Problem solving Techniques

Prepared by: Er. Santosh Paudel

Short notes:
1. Impossible problems:
Impossible problems are situations or tasks that just can't be solved, no matter what you try.
Here are some examples:

1. Mathematical impossibilities: Imagine trying to divide something by zero. It's like

trying to share zero cookies among friends - it just doesn't work because there's nothing to
share. Or think about finding the square root of a negative number without using special
math tricks - it's like trying to find the height of a hole in the ground. It just doesn't make
sense in the normal world of numbers we know.

2. Logical paradoxes: These are puzzles or statements that mess with our heads because
they lead to silly contradictions. For instance, if someone says, "I always lie," are they
telling the truth or lying? It's like saying, "This sentence is false" - it makes your brain go
in circles because it's impossible to figure out if it's true or false without causing a problem.

3. Real-life impossibilities: These are things we wish we could do but are just not possible
because of how the world works. Like trying to make a machine that creates endless energy
without needing anything to run it. It would be amazing, but it goes against the rules of
how energy works in our universe. Or think about trying to draw a perfect square with the
same area as a circle using only a ruler and compass - it's like trying to fit a round peg into a square
hole. It's just not possible with the tools we have.

2. Probability:
Probability is the measure of how likely an event is to occur. It's represented by a number
between 0 and 1, where 0 means the event is impossible, and 1 means it's certain to happen.

Formula: P(A) = Number of favorable outcomes(m)/ Total number of outcomes(n)

1. Simple Events: These are basic events with only one outcome, like flipping a coin and
getting heads or tails.

3. Compound Event: These involve more than one event happening, like rolling a dice
twice and getting a specific number each time.

Formula: P (A and B) = P(A) × P(B)

4. Addition Rule: This rule helps find the probability of either of two events happening.
 Formula: P (A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B)

5. Expected Value: This is the average outcome we expect to see over many trials,
considering the probabilities of each outcome.

Formula: E(X) = Σ (x * P(x)), where x represents each outcome and P(x) is the probability
of that outcome.
3. Use of Geometry in Computers:
Geometry plays a crucial role in computer science and graphics. It helps computers
understand and represent shapes, positions, and movements in both two-dimensional (2D)
and three-dimensional (3D) spaces.
Applications:
Computer Graphics: Geometry is fundamental in creating images, animations, and visual
effects in computer graphics. Geometric primitives like points, lines, and shapes are used
to represent objects on the screen. By manipulating these geometric entities, computers can
render realistic scenes in video games, movies, and virtual reality environments.
Computer-Aided Design (CAD): Geometry is used extensively in CAD software for
designing buildings, machinery, automobiles, and other objects. Engineers and architects
rely on geometric modeling to create precise 3D models, analyze structures, and simulate
real-world conditions before manufacturing or construction.
Computer Vision: Geometry helps computers understand and interpret visual data from
images and videos. Techniques such as geometric transformations, perspective projection,
and 3D reconstruction enable computers to extract information about objects' shapes, sizes,
and positions, leading to applications like object recognition, augmented reality, and
autonomous vehicles.
Geometric Algorithms: Many algorithms in computer science involve geometric concepts
and operations. For example, geometric algorithms are used in computational geometry for
solving problems related to convex hulls, triangulations, intersection detection, and spatial
partitioning. These algorithms are applied in various fields such as robotics, geographic
information systems (GIS), and computational biology.
Simulation and Modeling: Geometry is essential for simulating physical phenomena and
modeling complex systems. Finite element analysis (FEA) and computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) simulations rely on geometric meshes to discretize and analyze physical
domains. Geometric modeling techniques also play a vital role in generating realistic
simulations for training AI models, predicting outcomes, and optimizing designs.
4. Use of problem solving techniques in computer/IT
fields/ Application of PST in programming:
The use of problem-solving techniques in computer/IT fields:
Debugging and Troubleshooting: Used to fix errors and issues in software, hardware, and
networks.
Algorithm Design and Optimization: Creating efficient algorithms for tasks like sorting and
data analysis.
System Architecture and Design: Designing reliable and secure computer systems and
networks.
Cybersecurity and Threat Analysis: Identifying and preventing cyber threats and attacks.
Data Analysis and Decision Making: Extracting insights from large datasets for informed
decisions.
Software Development and Project Management: Delivering high-quality software products
efficiently.
Innovation and Research: Driving innovation and pushing the boundaries of technology.

5. Magic square:
Definition: Imagine a grid of numbers arranged in a square shape. In a magic square, if you add
up the numbers in any row, column, or diagonal, they all equal the same number.
Properties: All the rows, columns, and diagonals in a magic square add up to the same number.
We call this number the "magic constant."
Historical Significance: People have been fascinated by magic squares for a long time! They're
like ancient puzzles that have been around for thousands of years. Different cultures, like China
and India, have used them and found them interesting.
Types: Magic squares come in different sizes and shapes. Some have an odd number of rows and
columns, while others have even numbers. There are different rules depending on the size and
shape.
Construction: There are cool tricks and methods to make magic squares. Some methods involve
following specific patterns, while others use math to calculate the numbers. For example, there's
the Siamese method, where you fill in the numbers in a specific order, and other methods based
on mathematical techniques.

6. Need of Problem Solving techniques:

Problem solving techniques are like tools we use when we face difficulties or challenges. They
help us find solutions to problems in a smart and efficient way.
Why do we need them?
To Solve Problems Faster: These techniques help us solve problems quickly so we can move
forward without wasting time.
To Come Up with New Ideas: They encourage us to think in different ways, which can lead to
fresh and creative solutions to problems.
To Make Better Choices: Using problem-solving techniques helps us make smarter decisions by
considering all the options and their consequences.
To Resolve Conflicts: When there's a disagreement or argument, these techniques can help us find
a solution that everyone can agree on.
To Keep Improving: By using problem-solving techniques regularly, we can keep getting better
at solving problems and making things work more smoothly.
To Be Ready for Challenges: Life is full of surprises, and problem-solving techniques help us
handle whatever comes our way with confidence.

7. Use of logic in river crossing problems:

Use of Logic in River Crossing Problems:
Understanding the Puzzle: River crossing problems are like fun puzzles where you have to figure out how
to get people, animals, or things across a river safely.
Thinking Carefully: Logic means thinking carefully and using your brain to solve problems. In river
crossing puzzles, you have to think logically to figure out who can go across the river together and who
needs to stay behind.
Following Rules: These puzzles have rules, like how many people can be in the boat at once or who can't
be left alone together. You use logic to figure out how to follow these rules and still solve the puzzle.
Trying Different Options: Logic helps you try different options and eliminate the ones that don't work.
By thinking logically, you can narrow down the possibilities and find the best solution.
Learning and Fun: Solving river crossing puzzles is a great way to learn how to think logically. It's like a
fun game that helps you exercise your brain and become better at solving problems.

8. Classical Planar Geometry:

Introduction: Classical geometry is about studying shapes like points, lines, and angles in two-
dimensional space, like on a flat piece of paper. It’s all about understanding simple things like
points (dots), lines (straight paths), and angles (how much things turn).
Shapes and Stuff: We also look at different shapes, like triangles, squares, circles, and how they're
made up of sides and angles.
Proving Things: In geometry, we prove things using logic and reasons. If we say something is
true, we need to show why it's true with good explanations.
Where We Use It: We see geometry everywhere, from designing buildings and bridges to making
art and patterns. It helps us understand how things fit together and look.
From Way Back When: People have been studying geometry for a really long time, even back
in ancient times like Ancient Greece. They figured out a lot of the important ideas we still use
today.

9. Use of crypto arithmetic problems:

Crypto arithmetic Problems:
What are They?
Crypto arithmetic problems are like word puzzles where letters represent digits, and you have to
figure out what each letter stands for to make a correct math equation.
Example: For example, in a problem like "SEND + MORE = MONEY," each letter represents a
digit, and you need to find the unique digits that make the equation true.
Logical Thinking: Solving these puzzles requires logical thinking and trial-and-error. You try
different combinations until you find the right one that makes the equation work.
No Guessing: You can't just guess randomly; you have to use logic to eliminate wrong possibilities
and narrow down the options until you find the correct solution.
Educational and Fun: Crypto arithmetic problems are a great way to exercise your brain and
improve logical reasoning skills.

10. Proof by contradiction:

Proof by contradiction is a method in math where you assume the opposite of what you
want to prove and then show that this assumption leads to a contradiction, proving that the
original statement must be true.
Example: give example of there are infinitely many prime numbers in the world.

11. Voting methods in real life:

What are They?
Voting methods are ways people decide things together, like choosing a leader or picking a favorite movie.
Different Ways: There are different methods for voting, like "majority wins" where the option with the
most votes wins, or "ranked choice" where voters list their choices in order of preference.
Majority Wins: In this method, the option with the most votes wins, even if it's not everyone's favorite.
It's like when a group picks pizza toppings, and the topping with the most votes gets chosen.
Ranked Choice: With this method, voters rank their choices in order of preference. If no option gets a
majority, the least favorite is eliminated, and their votes go to the next choice on each voter's list until one
option gets a majority.
Fairness and Representation: Different methods have pros and cons. Some focus on getting the most
popular choice, while others aim for more fairness and representation of everyone's preferences.
Used Everywhere: Voting methods are used in many places, from picking leaders in countries to choosing
names for new pets. They help groups make decisions together in a fair and organized way.

12. Use of problem solving Techniques in real life:

problem-solving techniques applied in real life:

Finding Lost Items: Imagine you've misplaced your keys at home. Problem-solving involves
retracing your steps, checking common spots like tables or hooks, and thinking about where you
last had them to locate them efficiently.
Meal Planning: When deciding what to cook for dinner with limited ingredients, problem-solving
helps you brainstorm recipes based on what's available, consider dietary preferences or restrictions,
and choose a meal that satisfies everyone.
Budgeting Finances: Suppose you receive your monthly paycheck and need to allocate funds for
various expenses. Problem-solving entails listing all expenses, prioritizing essential bills like rent
or utilities, and finding ways to save or cut back on non-essential spending.
Fixing a Leaky Faucet: If your bathroom faucet is leaking, problem-solving involves identifying
the source of the leak, perhaps by inspecting the faucet or pipes, researching common causes
online, and either fixing it yourself or calling a plumber if needed.
Planning a Trip: When organizing a family vacation, problem-solving helps you consider factors
like budget, destination preferences, and available time off work. It involves researching travel
options, comparing prices, and creating an itinerary that suits everyone's interests.
Resolving a Misunderstanding: Suppose you have a disagreement with a friend over a
misunderstanding. Problem-solving entails calmly discussing the issue, listening to each other's
perspectives, and finding common ground to resolve the conflict amicably.
Dealing with a Traffic Jam: If you encounter heavy traffic on your commute, problem-solving
involves considering alternative routes, using navigation apps to check for traffic updates, and
adapting your travel plans to minimize delays.
Organizing a Cluttered Space: When tackling a messy room, problem-solving means breaking
down the task into smaller steps, such as sorting items into categories, deciding what to keep,
donate, or discard, and finding storage solutions to maintain tidiness.
Managing Time for Studying: If you have an upcoming exam and limited study time, problem-
solving entails creating a study schedule, prioritizing topics based on importance or difficulty, and
using study techniques like flashcards or practice tests to maximize efficiency.
Handling a Customer Complaint: Suppose you work in customer service and receive a
complaint about a product or service. Problem-solving involves listening to the customer's
concerns, empathizing with their experience, and finding a satisfactory solution, such as offering
a refund or replacement.