Akbar’s Religious Policy
Introduction
Jalal-ud-Din Muhammad Akbar (r. 1556–1605), the third Mughal emperor, is remembered
not only as a conqueror and statesman but also as a visionary of religious tolerance. His
reign marked a turning point in South Asian history where the ideals of political integration
were aligned with religious inclusiveness. In an age marked by sectarian conflicts and the
memory of medieval intolerance, Akbar’s policy of Sulh-i Kul (Universal Peace) became
the hallmark of Mughal political culture. His religious policy was shaped by pragmatic
statecraft, philosophical curiosity, and a deep desire for social harmony.
1. Background and Early Influences
When Akbar ascended the throne at the age of thirteen, the Mughal Empire was still fragile,
divided by religious and ethnic tensions. The earlier sultans of Delhi and even Humayun had
pursued policies that sometimes alienated non-Muslim subjects. Akbar, influenced by his
liberal tutor Bairam Khan, early Sufi mentors, and his exposure to diverse faiths within
India, gradually evolved a composite approach toward religion.
Another crucial influence was Sufism, especially the Chishti order. The emperor’s visits to
the shrine of Sheikh Salim Chishti at Fatehpur Sikri reflect his deep respect for spiritual
figures who transcended rigid religious boundaries. Unlike orthodox theologians, Sufis
emphasized divine love, tolerance, and human unity—values that would become central to
Akbar’s thought.
2. Akbar’s Broad Objectives
Akbar’s religious policy was not merely spiritual but also political. His objectives were
threefold:
1. Political Integration: The empire consisted of diverse communities—Muslims,
Hindus, Jains, Zoroastrians, and Christians. Akbar realized that lasting stability
required a policy that united rather than divided.
2. Administrative Efficiency: By reducing religious discrimination, Akbar could recruit
talented men from all faiths into his administration.
3. Moral and Philosophical Quest: Akbar was personally inclined toward spiritual
exploration. He sought a universal understanding of God beyond the dogmas of any
one religion.
3. Policy of Religious Tolerance
Akbar’s reign is distinguished by a series of practical reforms that institutionalized tolerance
and justice:
Abolition of Jizya and Pilgrimage Tax
In 1564, Akbar abolished the jizya, a poll tax traditionally imposed on non-Muslims, and
soon after, the pilgrimage tax was also removed. These acts had both moral and political
significance: they eliminated visible symbols of religious subjugation and strengthened
loyalty among his Hindu subjects.
Equal Appointment in Administration
Akbar opened high offices to capable Hindus. The most notable among them was Raja
Todar Mal, who became his Finance Minister, and Raja Man Singh, who led imperial
armies. This inclusivity transformed the Mughal nobility into a multi-ethnic and multi-
religious class, a model of integration rare for its time.
Interfaith Marriages
Akbar married Rajput princesses, including the daughter of Raja Bharmal of Amber, without
requiring their conversion to Islam. Such alliances were symbolic gestures of equality and
respect for Hindu traditions, setting the tone for Mughal-Rajput cooperation.
Construction of the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship)
In 1575, Akbar established the Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri as a forum for interreligious
dialogue. Initially meant for Muslim theologians, it later included Hindus, Jains, Zoroastrians,
and even Jesuit missionaries from Goa. Here, debates on divine truth and ethical conduct took
place, reflecting Akbar’s intellectual openness.
The Jesuit accounts (notably Father Monserrate’s Commentaries) describe Akbar as a ruler
who listened attentively, often questioning rigid interpretations of scripture. These encounters
broadened his spiritual horizon and convinced him that no single faith possessed the
monopoly of truth.
4. Formulation of the Policy of Sulh-i Kul
By the late 1570s, Akbar’s ideas crystallized into a coherent doctrine known as Sulh-i Kul,
meaning “universal peace.” The term expressed tolerance, mutual respect, and freedom of
conscience. The principles of Sulh-i Kul were:
1. No discrimination based on religion.
2. Equality before law and administration.
3. Promotion of ethics over ritualism.
As Abul Fazl, Akbar’s court historian, recorded in the Ain-i Akbari, the emperor sought a
rational religion based on reason (‘aql) rather than blind tradition. This concept had
philosophical depth: it linked divine justice to human morality rather than to the dogmas of
any sect.
Sulh-i Kul became both an ethical code and a state ideology, ensuring that Mughal
governance was guided by tolerance and rationality.
5. Din-i Ilahi: The Religious Experiment
Perhaps the most debated aspect of Akbar’s religious policy was his creation of the Din-i
Ilahi (Divine Faith) in 1582. It was not a new religion in the formal sense but a spiritual
fellowship of select courtiers who shared Akbar’s vision of divine unity.
Din-i Ilahi drew elements from Islam, Hinduism, Jainism, and Christianity—emphasizing
monotheism, compassion, and loyalty to the emperor as a spiritual guide. Members were
expected to practice virtues such as non-violence, honesty, and celibacy, and to greet each
other with “Allahu Akbar” (God is Great).
Historians differ on how to interpret this movement. Abul Fazl regarded it as the emperor’s
attempt to transcend sectarianism, while orthodox critics like Badauni viewed it as heretical
innovation. Modern historians such as A.L. Srivastava and Irfan Habib suggest that Din-i
Ilahi had limited following and political significance, but symbolically, it reflected Akbar’s
profound faith in human reason and ethical universalism.
6. Opposition from the Ulema
Akbar’s unorthodox ideas provoked strong resistance from the Sunni orthodoxy, led by
conservative clerics such as Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi. The emperor’s assertion of spiritual
authority—symbolized in the Mahzar (1579) which declared him as the supreme arbiter in
religious matters—was viewed as a challenge to Islamic law.
Nevertheless, Akbar managed this opposition with skill. He respected Islam’s moral core but
rejected legalistic rigidity. His approach represented what historian S.A.A. Rizvi calls a
“rational reinterpretation of Islam in the Indian context.”
7. Assessment of Akbar’s Religious Policy
Akbar’s religious policy was revolutionary for its time. It combined moral idealism with
political pragmatism. By adopting inclusiveness, he ensured the loyalty of diverse
communities, particularly the Rajputs, who became the backbone of his empire. His efforts at
intellectual dialogue encouraged a syncretic culture that influenced later Mughal art,
architecture, and literature.
However, his policy also had limitations. The Din-i Ilahi failed to attract mass support, and
his successors, notably Aurangzeb, reversed many of his tolerant measures. Yet, the legacy of
Sulh-i Kul endured as a moral vision of India’s composite culture, later celebrated by
thinkers like Dara Shikoh and modern secularists.
Conclusion
Akbar’s religious policy stands as a remarkable experiment in ethical governance and
interfaith harmony. In an era dominated by sectarian politics, his belief in the essential unity
of all religions placed him far ahead of his time. Through measures of tolerance, rational
inquiry, and humane administration, Akbar transformed the Mughal Empire into a model of
cultural pluralism. His philosophy of Sulh-i Kul remains relevant today, symbolizing the
enduring ideal of peace through understanding.
Select References
Abul Fazl, Ain-i Akbari, trans. H. Blochmann, Calcutta: Asiatic Society, 1873.
Badauni, Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh, trans. W. Lowe, London, 1884.
S.A.A. Rizvi, Religious and Intellectual History of the Muslims in Akbar’s Reign,
New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1975.
A.L. Srivastava, Akbar the Great: His Policies and Administration, Agra, 1964.
Irfan Habib, Akbar and His India, Oxford University Press, 1997.
Athar Ali, Mughal Nobility under Aurangzeb, New Delhi: Asia Publishing House,
1966.
Richards, John F. The Mughal Empire, Cambridge University Press, 1993.
