EEE1001
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS
Module 3 – Lecture 3
Dr. Arindam Dutta
Assistant Professor
School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
VIT Bhopal
Email: arindamdutta@[Link]
Cabin: C-509
Working Principle of DC Generators
DC machines work either as a dc generator or as a dc motor. In a dc generator, a set of conductors or coils placed on a rotating
body, called armature, are rotated continuously inside a magnetic field with the help of a prime mover (prime mover is another
machine, may be a diesel engine or a turbine, which rotates the armature). The magnetic field is created by passing dc current
through the windings of a set of field magnets. When conductors pass under alternate North and South poles, alternating EMF
is induced in the armature winding. The ac generated gets converted into dc when the voltage is collected from the rotating
armature through the brush and commutator arrangement. The brush and commutator arrangement, therefore, works like a
full-wave rectifier which converts generated ac into dc for the output circuit. A dc generator, therefore, converts mechanical
energy supplied through the prime mover to electrical energy to be supplied from the generator armature to an electrical load.
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Working Principle of DC Motors
A dc motor works on the basic principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic
field it experiences a force. In a dc motor, the armature carries a number of conductors placed in slots
and the armature is placed inside the magnetic field created by field magnets. The field magnets are
excited by field current passing through them. The field windings may either be excited from a
separate dc source or could be excited from the source of supply provided to the armature. The
armature is fed from a dc supply source of V Volts as shown. The direction of current flowing through
the winding have been shown by cross ⊗ and dot ⊙. A cross indicates current flowing in the direction
perpendicular to the plane of the paper downwards and a dot indicates that current is coming towards
the observer looking into the paper.
There are six coils 1−1′, 2−2′, 3−3′, 4−4′, 5−5′, and 6−6′ placed in armature slots. Current in coil sides 1, 2, 3, etc. are shown by cross
and current at the other coil sides, i.e., 1′, 2′, 3′, etc. are shown by dots. By applying Fleming’s Left-Hand rule, it is seen that force
developed on the upper half of the armature conductors is from right to left and for the lower half of the armature conductors it is
from left to right. These forces lead to development of torque which causes rotation of the armature in the anticlockwise direction. It
may be noted carefully from the figure that as the armature rotates in the anticlockwise direction, current in the conductors of a coil
passing under the brushes would change. This will ensure that at any point of time any conductor on the upper half of the armature
will have cross current and on the lower half will have dot current. There will be continuous rotation of the armature in one direction.
The reversal of current in the coils passing under the brush is called commutation.
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Function of Brush and Commutators
The armature having the coil on it is placed in a magnetic field created by the field system as shown in Fig. (a). In Fig. (b) is shown how
current will flow from the positive polarity of the supply source through brush B′ and commutator segment C′ to coil side a′ and then to coil
side a, returning through commutator segment C and brush B to the negative terminal of the supply source. By applying Fleming’s Left Hand
rule to coil-side a′ in Fig. (b) we find that the conductor will experience an upward force whereas the coil side a will experience a downward
force. These two forces would create a torque to rotate the armature in the anticlockwise direction. After every half revolution, i.e., for every
rotation of 180° mechanical, coil side a′ along with the connected commutator segment C′ will change positions with the coil side a and the
connected commutator segment C. After half revolution it is seen that the direction of current in the coil has reversed. Earlier as in Fig. (b),
current was flowing from a′ to a and after half revolution current is flowing from a to a′ as shown in Fig. (c). Supply polarities remaining
fixed, it is seen that current in the armature coil is alternating its direction. However, the direction of the rotation of the coil, as obtained, is
unidirectional, i.e., in this case in the anti clockwise direction. The torque developed will be alternating in every half cycle thereby net torque
being zero. Thus, the function of brush and commutator in a dc motor is to produce unidirectional torque, i.e., to cause rotation of the
armature of the motor in a particular direction.
(b)
(a) (c)
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Constructional Details of DC Machine
A dc machine consists of a field system which produces the magnetic field, the armature which carries the armature
conductors placed in slots, the brush and commutator arrangement, the shaft, and the bearings.
Field System: The purpose of the field system is to produce a magnetic field inside which a set of conductors will be
rotating. The field system consist of a set of electromagnets fixed on the inside periphery of a hollow cylindrical
structure called the yoke. The field poles have field windings wound on a laminated iron core. The number of poles of a
dc machine may be two or multiples of two. A dc current supplied from a dc source magnetizes the field system.
Alternate North and South poles are formed on the basis of the direction of the current flowing through the field
windings. Small poles, called interpoles are often fixed between two main poles, particularly in case of large dc
machines. The field windings are made of thin insulated copper wire of a large number of turns. The resistance of field
winding is fairly high of the order of 100 Ω or so.
The field system creating a magnetic field when current
will flow through the field windings
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Constructional Details of DC Machine
Armature: The armature of a dc machine is built by using circular laminated sheet steel to form a cylindrical structure
with a shaft passing through its centre.
In a dc machine the field system is stationary while the armature along with the commutator is the rotating part. The
armature winding is made using a large number of coils connected in series and parallel to get the desired voltage and
current. The coils are made of insulated copper wires and are placed in a large number of armature slots. The coil ends
are connected to large number of commutator segments of the commutator. The commutator segments are insulated
from each other using some good quality thin insulating sheets like mica sheets. Carbon brushes are placed on the
commutator surface and terminals are brought out from the brushes.
Armature made of laminated sheets and the commutator assembly Laminated sheets used to make the cylindrical armature
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Constructional Details of DC Machine
The air-gap between the field poles and the armature is kept small, of the order of few mm. The commutator, like the
armature, is cylindrical in shape and is made up of a large number of wedge-shaped segments of hard drawn copper. The
fixed carbon brushes sitting on the commutator surface make slipping contacts with the armature coils via the
commutator segments either to collect current or to supply current from an external source (in case of motoring
operation). Brushes made of carbon are conducting material but softer than the hard drawn copper used in the
commutator. Brushes are placed in brush holders which are fixed with the stationary part of the machine. When the
armature rotates, the brushes and the commutator surface make constant smooth rubbing, which over a period of time
reduces the length of the brushes (due to wear and tear). There is no deterioration of the surface of the commutator due
to this rubbing action. When required, the set of brushes can be replaced by new ones.
Armature and the commutator together is made into one unit. A shaft made of mild steel runs through the armature and
comes out from both sides. Two sets of bearings are used to support the whole of the revolving system. The shaft
extension on one end is used to connect the prime mover while at the commutator end the shaft is extended for use of
the bearing. The shaft is held in position inside the stator with the help of end shields.
DC generator 7
Constructional Details of DC Machine
Armature Winding: When the armature coils rotate in the magnetic field, EMF is induced in each coil. If all the coils
are connected in series, the total EMF available will be the sum of all the EMFs in all the coils. But the current that this
winding would be able to deliver to the load will be governed by the current-carrying capacity of each of the armature
coils. If higher current is desired, the coils have to be connected in series and parallel. Thus, the armature winding will
have a set of coils connected in series in each of its parallel paths. The arrangement is exactly similar to series–parallel
connection of cells used to make a battery of certain voltage and ampere rating.
Series connection of all the armature coils
Series–parallel connection of the coils
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Constructional Details of DC Machine
Types of Armature Winding: All the coils placed in armature slots are connected together in a particular manner to
form the armature winding. Two basic types of winding connections are made. They are (i) lap winding and (ii) wave
winding. In all cases, the coil ends are connected to commutator segments. The commutator segments are, in fact,
extension of coil end connections. Brushes placed on commutator touching the commutator segments make slipping
contact with the coils. The two types of armature windings are explained below.
(a) Lap winding: Here, the end of one coil is connected to the beginning of the next coil. The number of parallel paths
formed is equal to the number of poles as the winding divides itself naturally into several parallel circuits, one for each
pole.
(b) Wave winding: The end of one coil is connected to the next coil side under the next similar poles. The winding so
formed looks like a wave, and hence the name. The number of parallel paths formed is always equal to 2 as it connects
all the coils with a clockwise current into one series path and all the coils with an anti-clockwise current into a second
series path. Note that the coils are connected to commutator segments in both types of windings.
Single Phase System
In electricity, phase refers to the distribution of a load. Single-phase system is a two-wire ac power circuit. Typically, there is
one power wire—the phase wire—and one neutral wire, with current flowing between the power wire (through the load) and
the neutral wire. In other words, one wire is for the power to go in and the other is a return path for current. Basically, current
only has one path to travel in a single-phase circuit. The circuits we have dealt with so far are single-phase circuits.
Single-phase power supplies are most commonly used when typical loads are lighting or heating, rather than large electric
motors. Therefore, residential homes are usually served by a single-phase power supply.
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Three Phase System
Generation, transmission, and distribution of electricity is done by three-phase electrical networks consisting of generators,
transformers, and transmission and distribution lines forming the power system. In a three-phase system we have three
independent voltages induced in the three windings of the generator. In fact, a three-phase system has four wires, i.e., the three
current carrying conductors and one neutral for passing the fault current to the earth. The cross-sectional area of the neutral
conductor is half of the live wire. The current in the neutral wire is equal to the sum of the line current of the three wires.
Advantages over single phase:
(i) the output electricity is more than the output of a single-phase machine of the same size;
(ii) the most commonly used three-phase induction motors are self starting. For single-phase motors a separate starting
winding is required;
(iii) power transmission is more economical than single phase power transmission;
(iv) the power factor is better than that of the single-phase systems;
(v) single-phase supply can also be obtained from a three-phase supply;
(vi) the instantaneous power in a single-phase system is fluctuating with time giving rise to noisy performance of single-phase
motors. The power output of a symmetrical three-phase system is steady;
(vii) for rectification of ac into dc, the dc output voltage becomes less fluctuating if the number of phases is increased.
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Three Phase System
Commercial generators are built to generate three-phase voltages. In three-phase generators, three separate windings are
made. Windings are made of coils. These windings are placed in stator slots at an angle of 120˚ apart. Thus, across the three-
phase windings we will get three voltages which are equal in magnitude and frequency but having a time phase difference of
120° between them.
Since the three voltages are equal in magnitude but displaced in time phase by
120˚, their phasor sum is zero.
The order in which the phase voltages attain their
maximum value or peak value, Vm is called the phase
sequence. If the rotor rotates in the clockwise direction,
voltages in the phases will be induced in the sequence, VR,
VY, VB. If the rotor poles rotate in the opposite direction
the phase sequence of the induced voltage will change
from RYB to RBY.
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Single Phase Induction Motor
Single-phase induction motors are widely used in electrical appliances and gadgets like ceiling fans, exhaust fans,
refrigerators, washing machines, etc. They require only single-phase supply to the stator. The rotor is squirrel-cage type
and does not require any supply from a separate source.
Constructional details and working principle: The stator of a single-phase induction motor has a single-phase winding
and the rotor is of squirrel-cage type. These motors do not develop starting torque unless some mechanism for starting the
motor is provided. An auxiliary winding is provided in the stator for developing starting torque. When supply from a
single-phase source is applied, current will flow through the stator winding for the instantaneous polarity of voltage. Since
the supply voltage is varying sinusoidally, the magnitude and direction of the flux produced will change. EMF will be
induced in the rotor winding. The rotor winding being a closed winding, current will flow through it. The direction of flux
produced will be such that the rotor flux will oppose the stator flux (according to Lenz’s law).
Thus, the two magnetic fields, i.e., one produced by
the stator current and the other produced by the
rotor-induced current will be aligned to each other.
The axis of the two magnetic fields will be along
the horizontal axis. Since there is no angle of non-
alignment between the two magnetic fields, no
torque will be developed and hence there will be no
rotation of the rotor. The single-phase induction
motor as such will not be self-starting. Single-phase induction motor without any starting winding 13
Single Phase Induction Motor
According to double revolving field theory an alternating magnetic field can be considered equivalent to two revolving
fields of constant magnitude (half the magnitude of the alternating field) rotating in opposite directions at synchronous
speed (speed of the revolution of the magnetic field in the stator winding of the motor). Thus, an alternating field can be
seen as a resultant of two revolving magnetic fields which will have an effect on the rotor which is placed inside that
alternating field. The component rotating fields will develop torque on the rotor due to the induction effect and the rotor
will rotate on the basis of the resultant torque developed due to these two revolving fields.
This means that when ac is applied, two half magnitude fields are produced with equal magnitudes but revolving in
opposite directions. The rotor, however, rotates in one direction due to the effect of resultant of the two torques developed
in opposite directions. So, now there is a current flowing in the stator and magnetic field revolving on the rotor, thus
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction acts on the rotor. According to this law, the revolving magnetic fields produce
electricity in the rotor which generates a force that can rotate the rotor. These motors are typically used in fans,
refrigerators, air conditioners, vacuum cleaners, washing machines, centrifugal pumps, tools, small farming
appliances, blowers etc.
Two common types:
1. Split phase: Single-phase induction motors are made self-starting by using an additional winding or starting winding
placed at an angle of 90° with the main winding in the stator. When the windings are connected in parallel to the source of
single-phase ac supply, the starting winding carries a current Ia while the main winding carries a current Im. The starting
winding is made highly resistive while the main winding highly inductive. As a result, a weak revolving field is produced
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Single Phase Induction Motor
which starts the motor. When the motor speed reaches about 80% of the synchronous speed, the motor operates as a
single-phase induction motor and continues to accelerate till it reaches the normal speed. The normal speed of the motor is
less than the synchronous speed and it depends upon the mechanical load on the shaft of the motor.
2. Shaded pole: Shaded pole-type single-phase induction motors are provided with shading rings on their poles which are
the projected type of poles. The stator of such motors have projected poles like dc machines. The poles are excited by
giving single-phase ac supply. Single-turn thick coil in the form of a ring, called the shading ring is fitted on each side of
every pole. The portion of the poles where the shading ring is fitted is called the shaded portion, while the other portion is
called the unshaded portion. When a single-phase supply is connected across the field windings an alternating current will
flow and produce an alternating flux and an EMF will be induced in the rotor conductors. Since the rotor conductors are
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Single Phase Induction Motor
connected together, current will flow through them. In every half cycle of current flow through the field winding, the
magnetic neutral axis shifts from the unshaded portion of the pole to the shaded portion. This shift of magnetic axis,
creates a torque on the rotor and the rotor starts rotating. Once the rotor starts rotating, it picks up speed and attains its full
speed.
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Three Phase Induction Motor
Here, only three-phase supply is required for the stator. No supply is to be provided to the rotor. The rotor is energized due
to electromagnetic induction. A three-phase induction motor will have three windings placed in stator slots 120° apart
connected either in star or in delta formation. Three-phase supply is provided to these three windings. Due to
electromagnetic induction, EMF will be induced into the rotor winding, and if the rotor winding is closed, current will
flow through the rotor winding. The interaction between the field produced, due to current flow in the stator windings,
when fed from a three-phase supply, and the current-carrying rotor conductors will produce a torque which will rotate the
rotor. This is the basic principle of an induction motor.
Constructional details: The main parts are the stator and the rotor. The stator is a hollow cylindrical structure while the
rotor is a solid cylindrical body which is placed inside the stator supported at the two ends by two end shields. A small air
gap is maintained between the stator and the rotor so that the rotor can rotate freely. The rotor shaft is held at the two ends
by two bearings so that the frictional loss is minimum.
The rotor is placed inside the stator. When the end shields are fitted to the stator from two sides with the rotor shaft
passing through the bearings, the rotor will rest on the bearings and the rotor will remain separated from the stator by a
small air gap. The three-phase windings are made on the stator. The windings, made of a number of coils, are placed in
slots in the stator. Three-phase winding consists of three identical windings separated from each other by 120° in space.
Phase supply can be connected to the three open terminals R, Y, B.
The rotor of an induction motor is of two types, namely, squirrel-cage type or slip-ring type. In squirrel-cage type, the
rotor winding is made of bars inserted in slots made on the rotor surface. The bars are pushed into the slots and are
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connected from both sides through conducting rings.
Three Phase Induction Motor
Extra resistance can be connected in the rotor circuit through brush and slip-ring arrangement. The rotor along with the
slip rings mounted on its shaft is free to rotate, while brushes and the extra resistance are stationary. By connecting extra
resistance in the rotor circuit during starting, very high starting torque can be developed in slip-ring motors. For squirrel-
cage rotor, it is not possible to add any extra resistance in the rotor as the circuit is closed by itself permanently and no
terminals are brought out.
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Three Phase Induction Motor
Squirrel cage type stator and rotor
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Slip ring type stator and rotor
Three Phase Induction Motor
Working principle: In a three-phase induction motor, the stator is wound with a three-phase winding for P number of
poles. The poles for which the winding is made could be 2, 4, 6, 8, … etc. The rotor which is placed inside the stator is
either squirrel-cage type or slip-ring type. In both cases, current flowing through the three-phase stator winding produces
a rotating magnetic field which will be rotating at a speed, Ns where
For a 50 Hz supply and P = 2, Ns is 3000 rpm. The rotating field will be rotating continuously at a very high speed. The
rotating flux will cut the stationary rotor windings at that speed. Due to this cutting of flux, EMF will be induced in the
rotor winding. As the rotor circuit has been made to be a closed winding, current will flow through the rotor-winding
conductors. Thus, the rotor circuit gets excited due to electromagnetic induction effect. Because of interaction between
the current-carrying rotor conductors and the rotating magnetic field, torque will be developed in the rotor, which will
rotate the rotor in the same direction as the rotating magnetic field at a speed Nr.
The rotor will attain a speed Nr which is somewhat less than the speed of the rotating magnetic field, Ns. Although the
rotor will try to attain a speed of Ns, it will never be able to attain that speed, because if it does, there will be no relative
velocity between the rotating field and the speed of the rotor, no EMF induced in the rotor, no current flow in the rotor
conductors, no torque developed, and no rotation of the rotor. That is why an induction motor cannot run at
synchronous speed, Ns as it is to be excited by electromagnetic induction, which is possible only if there exists a relative
velocity between the rotating magnetic field and the rotor.
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Three Phase Induction Motor
Slip: The difference between the speed of the rotating magnetic field, Ns and the rotor speed Nr is the slip S. Slip is
usually expressed as the percentage of Ns, thus,
Percentage slip,
Slip of a three-phase induction motor is generally 3 to 4 per cent. For example, when a 400 V, 3-ph, 50 Hz supply is
connected to a four-pole three-phase induction motor, the speed of the rotating field will be 1500 rpm. The rotor will
rotate at a speed less than 1500 rpm, may be, say 1440 rpm. In such a case slip S is
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