values of x in  .
Part B
x3 − 6
Let f be the function defined over  by f ( x ) = 2 .
x +2
 
Denote by ( C f ) the representative curve of f in an orthonormal system O ; i ; j . ( )
1) a) Calculate lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ) .
x →−∞ x →+∞

b) Prove that the line ( D ) with equation y = x is an oblique asymptote to ( C f ) .

c) Study the relative position of ( C f ) and ( D ) .
xg ( x )
2) Prove that, for every x in  , f ′ ( x ) = .
( x + 2)
2 2

3) Set up the table of variations of the function f .

3
4) Justify that f (α ) = α , then give a framing of f (α ) .
2

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5) Draw the straight line ( D ) and the curve ( C f ) .
6) Prove that if x ∈ [α ; 0] then −3 ≤ f ( x ) ≤ f (α ) .

30 Part A
) 9 ( x3 + x + 2 ) .
Let g be the function defined over  by g ( x=
1) Set up the table of variations of g .
2) Calculate g ( −1) and deduce the sign of g ( x ) according to the values of x in  .

Part B
x+3
Let f be the function defined over  by f ( x ) = x + 3 − .
3x 2 + 1
 
Denote by ( C f ) ( )
the representative curve of f in an orthonormal system O ; i ; j .
1) a) Calculate lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ) .
x →−∞ x →+∞

b) Prove that the line ( D ) with equation y= x + 3 is an oblique asymptote to ( C f ) .

c) Study the relative position of ( C f ) and ( D ) .
xg ( x )
2) Prove that, for every x in  , f ′ ( x ) = .
( 3x 2 + 1)
2

3) Set up the table of variations of the function f .

4) Write an equation of the tangent (T ) to ( C f ) at its point of abscissa −1 .
5) Solve in  the equation f ( x ) = 0 and interpret graphically the result.
6) Draw the lines ( D ) and (T ) and the curve ( C f ) .
7) Discuss graphically according to the values of the real parameter m the number of solutions of the
equation f ( x ) = m .

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