NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

UNIVERSITY VILLAGE, PLOT 91 CADASTRAL ZONE

NNAMDI AZIKIWE EXPRESSWAY, JABI, ABUJA
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION

2019_2 QUESTION

COURSE CODE: MAC311

COURSE TITLE: INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION &WORLD
MEDIA SYSTEM
UNIT: 3
TIME: 3 HOURS

INSTRUCTION: ANSWER QUESTION ONE AND ANY OTHER THREE

1. The concept of Global Village illustrates that people of the world are
linked together through instantaneous communication. Based on the
concept and with not less than five (5) points, discuss the essence
of international communication. (25 Marks)

2. Highlight any three (3) popular international film industries and

discuss the influence of each on the promotion of international
communication and cultural integration. (15 Marks)

3. Identify and discuss at least five (5) of the unique characteristics of

international communication. (15 Marks)

4. It is assumed that ownership structure of international media

dictates the flow of global information and communication pattern.
Based on this assumption, discuss the three (3) major ownership
structures of international media and how each influences global
information flow. (15 Marks)

5. Information has been defined as the major commodity in the

international media market.
a. With appropriate diagrams, illustrate the two (2) major
international information flows you know. (5 Marks)
b. Discuss at least five (5) inherent characteristics of each of the
two (2) major international information flows you identified in
(a). (10 Marks)
 6. Highlight and discuss five (5) major sources of international news. (15 Marks)

1. Pan-African News Agency (PANA) was established on May 25, 1983 to serve as a
means of freeing Africa from information colonisation by the Europeans.
Buttress this assertion with five (5) well-developed points. (25 marks)
 Countering foreign propaganda and distortion. Before PANA, African media
relied heavily on European agencies and so Africans often received news shaped by
Western interests and frames. PANA was created to rewrite and correct distorted
portrayals of Africa and to provide African perspectives on events affecting the
continent.
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 Political instrument for African unity and independence. PANA was set up as an
intergovernmental, politically-oriented institution whose editorial policy and
leadership are influenced by member states. That makes it a vehicle for promoting
African political aspirations (unity, independence, solidarity) rather than serving
external political agendas.
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 Promotion of development-oriented information. One of PANA’s goals was to free
African information flows from imperialist domination so that news could be used to
promote social, economic and cultural development across member states (for
example, to support NWICO-type goals). This shifts reporting from merely serving
foreign markets to serving African development needs.
 Build and strengthen African news infrastructure. PANA was intended to support
and develop national news agencies, create data banks/archives for African news, and
facilitate exchange among African media — reducing dependence on external wire
services and improving local capacity.
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 Provide an African news network and tailored services. PANA’s organization
(contributions by member states, shared control) allowed it to operate archives, offer
tailored services (e.g., intranet/internet gateways, training) and coordinate continental
coverage — all designed to ensure African stories were collected, framed and
distributed from African vantage points.
 2. Explain in detail the three types of news flow and recommend appropriate
information flow for developing countries. (15 marks)
 Vertical news flow (master–servant pattern).
o Definition & features: News flows primarily from powerful (usually Western)
countries/media to less-privileged countries. The powerful producers largely
set the agenda; voices are unequally represented; coverage is skewed,
imbalanced, often propagandistic, with under- or over-reporting. There are two
sub-forms: top-down (powerful → less privileged) and bottom-up (less
privileged → powerful, but this is difficult and often ineffective).
o Implication: This disadvantages developing countries because their
perspectives, priorities and successes are marginalized.
 Horizontal news flow.
o Definition & features: News exchange between parties of roughly equal
power/ability — countries and media share and receive information on an
even playing field. Representation is more balanced; less skewing and
propaganda; less cultural dominance; more reciprocal exchange.
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 Horizontal/vertical (mixed) news flow.
o Definition & features: A hybrid between the two above: some balance is
attempted, but remnants of vertical dominance remain. In practice this may
slightly improve visibility for developing countries but often still leaves them
under-represented or negatively framed.
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Recommendation for developing countries:
Developing countries should aim for horizontal news flow as the ideal, because it offers
equality of voice, less biased framing, and reciprocal coverage. Practically, they should work
to strengthen national news agencies, support regional agency cooperation (e.g., PANA),
develop local correspondents and digital platforms, and pursue partnerships that increase
mutually respectful exchange — while also seeking a pragmatic blend (horizontal/vertical)
where necessary to access wider distribution but without surrendering editorial control.

3a) What is the concept of international news source? (3 marks)

  Simple definition: An international news source is any avenue or origin through which
international news items are generated, authenticated and supplied to media that serve
audiences beyond national borders. Local or national sources can also act as
international sources when their information becomes of international interest.
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3b) List six (6) forms of international news sources. (12 marks)
From the textbook, six common forms are:
1. Government sources (official releases, communiqués, bilateral documents).
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2. International news correspondents / foreign correspondents (staff, adjuncts,
freelancers covering regions).
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3. Internet / interconnectivity (online reports, social media, web wire services —
immediate but credibility varies).
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4. Local and national media (used by international outlets to verify or enrich
coverage).
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5. Eyewitnesses and onlookers / interviewees (first-hand testimony, experts
interviewed).
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6. Victims and physical remnants (survivors, material evidence, battlefield remnants
used to authenticate events).
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4. Discuss three (3) basic things that make an international station. (15 marks)
The course identifies three core criteria for a station to be considered international:
1. Output must not be culturally bound.
o International media must produce content with cross-cultural appeal and
relevance; content should not be narrowly tied to one local culture’s tastes.
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2. Network / coverage must not be regionally bound.
 o The station must have distribution reach that crosses regional boundaries
(satellite, cable, online distribution) so messages can be received
internationally rather than being limited to a local or regional audience.
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3. Language must not be locally limited.
o Use of international languages (e.g., English, French, Arabic) or multilingual
services enables access by global audiences. If language is restricted to a local
dialect, the outlet cannot serve an international audience effectively.
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(Each of these three factors is necessary — if coverage is global but content is deeply
parochial or the language excludes international audiences, the outlet will struggle to be
genuinely international.)
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5. Discuss exhaustively five (5) basic ways that international media can be
controlled. (15 marks)
The MAC311 text groups media control into internal and external forms and lists multiple
mechanisms. Five key ways (with explanation) are:
1. Ownership / internal (financial) control.
o Who owns the media strongly influences content: large conglomerates,
oligopolies and owners can shape editorial priorities to protect business or
political interests. Ownership concentration reduces pluralism and can lead to
subtle (or overt) self-censorship.
2. Government control and regulation (external).
o Governments can control media through state ownership, licensing, legal
restrictions, denial of licenses, administrative harassment, or selective
advertising that signals which outlets are favoured. State broadcasters can
ignore topics or shape coverage to fit official narratives.
3. Advertisers’ (market) control.
o Media reliant on advertising revenue may avoid stories that upset major
advertisers. Financial dependence on ad income creates pressure to shape
content to be attractive to sponsors rather than purely to public interest.
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 4. Legal and institutional control (laws, international bodies, licensing).
o Laws (libel, broadcasting regulation, airwave allocation), international
agreements and regulatory bodies affect what can be broadcast/published,
where, and how. International organizations can influence media reach and
operating rules (for example in cross-border broadcasting).
5. Audience and market competition control.
o Audiences ‘vote with their feet’ — media tailor content to audience tastes
(audience control). Competition from leading global outlets sets standards and
influences the editorial choices of smaller or developing outlets (competitors’
control). Both forces can narrow the diversity of reporting or push outlets
toward sensational/marketable framing.
Note on classification: the book groups controls as internal (ownership, staff/management
practices) and external (government, advertisers, legal frameworks, international
organizations, audience/market forces). Use of these mechanisms often overlaps (e.g., owners
use legal/market levers), and the result is that editorial independence can be compromised in
multiple, sometimes subtle ways.

1. Pan-African News Agency (PANA) and Information Colonisation (25 Marks)

The Pan-African News Agency (PANA) was established on May 25, 1983 to free Africa
from European information domination. It was part of Africa’s effort to achieve
independence not only politically, but also in the control of news and information.
Below are five points that support this assertion:
1. To Correct Western Media Distortion:
Before PANA, most African news came from European agencies like Reuters and
AFP. These agencies often reported Africa negatively or from a colonial point of
view. PANA was established to project African stories from African perspectives and
correct such distortions.
2. To Promote African Unity and Self-Reliance:
PANA was designed as a political instrument for African integration. It allowed
African countries to share information among themselves, strengthening unity and
cooperation without depending on foreign media.
3. To Support Development Communication:
PANA’s goal was not just to report events, but to promote Africa’s social, economic,
 and cultural development. It encouraged reporting that would educate, inform, and
mobilize Africans toward progress.
4. To Strengthen African Media Infrastructure:
The agency worked to build strong national news agencies and data networks within
Africa. This reduced dependence on Western news sources and improved the
continent’s capacity to gather and distribute its own information.
5. To Create a True African News Network:
PANA served as a link between African nations, exchanging stories and providing
training for journalists. This ensured that African issues were reported from African
viewpoints rather than foreign interpretations.

2. Types of News Flow and Recommended Flow for Developing Countries (15 Marks)
News flow refers to how information moves between countries or regions. There are three
main types of news flow:
1. Vertical News Flow:
o This is a one-way flow from powerful countries to weaker ones.
o Western countries dominate, while developing nations only receive
information.
o It creates imbalance because the developing world’s stories are underreported
or misrepresented.
o Example: CNN or BBC broadcasting about Africa without African input.
2. Horizontal News Flow:
o Here, information flows between countries on equal footing.
o There is fairness, balanced reporting, and mutual respect in coverage.
o No region dominates another; every country contributes and receives equally.
3. Mixed (Vertical/Horizontal) Flow:
o This is a combination of both.
o Although there is some exchange, powerful countries still control the main
flow of information.
o Developing nations are only partly represented.
Recommended Flow for Developing Countries:
Developing countries like those in Africa should promote horizontal news flow. This will
allow fair exchange of information, eliminate dependency on Western media, and ensure that
African realities are accurately reported. Agencies like PANA can help achieve this balance.

3a. Concept of International News Source (3 Marks)

An international news source refers to any channel or origin through which international
news is obtained. It includes individuals, organizations, or systems that provide news about
events happening beyond national boundaries.
In simple terms, it is where journalists get information about world events.

3b. Forms of International News Sources (12 Marks)

1. Government Sources:
o Official statements, press releases, and communiqués from governments.
o Examples: UN briefings, US State Department releases.
2. Foreign Correspondents:
o Journalists or reporters stationed in foreign countries who send reports home.
3. Internet Sources:
o Websites, social media, and online news platforms that provide instant global
information.
4. Local and National Media:
o Reports from national newspapers or TV stations that are later used by
international media.
5. Eyewitnesses and Interviewees:
o People who directly witnessed or experienced an event and give first-hand
information.
6. Victims and Physical Evidence:
o Survivors or materials from an event (e.g., war or disaster) that help confirm
facts.

4. Basic Things That Make an International Station (15 Marks)

For a media station to be called international, it must have the following features:
1. Output Not Culturally Bound:
o Its programmes and news must appeal to a global audience and not just one
culture.
 o Example: CNN covers issues from many regions and avoids only American
content.
2. Wide Network Coverage:
o It must have broadcasting or distribution reach beyond its home country
through satellite, cable, or the internet.
3. Use of International Languages:
o It should communicate in languages understood globally (e.g., English,
French, Arabic).
o This helps in reaching audiences across many countries.
When these three conditions are met, a station can truly be regarded as an international
station.

5. Ways International Media Can Be Controlled (15 Marks)

Media control refers to the ways media content can be influenced or restricted by various
forces.
Below are five major ways international media can be controlled:
1. Ownership Control:
o Owners determine what is published or aired.
o When few corporations own many media outlets, they can shape public
opinion and suppress opposing voices.
2. Government Control:
o Governments can regulate media through licensing, censorship, or national
laws.
o They may close down stations or restrict coverage that goes against their
interests.
3. Advertisers’ Influence:
o Since media depend on advertisements for income, they may avoid publishing
stories that could offend sponsors.
4. Legal and Institutional Control:
o Laws such as libel, copyright, and broadcasting rules can be used to restrict
media freedom.
o International organizations can also impose media regulations.
5. Audience and Market Control:
 o The taste and preferences of the audience influence what media produce.
o Stations compete for ratings and may adjust their content to attract viewership
rather than inform objectively.
In summary:
Media control can be internal (ownership, management) or external (government,
advertisers, audience). Understanding these controls helps journalists protect press freedom
and maintain ethical reporting.

1. The Essence of International Communication (25 Marks)

The concept of the Global Village, introduced by Marshall McLuhan, shows that modern
communication technologies have made the world interconnected — information now travels
instantly across borders, making the entire world operate like a single community.
The essence of international communication can be explained in the following points:
1. Promotes Global Understanding and Peace:
International communication helps people understand the cultures, values, and
lifestyles of others. This understanding reduces prejudice, promotes tolerance, and
encourages peaceful coexistence among nations.
2. Facilitates International Trade and Diplomacy:
Through communication channels such as international news agencies, diplomatic
networks, and global media, countries share economic and political information
needed for trade agreements and diplomatic relations.
3. Encourages Cultural Exchange and Integration:
Music, films, sports, and global media allow people to experience other cultures. This
promotes cross-cultural appreciation and helps build unity despite diversity.
4. Spreads Knowledge and Technology:
Modern communication networks make it easy to share scientific and technological
discoveries around the world, thus improving development and innovation, especially
in developing nations.
5. Enhances Crisis Management and Global Awareness:
During global challenges such as pandemics, wars, or natural disasters, international
communication enables quick information sharing and coordinated responses among
countries.
 6. Supports Global Journalism and Media Cooperation:
Journalists exchange news and data across continents through international news
agencies, ensuring that information circulates globally and reaches wider audiences.

2. Three Popular International Film Industries and Their Influence (15 Marks)
Film is a major tool of international communication and cultural integration. The three most
popular international film industries are Hollywood, Bollywood, and Nollywood.
1. Hollywood (United States):
o It is the largest and most influential film industry in the world.
o Hollywood promotes Western culture, lifestyle, and ideologies globally.
o Through global distribution, it spreads American values of freedom,
democracy, and individualism.
o Its global reach contributes to cultural integration but sometimes results in
Western cultural dominance.
2. Bollywood (India):
o Known for colorful music, dance, and emotional storytelling.
o Bollywood films promote Indian culture, traditions, and values across Asia,
Africa, and the Middle East.
o It strengthens cultural pride among Indians abroad and enhances mutual
understanding between India and other nations.
3. Nollywood (Nigeria):
o Africa’s biggest film industry and one of the world’s largest by production
volume.
o Nollywood promotes African stories, values, and traditions through locally
inspired narratives.
o It has improved Africa’s image internationally and enhanced cultural
exchange between Africa and the world.
In summary, these industries promote international communication by using films to share
cultural experiences, values, and social issues across borders.

3. Unique Characteristics of International Communication (15 Marks)

International communication has unique features that distinguish it from national or local
communication. Five of these characteristics include:
 1. Cross-Border Nature:
It takes place across countries and continents, connecting people beyond their national
boundaries.
2. Dependence on Technology:
It relies heavily on modern technologies such as satellites, the internet, and global
broadcasting systems for information transmission.
3. Cultural Diversity:
It involves communication among people of different languages, traditions, and belief
systems. Thus, messages must be tailored to suit diverse audiences.
4. Political and Economic Influence:
International communication often reflects the political and economic power of the
countries involved, especially in the control of global media systems.
5. Information Imbalance:
There is unequal flow of information where developed countries dominate news
production, leading to a one-way flow from the developed to developing nations.
6. Regulation and Diplomacy:
It is often guided by international laws, treaties, and organizations like the United
Nations or UNESCO to prevent misuse and promote fairness.

4. Ownership Structures of International Media and Their Influence (15 Marks)

The ownership structure of international media plays a major role in determining the pattern
of global information flow. There are three major ownership structures:
1. Private Ownership:
o Owned by individuals, groups, or corporations.
o Their main motive is profit, so they often produce entertainment-oriented
content to attract global audiences.
o Example: CNN, BBC, and Al Jazeera.
o Influence: Private ownership promotes freedom of expression but can also
create bias due to commercial interests.
2. State (Government) Ownership:
o Operated and funded by governments to promote national interest and foreign
policy goals.
 o Example: China Global Television Network (CGTN), Voice of America
(VOA).
o Influence: Such media often project their country’s political ideologies or
foreign policies, leading to controlled or propagandist reporting.
3. Mixed Ownership:
o Combination of private and public (state) ownership.
o Balances public interest with profit motives.
o Influence: Mixed ownership allows both national representation and global
competitiveness, reducing excessive bias.
Conclusion:
Ownership determines which stories are told, how they are told, and who controls the global
information narrative.

5a. Two Major International Information Flows (With Diagrams) (5 Marks)

The two major international information flows are:
1. Vertical Information Flow
2. Horizontal Information Flow
(i) Vertical Flow Diagram
Developed Nations (Global North)
↓
Developing Nations (Global South)
 This flow is one-way, from powerful Western countries to less-developed countries.
(ii) Horizontal Flow Diagram
Country A ↔ Country B ↔ Country C
↕ ↕ ↕
Balanced Exchange of Information
 This flow is two-way, based on equality and mutual exchange.

5b. Characteristics of Each Information Flow (10 Marks)

(i) Vertical Information Flow:
1. One-way and imbalanced.
2. Controlled by developed countries.
3. Developing countries are mostly receivers, not contributors.
 4. Creates cultural domination and dependency.
5. Encourages Western propaganda and underrepresentation of the developing world.
(ii) Horizontal Information Flow:
1. Balanced and reciprocal.
2. Encourages cooperation and equal representation.
3. Promotes cultural exchange and understanding.
4. Reduces information monopoly.
5. Encourages partnerships among developing countries for fair media coverage.

6. Major Sources of International News (15 Marks)

The main sources of international news include:
1. International News Agencies:
Examples include Reuters (UK), Agence France Presse (AFP – France), Associated
Press (AP – USA). They gather and distribute news to media organizations globally.
2. Foreign Correspondents:
Journalists who live or work in foreign countries and report events directly to their
home news organizations.
3. Government and Diplomatic Sources:
Information from government press briefings, embassies, and international
organizations like the UN or WHO.
4. The Internet and Social Media:
Platforms like Twitter, Facebook, and online news websites now serve as instant
sources of global news.
5. International Broadcast Media:
Global television and radio stations such as CNN, BBC, and Al Jazeera that report
events worldwide.
6. Eyewitnesses and Freelancers:
Individuals who witness events and share first-hand information through interviews or
personal footage.
1. Pan-African News Agency (PANA) and Information Colonisation (25 Marks)
The Pan-African News Agency (PANA) was established on May 25, 1983 by the
Organisation of African Unity (OAU), now the African Union (AU).
It was created to free Africa from information colonisation, a situation where Western
media dominated the flow of news about Africa, often presenting biased or negative stories.
Below are five well-developed points to support this purpose:
1. To Counter Western Media Bias:
Before PANA, Africa depended heavily on Western news agencies like Reuters, AFP,
and AP. These agencies reported African stories from a colonial and negative
viewpoint.
PANA was established to correct this imbalance and present African news from
African perspectives.
2. To Promote African Unity and Development:
PANA aimed to connect African countries through information sharing, thereby
promoting unity, cooperation, and a sense of common identity among African nations.
3. To Build Independent African Media Systems:
The agency helped strengthen national news agencies and encouraged collaboration
among African journalists.
This reduced Africa’s dependency on Western media and built local journalistic
capacity.
4. To Encourage Positive Image of Africa:
PANA’s mission was to highlight Africa’s achievements and potentials rather than
focusing only on wars, famine, and corruption as Western media often did.
It sought to promote a balanced and realistic picture of Africa to the world.
 5. To Support the New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO):
PANA was part of Africa’s contribution to global efforts for fairer information flow.
It promoted equality in global communication and gave developing nations a stronger
voice in world media.

2. Types of News Flow and Recommendation for Developing Countries (15 Marks)
News flow refers to the direction and pattern through which information moves between
countries or regions.
There are three major types of news flow:
1. Vertical News Flow:
o This is a one-way flow from powerful countries (mostly developed nations) to
less powerful or developing countries.
o It creates information imbalance, where developing nations mainly receive
news instead of producing it.
o Example: CNN or BBC reporting about Africa without African perspectives.
2. Horizontal News Flow:
o This is an equal exchange of news between countries of similar status or
regions.
o It ensures balance and fairness in information exchange, reducing domination
by any country.
o Example: News exchange between African or Asian countries.
3. Mixed (Vertical/Horizontal) Flow:
o This combines both vertical and horizontal patterns.
o While there is some cooperation, developed countries still have more control
over information flow.
Recommendation for Developing Countries:
Developing nations should promote horizontal news flow because it encourages equality,
fair representation, and cultural exchange.
Through agencies like PANA, developing countries can share their own news, strengthen
their media systems, and reduce dependence on Western media.

3a. Concept of International News Source (3 Marks)

An international news source refers to any person, organization, or system that provides
information about events or issues occurring beyond national borders.
It is the origin from which journalists or media houses obtain global news stories.
In simple terms, it is where international news comes from.

3b. Forms of International News Sources (12 Marks)

Below are six forms of international news sources:
1. Government and Diplomatic Sources:
o Includes official statements, press releases, or reports from governments,
embassies, and international organizations like the UN or WHO.
2. International News Agencies:
o Examples include Reuters (UK), Associated Press (USA), and Agence France
Presse (France).
o They gather and distribute world news to media organizations.
3. Foreign Correspondents:
o Journalists stationed in foreign countries who send reports to their home media
organizations.
4. Internet and Social Media:
o Online platforms such as news websites, Twitter, and Facebook now provide
instant access to global information.
5. Local and National Media:
o Local newspapers, radio, and TV stations serve as sources for international
news when their reports are picked up globally.
6. Eyewitnesses and Victims:
o Individuals who directly witness or experience events like wars, disasters, or
protests often serve as credible news sources.

4. Basic Things That Make an International Station (15 Marks)

For a broadcasting station or media outlet to qualify as an international station, it must
possess the following characteristics:
1. Global Content and Audience:
o Its programmes and reports must appeal to audiences across the world, not
limited to a single culture or region.
 o Example: CNN covers global politics, economy, and culture, not just
American issues.
2. Wide and Unrestricted Coverage:
o It must have international reach through satellite, cable, or online platforms,
allowing global accessibility.
o Example: BBC World Service broadcasts in many countries.
3. Use of International Languages:
o It must communicate in widely understood languages such as English, French,
or Arabic.
o This ensures people from different countries can access and understand the
content.
When a station meets these three conditions, it qualifies as an international broadcaster.

5. Basic Ways International Media Can Be Controlled (15 Marks)

International media are powerful but can also be influenced or controlled in several ways.
Here are five major methods of control:
1. Ownership Control:
o The owners of media companies influence what is published or aired.
o When a few corporations own many global media outlets, they can determine
what information circulates worldwide.
o Example: The Murdoch Media Group influences global news through Fox
News and The Times.
2. Government Control:
o Governments regulate media through censorship, licensing, or funding.
o Some states use media as a propaganda tool to promote national interests or
suppress opposing views.
3. Advertisers’ Influence:
o Since media rely on advertising for revenue, they may avoid publishing news
that could offend advertisers or sponsors.
o This creates subtle but strong economic control over content.
4. Legal and Institutional Control:
 o Media can be controlled through laws (e.g., defamation, copyright, or
broadcasting laws) and by international organizations that regulate information
exchange.
5. Audience and Market Control:
o Media content is often shaped by audience preferences and market
competition.
o Stations may produce sensational or entertaining stories to attract large
audiences and maintain profit, rather than focusing on serious journalism.
Conclusion:
Media control can be internal (ownership and management) or external (government,
advertisers, legal systems).
Understanding these controls helps journalists maintain professional integrity and defend
press freedom.

1. Ten Common Adjectives Used with the Word ‘Communication’ (25 Marks)
Communication is a universal process of sharing information, ideas, and meanings. Over
time, scholars have used different adjectives to describe its types, forms, and nature.
Below are ten common adjectives often used with the word communication:
1. Verbal Communication – Communication through spoken or written words.
2. Non-Verbal Communication – Communication through facial expressions, gestures,
posture, or body language.
3. Interpersonal Communication – Direct, face-to-face interaction between two or
more people.
4. Intrapersonal Communication – Communication that occurs within an individual’s
mind (self-talk or reflection).
5. Group Communication – Interaction and sharing of information among members of
a small group.
6. Mass Communication – Transmission of information to large, diverse audiences
through media such as TV, radio, or newspapers.
7. Organizational Communication – Communication that takes place within or
between organizations to achieve goals.
8. Intercultural Communication – Communication between people from different
cultural backgrounds.
 9. International Communication – Exchange of information between nations across
borders.
10. Digital Communication – Use of modern technology and the internet for interaction
(e.g., social media, emails).

2. Five Characteristics of International Communication (According to Fortner, 1993)

(15 Marks)
Fortner (1993) summarized five key characteristics of international communication as
follows:
1. Cross-Border Nature:
It takes place across national boundaries, linking people and institutions of different
countries.
2. Dependence on Technology:
It relies on advanced technology like satellites, the internet, and global broadcasting to
share messages worldwide.
3. Influence of Politics and Economy:
International communication is shaped by the political and economic interests of
nations, especially powerful countries.
4. Cultural Diversity:
It involves people of different cultural backgrounds; hence, messages must consider
cultural differences and sensitivities.
5. Information Imbalance:
Developed nations dominate global information flow, resulting in unequal
representation of developing countries in world news.

3. Importance of Books in International Communication

a) Five Examples of Academic Books (5 Marks)
1. Textbooks
2. Encyclopedias
3. Academic Journals (Bound volumes)
4. Research Monographs
5. Conference Proceedings or Edited Volumes

b) Three Roles of Books in International Communication (10 Marks)

 1. Preservation and Transfer of Knowledge:
Books store ideas, theories, and research findings that are shared globally, helping
nations exchange intellectual and cultural knowledge.
2. Promotion of Cultural Understanding:
Through books, people learn about other societies’ cultures, values, and histories,
thereby reducing ignorance and promoting respect.
3. Educational Development and Global Literacy:
Books serve as major tools in global education. They help students and researchers
across countries acquire knowledge, develop new ideas, and solve world problems
collectively.

4. The Film Industry

a) Components of the Film Industry (5 Marks)
1. Production:
The stage where the film is created — includes scripting, directing, shooting, and
editing.
2. Distribution:
Involves making the film available to the public through cinema release, TV, DVD, or
online platforms.
3. Exhibition:
The process of showing the film to audiences, such as in cinemas or streaming
services.
4. Marketing and Promotion:
Activities like advertising, social media campaigns, and press releases to attract
viewers.
5. Financing:
The funding and investment that make film production possible.

b) Two Reasons for the Early Development of the Film Industry (10 Marks)
1. Technological Advancement:
The invention of motion picture cameras and projectors in the late 19th century made
it possible to record and display moving images, giving birth to the film industry.
 2. Human Desire for Entertainment and Storytelling:
People have always loved visual storytelling. Film became a new and exciting way to
entertain, educate, and communicate messages to mass audiences.

5. Definition of New Media by Lev Manovich (2002) (15 Marks)

Lev Manovich (2002) described new media using five simple and concise propositions.
These propositions highlight how digital media differ from traditional forms:
1. Numerical Representation:
All new media objects are represented in digital form — as numbers or binary codes
— which makes them easy to store, copy, and modify.
2. Modularity:
New media content is made up of separate elements (texts, images, videos, sounds)
that can be combined and rearranged easily.
3. Automation:
Many processes in new media (like editing, filtering, or design) can be done
automatically by computers without much human intervention.
4. Variability:
New media allow for many different versions of the same content — for example,
websites or games can change depending on the user’s preference or device.
5. Transcoding:
New media translate information from one format to another — for instance, a photo
can become a video slide or a digital artwork due to its coded nature.
In summary:
Manovich defines new media as digital, flexible, and interactive forms of communication
powered by technology and computerization.

6. History of Nollywood Film Industry in Nigeria (15 Marks)

The Nollywood film industry refers to Nigeria’s movie industry, which is one of the largest
in the world in terms of volume of production.
Its history can be traced through the following key points:
1. Early Beginnings (Colonial Period):
The introduction of film to Nigeria came during colonial times when British
missionaries and colonial officers used film for education and propaganda.
 2. Post-Independence Development (1960s–1970s):
After independence, Nigerian filmmakers began producing locally themed movies,
such as Kongi’s Harvest and Things Fall Apart, which reflected African identity and
culture.
3. The Birth of Nollywood (1990s):
Nollywood officially started in 1992 with the release of Living in Bondage, a home
video by Kenneth Nnebue.
This film marked the shift from celluloid film to low-budget video production,
making filmmaking affordable and accessible.
4. Expansion and Global Recognition (2000s–Present):
Nollywood grew rapidly with the help of digital technology and the internet. Nigerian
movies began to appear on satellite TV and streaming platforms like Netflix.
Today, Nollywood is globally recognized for promoting African culture, fashion, and
storytelling.
Conclusion:
Nollywood has transformed from a local video industry into a global force that shapes
Africa’s image and contributes significantly to Nigeria’s economy.

1. Five Characteristics of International Communication According to Fortner (1993) (25

Marks)
Introduction:
Fortner (1993) described international communication as the process through which
information, ideas, and values move across national borders. He outlined five major
characteristics that define how international communication operates in the modern world.
1. Cross-Border Flow of Information:
International communication crosses geographical and political boundaries.
It involves communication between people, governments, and organizations in different
countries.
Example: News from CNN in the U.S. being broadcast in Nigeria.

2. Dependence on Advanced Technology:

It relies heavily on modern technologies like satellites, the internet, and digital networks.
Without these technologies, global communication would not be instantaneous.
Example: Live coverage of global events through satellite broadcasting or social media
platforms like X (Twitter).

3. Cultural Diversity and Exchange:

International communication involves people from different cultural, religious, and linguistic
backgrounds.
Messages must therefore respect cultural differences to avoid misunderstanding.
Example: Advertisements by global brands like Coca-Cola are adapted to different cultures.

4. Political and Economic Influence:

The flow of international information is often shaped by the political and economic power of
nations.
Developed countries dominate global communication, while developing nations mostly
receive their content.
Example: Western dominance through media like BBC, CNN, and Reuters.

5. Information Imbalance:
There is unequal flow of information between developed and developing nations.
Western countries control most international news agencies, resulting in biased and one-sided
reporting about Africa and other developing regions.
Example: More negative stories about Africa in Western media compared to its
achievements.

Conclusion:
Fortner’s characteristics show that international communication is complex, shaped by
culture, technology, and global power relations. It highlights the need for balance and fairness
in global information exchange.

2. Components of Communication (15 Marks)

Introduction:
Communication is a process that involves several key components working together to
achieve understanding between sender and receiver.
Five major components are explained below:
1. Source (Sender):
The sender is the originator of the message.
It could be a person, group, or organization.
Example: A teacher (sender) giving a lecture to students.

2. Message:
This is the information, idea, or feeling the sender wants to communicate.
It could be spoken words, written text, gestures, or symbols.
Example: A news headline or a social media post.

3. Channel (Medium):
The channel is the means or pathway through which the message is transmitted.
Example: Radio, television, newspaper, email, or face-to-face conversation.

4. Receiver:
The person or group who receives and interprets the message.
Example: The audience watching a television programme.

5. Feedback:
Feedback is the response or reaction of the receiver to the sender’s message.
It shows whether the message was understood or not.
Example: Asking a question after a lecture or clicking the “like” button online.

Conclusion:
These components must function together for communication to be effective. If any
component is missing or weak, communication fails.

3. “To live is to communicate and to communicate is to live.” (15 Marks)

Introduction:
This statement means that communication is essential to human existence.
Every aspect of life — from learning, working, relating, to surviving — depends on
communication.
Below are five reasons we communicate:
1. To Express Feelings and Emotions:
Humans communicate to share happiness, sadness, anger, or excitement.
Example: Congratulating a friend or expressing sympathy.

2. To Exchange Information and Knowledge:

We communicate to inform, teach, or learn from others.
Example: A lecturer teaching students or a news broadcast informing citizens.

3. To Influence or Persuade Others:

Communication helps people change opinions or behavior.
Example: Advertising campaigns persuading people to buy a product or vote for a candidate.

4. To Build and Maintain Relationships:

Social interactions and friendships are built through communication.
Example: Talking to family, friends, or colleagues strengthens relationships.

5. To Achieve Goals and Solve Problems:

People communicate to plan, organize, and coordinate activities that achieve specific
objectives.
Example: Team meetings in organizations or government decision-making.

Conclusion:
Communication is the lifeblood of human society. Without it, there would be no
understanding, unity, or progress.

4. Ownership of Local Media (15 Marks)

Introduction:
Ownership of local media determines who controls the content, financing, and policy of
media organizations.
Generally, local media ownership can be divided into three major types:

1. Private Ownership:
Media are owned by individuals, families, or private organizations.
Their main motive is profit.
They depend on advertising and may sometimes favor stories that attract large audiences.
Example: Channels Television, AIT (Nigeria).
Advantage: Promotes creativity and competition.
Disadvantage: Can lead to bias driven by business interests.

2. Public (Government) Ownership:

Owned, funded, and controlled by the government.
Its purpose is to inform, educate, and promote national unity.
Example: Nigerian Television Authority (NTA) and Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria
(FRCN).
Advantage: Helps national development and public service.
Disadvantage: Risk of political influence and censorship.

3. Community Ownership:
Owned and managed by local people or groups within a community.
It focuses on local issues, culture, and development.
Example: Campus radio stations or rural community stations.
Advantage: Gives voice to the people.
Disadvantage: Usually limited in reach and funding.

Conclusion:
Each ownership type influences how media operate and the kind of content they produce. A
balanced mix of all three ensures diversity and fairness in communication.

5. Short Notes (15 Marks)

a) Media Oligopoly:
An oligopoly exists when a few powerful companies dominate the media market.
These companies control most newspapers, TV stations, or online platforms, making it
difficult for smaller competitors to survive.
Example: Disney, Warner Bros, and Comcast control a large part of the global media
industry.
Effect: It limits diversity of opinions and promotes similar content across many outlets.

b) Media Merger:
This happens when two or more media organizations combine to form one larger company.
Mergers are done to increase profit, share resources, and reach wider audiences.
Example: The merger between Time Warner and AT&T in 2018.
Effect: Can improve efficiency but may reduce competition and create monopolies.

c) Interlocking Directorates:
This occurs when one person serves on the boards of directors of several media companies at
the same time.
It creates shared interests between organizations, leading to mutual influence and possible
bias.
Effect: Reduces independence of media houses and can result in uniform viewpoints.

Conclusion:
These three concepts — oligopoly, merger, and interlocking directorates — show how
economic and managerial structures shape global and local media control.