ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

MC1: ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

1st Semester | A.Y. 2023-2024 | BSN 1 – 1
COLLEGE OF NURSING BATCH 2027

inspiration.
OUTLINE • NASAL CAVITY - a cleaning, warming, and
I ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM humidifying chamber for inspired air.
II FUNCTIONS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM • PHARYNX - commonly called the throat, it serves as a
III ADDITIONAL FUNCTIONS OF THE RESPIRATORY shared passageway for food and air.
SYSTEM
IV OTHER FUNCTIONS • LARYNX - the voice box.
V UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT • TRACHEA - commonly known as the windpipe. An air-
VI NOSE cleaning tube to funnel inspired air to each lung.
VII FUNCTIONS OF THE NASAL CAVITY • BRONCHI - tubes that direct air into the lungs.
VIII PHARYNX • LUNGS - labyrinths of air tubes and a complex network of
IX LARYNX air sacs, called alveoli, and capillaries. Each air sac is
X TRACHEA
the site of gas exchange between the air and the blood.
XI BRONCHI
XII TRACHEOBRONCHIAL TREE • UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT - structures from the
XIII CHANGES IN AIR PASSAGEWAY DIAMETER nose to the larynx
XIV ALVEOLI • LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT - structures from the
XV RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE trachea through the alveoli in the lungs
XVI THORACIC WALL AND MUSCLES OF RESPIRATION • CONDUCTING ZONE - structures from the nose to the
XVII LUNGS
air tubes within the lungs used strictly for ventilation
XVIII PLEURAL MEMBRANES AND CAVITIES
XIX VENTILATION • RESPIRATORY ZONE - small air tubes in the lungs and
XX INSPIRATION the alveoli where gas exchange occurs
XXI EXPIRATION
XXII PULMONARY VOLUMES Figure 02. Respiratory System
XXIII PULMONARY CAPACITIES
XXIV ALVEOLAR VENTILATION
XXV LUNG RECOIL
XXVI SURFACTANT
XXVII HEMOGLOBIN

ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

• The RESPIRATORY SYSTEM consists of the structures

used to acquire O2 and remove CO2 from the blood.
• All cells in the body require O2 to synthesize the chemical
energy molecule, ATP.
• CO2 is a by-product of ATP production and must be
removed from the blood.
• Increased levels of CO2 will lower the pH of the blood.

Figure 01. Anatomy of the Respiratory System

FUNCTIONS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

• VENTILATION - breathing, the movement of air into and

out of the lungs
• EXTERNAL RESPIRATION - the exchange of O2 and
CO2 between the air in the lungs and the blood
• GAS TRANSPORT - O2 and CO2 travel in the blood to
and from cells
• INTERNAL RESPIRATION - the exchange of O2 and
CO2 between the blood and the tissues

ADDITIONAL FUNCTIONS OF THE

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
• REGULATION OF BLOOD PH - The respiratory system
can alter blood pH by changing blood CO2 levels.
• EXTERNAL NOSE - encloses the chamber for air

TRANSCRIBED BY: DIMARANAN, K.D.

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• PRODUCTION OF CHEMICAL MEDIATORS - The lungs • UVULA:

produce an enzyme called angiotensin-converting o “little grape”
enzyme (ACE), which regulates blood pressure. o extension of soft palate
• VOICE PRODUCTION - Air moving past the vocal folds • PHARYNGEAL TONSIL:
makes sound and speech possible. o aids in defending against infections

OTHER FUNCTIONS OF THE Figure 03. Nasal Cavity and Pharynx

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
• OLFACTION - The sensation of smell occurs when
airborne molecules are drawn into the nasal cavity.
• PROTECTION - The respiratory system provides
protection against some microorganisms by preventing
them from entering the body and removing them from
respiratory surfaces.

UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT

• EXTERNAL NOSE
• NASAL CAVITY
• PHARYNX
• LARYNX

NOSE
• EXTERNAL NOSE:
o composed of mainly of hyaline cartilage
• NASAL CAVITY:
o extends from nares (nostrils) to the choana which are LARYNX
the openings to pharynx • Located in the anterior throat and extends from the base
o hard palate is its roof of the tongue to the trachea
o the nasal septum divides it in half o Consists of 9 cartilages
• PARANASAL SINUSES: • THYROID CARTILAGE:
o air filled spaces within bone o largest piece of cartilage
o open into nasal cavity o called Adam’s apple
o lined with mucous • EPIGLOTTIS:
• CONCHAE: o piece of cartilage
o bony projections on each side of nasal cavity o flap that prevents swallowed materials from entering
o increase surface area of nasal cavity larynx.
o help in cleaning, humidifying, warming of air
• NASOLACRIMAL DUCTS: Figure 04. Anatomy of the Larynx
o carry tears from eyes
o open into nasal cavity

FUNCTIONS OF THE NASAL CAVITY

• SERVES AS A PASSAGEWAY FOR AIR - remains open
even when the mouth is full of food.
• CLEANS THE AIR - The nasal cavity is lined with hairs,
which trap some of the large particles of dust in the air.
• HUMIDIFIES AND WARMS THE AIR - Moisture is added
to the air as it passes through the nasal cavity.
• CONTAINS THE OLFACTORY EPITHELIUM - the
sensory organ for smell, is located in the most superior
part of the nasal cavity.
• HELPS DETERMINE VOICE SOUND - The nasal cavity
and paranasal sinuses are resonating chambers for
speech.

PHARYNX
• PHARYNX: a common passageway for the respiratory • VESTIBULAR FOLDS:
and digestive systems o false vocal cords
• NASOPHARYNX: • VOCAL FOLDS:
o takes in air o source of voice production
• OROPHARYNX: o air moves past them, they vibrate, and sound is
o extends from uvula to epiglottis produced
o takes in food, drink, and air o force of air determine loudness
• LARYNGOPHARYNX: o tension determines pitch
o extends from epiglottis to esophagus
o food and drink pass through
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Figure 05. Vestibular and Vocal Folds BRONCHI

• Divides into right and left main (primary) bronchi in
the lungs at the carina
• Lined with cilia
• Contain C-shaped pieces of cartilage

TRACHEOBRONCHIAL TREE
• Structures become smaller and more numerous from
primary bronchi to alveoli.
o Primary bronchi
• LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT o Lobar (secondary) bronchi
o Trachea o Segmental (tertiary) bronchi
o Bronchi o Bronchioles
o Tracheobronchial Tree in Lungs o Terminal bronchioles
o Alveoli o Respiratory bronchioles
o Alveolar ducts
Figure 06. Respiratory System o Alveoli

CHANGES IN AIR PASSAGEWAY DIAMETER

• BRONCHODILATION - the smooth muscle relaxes,
making the bronchiole diameter larger.
• BRONCHOCONSTRICTION - the smooth muscle
contracts, making the bronchiole diameter smaller.
• ASTHMA ATTACK - contraction of terminal bronchioles
leads to reduced air flow

ALVEOLI
• The sites of external respiration are the alveoli.
o small air-filled sacs where air and blood come into
close contact
o where gas exchange occurs
o surrounded by capillaries
o 300 million in lungs
• From the terminal bronchioles to the alveoli, there are
multiple levels of branching.
• RESPIRATORY BRONCHIOLES have a few attached
alveoli.
• ALVEOLAR DUCTS arise from the respiratory
TRACHEA bronchioles and open into alveoli.
• Windpipe • ALVEOLAR SACS are chambers connected to two or
• Consists of 16 to 20 C-shaped pieces of cartilage called more alveoli at the end.
TRACHEAL RINGS
• Lined with ciliated pseudostratified columnar Figure 08. Bronchioles and Alveoli
epithelium
• Smoking kills cilia
• Coughing dislodges materials from trachea

Figure 07. Anatomy of the Trachea and Lungs

TRANSCRIBED BY: DIMARANAN, K.D.

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RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE Figure 10. Lungs, Lung Lobes, and Bronchi

• In lungs where gas exchange between air and blood
occurs
• Formed by walls of alveoli and capillaries
• Alveolar ducts and respiratory bronchioles also contribute
• Very thin for diffusion of gases

LAYERS OF RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE

• Thin layer of fluid from alveolus
• Alveolar epithelium (simple squamous)
• Basement membrane of alveolar epithelium
• Thin interstitial space BLOOD FLOW TO LUNGS
• Basement membrane of capillary endothelium • Oxygenated blood has passed through the lungs and
• Capillary endothelium (simple squamous) picked up O2
• Deoxygenated blood has passed through the tissues and
Figure 09. Alveolus and the Respiratory Membrane released some of its O2.
• Pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood to
pulmonary capillaries.
• Blood becomes oxygenated and returns to the heart
through pulmonary veins.

LYMPHATIC SUPPLY TO THE LUNGS

• SUPERFICIAL LYMPHATIC VESSELS:
o deep to the connective tissue that surrounds each
lung
o drain lymph from the superficial lung tissue and the
visceral pleura.
• DEEP LYMPHATIC VESSELS:
o follow the bronchi
o drain lymph from the bronchi and associated
connective tissues

PLEURAL MEMBRANES AND CAVITIES

• PLEURAL CAVITY:
o space around each lung
• PLEURA:
o double-layered membrane around lungs
• PARIETAL PLEURA:
THORACIC WALL AND o membrane that lines thoracic cavity
MUSCLES OF RESPIRATION • VISCERAL PLEURA:
• The thoracic wall consists of: o membrane that covers lung’s surface
o thoracic vertebrae
o ribs Figure 11. Pleural Cavities and Membranes
o costal cartilages
o sternum
o associated muscles
• THORACIC CAVITY - the space enclosed by the thoracic
wall and the diaphragm
• DIAPHRAGM - a sheet of skeletal muscle separating the
thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity
• The diaphragm and skeletal muscles of the thoracic
wall change thoracic volume during ventilation

LUNGS
• Primary organ of respiration
• Cone shaped
• The base rests on the diaphragm
• The apex extends above the clavicle
• Right lung has 3 lobes
• Left lung has 2 lobes
• Contains many air passageways (divisions)
VENTILATION
• VENTILATION (BREATHING):
o the process of moving air in and out of the lungs
o Two aspects to ventilation:

TRANSCRIBED BY: DIMARANAN, K.D.

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▪ actions of the muscles of respiration o volume of air inspired and expired during quiet
▪ air pressure gradients breathing
• INSPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME (IRV):
MUSCLES OF RESPIRATION o volume of air that can be inspired forcefully after a
• MUSCLES OF INSPIRATION: increase the volume of the normal inspiration
thoracic cavity. • EXPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME (ERV):
o diaphragm o volume of air that can be expired forcefully after a
o external intercostals normal expiration
o pectoralis minor • RESIDUAL VOLUME (RV):
o scalene muscles o volume of air remaining in lungs after a maximal
• MUSCLES OF EXPIRATION: decrease thoracic volume expiration (can’t be measured with spirometer)
by depressing the ribs and sternum.
o internal intercostals PULMONARY CAPACITIES
o transverse thoracis • INSPIRATORY CAPACITY (IC):
o abdominal muscles o the amount of air a person can inspire maximally after
a normal expiration
QUIET VERSUS LABORED BREATHING ▪ IC = TV + IRV
• QUIET BREATHING - expiration is a passive process due • VITAL CAPACITY (VC):
to elastic tissue in the thorax wall and the lungs. o maximum amount of air a person can expire after a
maximal inspiration
• LABORED INSPIRATION - more air moves into the lungs
▪ VC = IRV + ERV + TV
because all of the inspiratory muscles are active.
• FUNCTIONAL RESIDUAL CAPACITY (FRC):
• LABORED EXPIRATION - more air moves out of the
o the amount of air remaining in the lungs at the end of
lungs due to the forceful contraction of the internal a normal expiration
intercostals and the abdominal muscles. ▪ FRC = ERV + RV
• TOTAL LUNG CAPACITY (TLC):
PRESSURE CHANGES AND AIR FLOW ▪ TLC = IRV + ERV + TV + RV
• When the volume of a container increases the air pressure
decreases. Figure 13. Respiratory Volumes and Respiratory Capacities
• When the volume of a container decreases air pressure
increases.
• Air flows from areas of high to low pressure.

INSPIRATION
• Diaphragm descends and rib cage expands
• Thoracic cavity volume increases, pressure decreases
• Atmospheric pressure is greater than alveolar pressure
• Air moves into alveoli (lungs)

EXPIRATION
• Diaphragm relaxes and rib cage recoils
• Thoracic cavity volume decreases, pressure increases
• Alveolar pressure is greater than atmospheric
pressure
• Air moves out of lungs

Figure 12. Effect of the Muscles of Respiration on Thoracic

Volume
ALVEOLAR VENTILATION
• Alveolar ventilation is the measure of the volume of air
available for gas exchange per minute.
• Only a portion of each breath reaches the alveoli for gas
exchange. The remaining area where no gas exchange
occurs is called the dead space.
• Anatomical dead space areas include all the structures
of the upper respiratory tract, and structures of the lower
respiratory tract to the terminal bronchioles.
• Physiological dead space is the combination of the
anatomical dead space and the volume of any alveoli with
lower than normal gas exchange.

PULMONARY VOLUMES
• Spirometer:
o device that measures pulmonary volumes
• Tidal volume (TV):

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Figure 14. Alveolar Pressure Changes During Inspiration and DIFFUSION THROUGH THE
Expiration RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE
• Three factors influence the rate of gas diffusion through
the respiratory membrane:
o partial pressure gradients for O2 and CO2
o thickness of the respiratory membrane
o surface area of the respiratory membrane

PARTIAL PRESSURE GRADIENTS

• Gas diffuses from a higher partial pressure on one side of
the respiratory membrane to a lower partial pressure on
the other side.
• If the partial pressure gradient of a gas is higher in the
alveolus, it will diffuse across the respiratory membrane
into the blood.
• If the partial pressure of a gas is higher in the blood, it will
diffuse across the respiratory membrane into the alveolus.

Figure 15. Gas Exchange

FACTORS AFFECTING VENTILATION

• Gender
• Age
• Body Size
• Physical Fitness

PARTIAL PRESSURE
• the pressure exerted by a specific gas in a mixture of
gases GAS EXCHANGE IN THE LUNGS
• the total atmospheric pressure of all gases at sea level is • Blood returning from tissues and entering alveoli in the
760 mm Hg lungs has a lower partial pressure of O2 and a higher
• the atmosphere is 21% O2 partial pressure of CO2 than the air in the alveoli.
• the partial pressure for O2 is 160 mm Hg • O2 diffuses from the alveoli into pulmonary capillaries
• the upper case letter P represents partial pressure of a (blood).
certain gas (Po2) • CO2 diffuses from capillaries into the alveoli.

LUNG RECOIL Figure 16. Gas Exchange in the Lungs

• is the tendency for an expanded lung to decrease in size
• occurs during quiet expiration
• is due to elastic fibers and thin film of fluid lining alveoli

SURFACTANT
• a mixture of lipoproteins
• is produced by secretory cells of the alveoli
• is a fluid layer on the surface lining the alveoli
• reduces surface tension
• keeps lungs from collapsing

PLEURAL PRESSURE
• PLEURAL PRESSURE is:
o pressure in the pleural cavity
o less than alveolar pressure
o keeps the alveoli from collapsing
• PNEUMOTHORAX
o if the thoracic wall or lung is pierced the lungs
collapse

GAS EXCHANGE IN THE TISSUES

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• Blood traveling from the lungs and through capillaries CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORT AND BLOOD PH
in the tissues has a higher partial pressure of O2 and a • CO2 diffuses from cells into capillaries
lower partial pressure of CO2 than the interstitial fluid. • CO2 enters blood and is transported in three ways:
• OXYGEN diffuses from capillaries into interstitial fluid. • 7% is dissolved in blood plasma
• CO2 diffuses from the interstitial fluid into the blood in the • 93% enters red blood cells where
capillaries. o 23% is bound to hemoglobin
o 70% is transported as bicarbonate ions
Figure 17. Gas Exchange in the Tissues • CO2 reacts with water to form carbonic acid
o CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3
• Carbonic acid dissociates into a hydrogen ion and a
bicarbonate ion
o H2CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO3-
• Carbonic anhydrase (RBC) increases rate of CO2
reacting with water
• As CO2 levels increase, blood pH decreases

REGULATION OF VENTILATION
• RESPIRATORY RATE is regulated to maintain gas
concentrations in the blood within normal limits.
• The BODY is particularly sensitive to changes in CO2
levels and blood pH.
• NEURONS IN THE MEDULLA OBLONGATA control the
rate of ventilation through stimulation of the muscles of
respiration.
• The MEDULLARY RESPIRATORY CENTER in the
medulla oblongata consists of:
o DORSAL RESPIRATORY GROUP (DRG) - most
active during inspiration
o VENTRAL RESPIRATORY GROUP (VRG) - active
during inspiration and expiration
RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE THICKNESS o VRG CONTAINS THE PRE-BÖTZINGER COMPLEX
• Increased thickness decreases rate of diffusion of gases which is believed to establish the basic rhythm of
• Pulmonary edema decreases diffusion respiration
• Rate of gas exchange is decreased • The PONTINE RESPIRATORY GROUP is a collection of
• O2 exchange is affected before CO2 because CO2 diffuse neurons in the pons that helps regulate respiration rate.
more easily than O2 • Precise function is unknown
• Some neurons are active during inspiration, some during
RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE SURFACE AREA expiration, and others during both inspiration and
• Total surface area is about 70 square meters expiration
• May be decreased due to removal of lung tissue,
destruction from cancer, emphysema, tuberculosis

O2 AND CO2 TRANSPORT IN THE BLOOD

• Once O2 and CO2 enter the blood they interact with
components that increase their solubility.
• Both O2 and CO2 are transported by the protein,
hemoglobin.
• CO2 is also transported in other ways.
• CO2 can have a dangerous impact on the blood pH.

HEMOGLOBIN
• HEMOGLOBIN is a complex protein occupying about the
one-third of the total volume of the cytoplasm of red blood
cells.
• Hemoglobin consists of four subunits, each containing
one iron-based heme group which binds O2.
• CO2 can bind to the protein portion of hemoglobin.

OXYGEN TRANSPORT IN BLOOD

• O2 diffuses through the respiratory membrane into the
blood and is transported to all the cells of the body.
• 98.5% is transported reversibly bound to hemoglobin
within red blood cells
• 1.5% is dissolved in the plasma

TRANSCRIBED BY: DIMARANAN, K.D.

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Figure 18. Respiratory Structures in the Brainstem • Increases in CO2 cause decreases in pH.
• Central chemorectors in the medulla oblongata detect
changes in CO2.
• Carotid and aortic bodies in blood vessels detect
changes in pH.
• Decreases in pH cause increases in the rate and depth of
breathing which restores CO2 and pH to normal levels.
• The Hering-Breuer reflex limits the depth of inspiration
preventing overinflation of the lungs.
• Depends on stretch receptors in the bronchi and
bronchioles.

Figure 19. Regulation of Blood pH

GENERATION OF RHYTHMIC VENTILATION

1. STARTING INSPIRATION - medullary respiratory center
establishes the basic rhythm of ventilation.
o Receives stimulation from receptors for blood gas
levels, blood temperature, movements of muscles and
joints, and emotions. Figure 20. Nervous and Chemical Mechanisms of Breathing
o Input from receptors causes action potentials that
stimulate respiratory muscles.
2. INCREASING INSPIRATION - Once inspiration begins,
more and more neurons are activated resulting in
progressively stronger stimulation of the respiratory
muscles. Lasts about 2 seconds.
3. STOPPING INSPIRATION - neurons stimulating muscles of
respiration also stimulate neurons responsible for stopping
inspiration.
o They receive input from the pontine respiratory group
and stretch receptors in the lungs.
o Inhibitory neurons inhibits respiratory muscles and
relaxe respiratory muscles.
o Results in expiration. Lasts about 3 seconds.

FACTORS AFFECTING RESPIRATORY RATE

• Decrease in Po2 (hypoxia) causes an increase in
respiratory rate.
• Increase in Pco2 (hypercapnia) causes an increase in
rate and depth of ventilation.
• Decrease in Pco2 (hypocapnia) causes a decrease in
rate of ventilation.
• Chemoreceptors in the medulla oblongata and blood
vessels near the heart respond to changes in Pco2 and
pH.

TRANSCRIBED BY: DIMARANAN, K.D.

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TRANSCRIBED BY: DIMARANAN, K.D.

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