Online course

PV - technology

© Renewables Academy (RENAC) AG

This copyrighted course is part of the series of online study programmes offered by the Renewables
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Berlin, 2020-07-24
Table of content
1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 2
1.1 Learning objectives: ..................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 2
2 Physics of PV cells ............................................................................................................... 3
2.1 Energy band model ...................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Photovoltaic effect....................................................................................................... 4
2.3 The p-n junction ........................................................................................................... 5
3 Types of PV cells .................................................................................................................. 6
3.1 Crystalline PV cells ....................................................................................................... 6
3.2 Thin-film PV cells.......................................................................................................... 7
3.3 New technologies ........................................................................................................ 9
4 PV Modules ....................................................................................................................... 10
4.1 PV module examples ................................................................................................. 10
4.2 PV module data sheets .............................................................................................. 11
4.3 PV module configurations ......................................................................................... 13
4.4 PV array configurations ............................................................................................. 14
4.5 PV module efficiency ................................................................................................. 15
4.6 Effects of shading....................................................................................................... 16
4.7 Types of shading ........................................................................................................ 17
4.8 Diodes ........................................................................................................................ 18
4.9 Shading: crystalline vs. thin-film modules ................................................................. 19
4.10 International standards ............................................................................................. 20
5 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 21
6 Further reading ................................................................................................................. 22

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1 Introduction

1.1 Learning objectives:

Upon completion of this course, you should be able to…

• explain the principles of the photovoltaic effect,
• describe the characteristics of the different types of PV cells and modules,
• explain the impact of efficiency and shading on PV modules and
• select the appropriate PV array configuration for each purpose.

1.2 Introduction

This course focuses on technological aspects of PV cells, modules and arrays.

The two general categories of PV systems are grid-connected PV systems and off-grid PV systems. Grid-
connected PV systems are further split into distributed and central PV systems, while off-grid PV
systems can be separated into stand-alone systems (with or without battery) and mini- or micro-grids.
The power generation unit of a PV plant is the PV array, which consists of the PV modules.

A PV module, in turn, consists of several PV cells connected in series and/or parallel. An inverter is
required to convert the direct current from the PV modules into alternating current which can be
injected into the grid. For off-grid PV systems with batteries a charge controller is required to protect
the battery from over- and undercharge.

The underlying physical effect taking place in a PV module is the photoelectric effect whereby the
energy of photons (quants of light) causes electrons in semiconductors to move.

This course will first go into more detail on the physics of PV cells and the photoelectric effect. Then,
the principles of the different types of PV cell technologies will be explained. This is followed by a larger
section on PV modules which explains configurations, efficiencies, as effects and types of shading, and
more.

Central PV system with fixed mounting structure (Source: RENAC)

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2 Physics of PV cells

2.1 Energy band model

Learning objectives: Upon completion of this page, you should be able to…
• Understand the underlying physics and chemistry of the photoeffect
• Know the difference between conductors, semi-conductors and insulators

According to Niels Bohr (1885), an atom consists of a core of protons and neutrons, circled by
electrons in distinct orbits which are determined by a specific energy balance. Each atom contains the
same number of negatively-charged electrons as positively-charged protons (neutrons have zero
charge). When energy is applied, an electron can jump to an orbit further away from the core. If the
energy is not sufficient to reach the next orbit, the electron will fall back to its original orbit. The energy
level increases with increasing distance from the core.
The orbits of electrons in a solid interact with each other and form certain energy bands. Each energy
band has a maximum capacity to take on electrons. The highest complete energy band is called the
valence band, the next energy band is the conduction band which might be empty or partially filled.
The space between those two bands is called the forbidden zone: electrons are not able to stay here.
The distance between these two bands is the band gap.

Different materials have different band gaps and this determines the conductivity of the material:
• Conductor: either there are electrons in the conduction band or conduction band and valence
band overlap (i.e. there is no band gap)
• Semiconductor: there are no electrons in the conduction band and the band gap is smaller than 5
eV.
• Insulator: there are no electrons in the conduction band and the band gap is larger than 5 eV, thus
it is very difficult to lift electrons into the conduction band.

Energy bands and band gap (Data source: Quaschning 2009, p. 165)

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2.2 Photovoltaic effect

Learning objectives: Upon completion of this page, you should be able to…

• Be familiar with the characteristics of a semiconductor

• Know how photons can cause electric current

A material that has the ability to act as either a conductor or an insulator is called a semiconductor.
The electrical conductivity of the material, or its capacity to conduct electricity, can be regulated by
changing the material’s properties or by applying external influences, such as sunlight. PV cells are
manufactured from a variety of semiconductor materials, creating various PV technologies. Silicon
metal, for example, is a semiconductor, and is the most common material used to make PV cells.

When semiconductor materials are exposed to sunlight, energy-carrying photons strike the material.
Since the energy of photons in the sunlight spectrum varies, a variety of interactions can happen:

• some of the photons will be reflected off the surface of the PV cell;
• some will be absorbed in the outer coating layers protecting the PV cell;
• some of the low-energy photons (long wavelength infrared) will pass directly through the PV cell
without transferring energy;
• a large proportion of the photons will be absorbed into the material itself.

Electrons in the atomic structure of the PV cell material absorb some of the energy from this last group
of photons. The additional energy input causes the electrons to excite from the valence band of their
atoms to the conduction band. This increased energy level frees the energised electrons, and enables
them to move around the atomic lattice of the material (‘conduction’). As an electron becomes
mobilised or ‘free’, it breaks away from its parent atom, leaving a so-called ‘hole’ behind. These holes
are also mobile, passing from atom to atom as the free electrons pass in the opposite direction.

Movement of free electrons and holes in the silicon crystal structure (Source: RENAC)

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2.3 The p-n junction

Learning objectives: Upon completion of this page, you should be able to…

• Know why doping of the PV cell material is necessary

• Know why an electric field within the cell material is necessary to produce a useful current

By doping the semiconductor, i.e. adding tiny amounts of other elements like boron or phosphorus to
the crystalline structure of the silicon, p- or n-type semiconductors are formed, respectively. Excess
electrons and holes are thereby made available in the material, increasing its conductivity.
Semiconductors with a p-type doping have more holes available (and therefore, the absence of an
electron creates the effect of a positive charge), and semiconductors with an n-type doping have more
electrons available (and therefore, these electrons are free to move around and allow an electric
current to flow through the silicon). By bringing the n-type doping and p-type doping materials
together, a p-n junction is formed and an electric field is created within the semiconductor. This
electric field serves to forcefully separate mobile electrons in the n-type material and holes in the p-
type material in a region called “depletion region”, which allows for the directional channeling of the
photocurrent produced in the PV cell. This DC electricity is routed to the metal electrodes on either
side of the PV cell and delivered to the output contacts, where it can be consumed in an electrical load.
Some electron-hole pairs recombine before arriving at the contacts, causing the PV cell to heat up.

Silicon PV cell working principle (Source: RENAC)

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3 Types of PV cells

3.1 Crystalline PV cells

Learning objectives: Upon completion of this page, you should be able to…

• Know the fundamental difference between poly- and monocrystalline PV cells

• Be familiar with the basic manufacturing process of crystalline PV cells

There are many different types of PV technologies, but the market is dominated by crystalline silicon
(c-Si) based PV cells. Nearly 80% of the cells on the market are c-Si based cells, either monocrystalline
or polycrystalline.

Monocrystalline and polycrystalline c-Si cells are wafer-based with thicknesses in the 100…250 μm
range and lengths from 100 to 150 mm. The monocrystalline structure produces a homogeneous
colour whereas the polycrystalline cell shows different shades for each crystalline orientation (see
figure “Monocrystalline and polycrystalline PV cells”).

The wafers are produced from a silicon melt (using different methods), condensed into blocks and then
cut with a wire saw (see figure “Manufacturing process for crystalline PV cells”). The manufacturing
processes are energy intensive since high temperatures are required to ensure high wafer purity and
to remove defects.

Monocrystalline PV cells tend to achieve slightly higher efficiencies than polycrystalline cells. However,
the manufacturing costs of polycrystalline cells are lower which compensates for their lower efficiency.
Screen printing is used to deposit the electrical contacts on both front- and back-sides of the cells.
Metal strips connect the front-side of a cell with the back-side of the next cell in order to form a string
of cells in series. Crystalline silicon cells have a silicon nitride antireflection layer, which gives them
their characteristic blue colour.

Monocrystalline (left) and polycrystalline (right) PV cells (Source: RENAC)

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 Manufacturing process for silicon crystalline cells (Source: RENAC)

3.2 Thin-film PV cells

Learning objectives: Upon completion of this page, you should be able to…

• Understand the basic function of thin-film modules

• Be able to explain the difference between thin-film and crystalline modules.

Thin-film PV cells (amorphous Si, cadmium telluride, CIGS) are typically deposited on glass sheets. The
surface is then prepared with a laser and the electrical contacts deposited. The energy consumed for
thin-film fabrication is much lower than for c-Si cells because the deposition is a low-temperature
process. The manufacturing process is therefore much faster and lower cost than that of c-Si, however,
thin-film PV cells have lower efficiencies than c-Si PV cells.

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The main thin-film PV technologies currently on the market are:

Amorphous silicon (a-Si): This is the non-crystalline form of silicon. It was the first thin-film material
to yield a commercial product and was used in consumer items such as pocket calculators. It can be
deposited in thin layers onto a variety of surfaces.

Cadmium telluride (CdTe): CdTe is a semiconductor compound formed from cadmium and tellurium.
CdTe cells are deposited directly onto glass. These modules are the most common type of thin film PV
module on the market and the most cost-effective to manufacture at this time. CdTe modules perform
better at high temperatures and in low-light conditions than crystalline-based modules due to their
physical properties. However, the overall efficiency is significantly lower.

Copper indium gallium sulphur selenide (CIGS): CIGS is a compound semiconductor that can be
deposited onto many different materials. CIGS has only recently become available for small
commercial applications. It is considered to be a developing PV technology with high potential due to
high efficiencies obtained in the laboratory.

Thin-film modules

Copper indium PV cell structure (TCO: transparent conductive oxide) (Source: RENAC)

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3.3 New technologies

Learning objective: Upon completion of this page, you should be able to…
• Be introduced to new PV technologies which provide alternatives to the established ones
• Research is ongoing to develop PV cells and modules which, for example, require less energy
to manufacture, have lower raw material costs, are less toxic, and which can be more easily
recycled.

Concentrating photovoltaics (CPV) uses lenses to concentrate sunlight from a wider area onto a very
small PV cell. In theory this will reduce the cost of the PV array and the land area required for a specific
rated power capacity. However, these systems require high levels of direct radiation and the mounting
structures need to track the sun with a high degree of accuracy. High radiation concentration also
causes high currents in the PV cell so that series resistance constitutes a problem. Cooling is required
to reduce cell temperature and related power losses.

Organic PV cells use an electro-chemical process similar to photosynthesis. Possible advantages

include:
- low material manufacturing costs with low energy input,
- no heavy metals or other toxins needed in manufacturing,
- easy to dispose of and
- possibility to ‘print’ on a range of different surfaces.

Dye sensitized PV cells use a porous sponge-type structure of the titan oxide which increases the
surface area about 1000 times. Material costs for this technology are low and the production process
is simple, however, the physics of the dye cell is very different from all other PV cells and needs further
research.

Commercially available polymeric organic solar cell, shown by Thomas Geelhaar CTO of Merck KGaA
(Photographer: Armin Kübelbeck, CC-BY-SA, Wikimedia Commons)

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4 PV Modules

4.1 PV module examples

Learning objective: Upon completion of this page, you should be able to…
• Become familiar with the appearance of different PV modules

Photovoltaic modules are composed of PV cells connected in series and/or parallel to obtain the
desired power output of the module. This section provides some examples of PV modules currently on
the market. The two publication Photon and PV magazine publish extensive yearly reports listing all
modules available on the market. Currently, more than 2000 different module models with different
technologies are available. Selecting the correct module for a system is a major decision and it is
important to get it right. Mistakes can be expensive! The choice should not only be informed by the
cost, but also by quality, performance, efficiency, electric parameters (e.g. I-V curve) and the
environment in which the modules will be installed.

Photon magazine: [Link]

PV magazine: [Link]

72-cell silicon monocrystalline modules (Source : RENAC)

60-cell silicon polycrystalline modules (Source : RENAC)

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 20 Wp silicon monocrystalline with 36 half cells (Source: RENAC)

Labels on the back of two PV modules giving the main electrical characteristics (Source: RENAC)

4.2 PV module data sheets

Learning objective: Upon completion of this page, you should be able to…

• Be able to read a PV module datasheet and identify important parameters

Before selecting a PV module, the module datasheet should be carefully consulted. This will contain all
relevant specifications, both electrical and mechanical. The international standard EN 50380:
Datasheets and Nameplate Information for Photovoltaic Modules specifies what information a module
datasheet should provide.

This includes:

• The electrical parameters (VOC, VMPP, ISC, IMPP, maximum system voltage, and temperature
coefficients) at STC
• The peak power, measured in Watt-peak (Wp), at STC
• The module I-V curve at STC

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• Tolerances
• Reverse current values (for series fusing requirements)
• Cell type, and number of cells
• Module efficiency at STC
• The module dimensions and weight
• Information on junction boxes, diodes and cable connectors
• Module frame details
• Earthing/grounding requirements if any
• Standards and certification information

Links to sample data sheets:

• Mitsubishi Electric Solar (monocrystalline):
[Link]
heet_250W_255W.pdf
• Kyocera (polycrystalline): [Link]
• First Solar (CdTe): [Link]
Documents/Series-4-Datasheets/[Link]

Sample PV module datasheet (Source: RENAC)

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4.3 PV module configurations

Learning objectives: Upon completion of this page, you should be able to…
• Learn how PV cells are connected to form a PV module
• Understand the effect of different cell connection configurations on electrical parameters

PV cells can be connected in series, in parallel or in series-parallel, depending on the system voltage
requirements.

If PV cells are connected in series, the total voltage is equal to the sum of all cell voltages. The total
current remains that of one single cell. The I-V curves of each cell ‘stack up’ on the voltage axis.
If PV cells are connected in parallel, the total voltage remains that of a single cell, but the total current
is equal to the sum of all cell currents. The I-V curves of each cell ‘stack up’ on the current axis.

The electrical parameters VOC, VMPP, ISC and IMPP can be calculated based on the combination of parallel
and series connections of cells. They are also provided in the datasheet and on the PV module
nameplate.

Example:
Assume that the VOC of a PV cell is 0.6 V and the ISC is 9 A.

What is the total VOC and the total ISC of 8 cells connected in series?
Total VOC: 0.6 𝑉 × 8 = 4.8 𝑉
Total ISC: 9 A

What is the total VOC and the total ISC of 5 cells connected in parallel?
Total VOC: 0.6 V
Total ISC: 9 𝐴 × 5 = 45 𝐴

What is the total VOC and the total ISC of 8 cells connected in series with 5 strings in parallel?
Total VOC: 0.6 𝑉 × 8 = 4.8 𝑉
Total ISC: 9 𝐴 × 5 = 45 𝐴

A module is built from these PV cells. It has got a total VOC,Module of 12 V and a total ISC,Module of 27 A. How
many cells are connected in series and how many strings in parallel?
12 𝑉
Series: = 20 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠
0.6 𝑉
27 𝐴
Parallel: = 3 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 20 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
9𝐴

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 PV cells connected in series (Source: RENAC)

PV cells connected in parallel (Source: RENAC)

4.4 PV array configurations

Learning objectives: Upon completion of this page, you should be able to…

Learn how PV modules can be connected together to form a PV system

Understand the scalability/modularity of PV systems

Similar to the PV cells, PV modules can also be connected in series, in parallel or in series-parallel,
depending on the system voltage requirements as determined, for example, by the inverter.

When PV modules are connected in series-parallel, the total voltage is equal to the sum of all module
voltages in one series string and the total current is equal to the sum of all string currents in parallel
connection. If different modules with different electrical characteristics are connected in a system, the
current will be set by the module with the lowest ISC,Module in that particular string.

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Likewise, the voltage will be set by the module with the lowest VOC,Module in the parallel strings.
Therefore, only modules with similar I-V curves should be connected together in a PV array to avoid
unnecessary power losses.

The electrical parameters of the PV array must match the requirements of the inverter. The PV array
voltage, current and power must not surpass the inverter limitations under any operating conditions.

A PV system can be made up of several arrays connected either to several inverters or to only one
central inverter. Since the configuration is modular, more PV modules and inverters can be added to
the system at a later date provided that there is sufficient space and that grid connection conditions
allow higher feed-in.

PV modules connected in series-parallel (Source: RENAC)

4.5 PV module efficiency

Learning objectives: Upon completion of this page, you should be able to…

Become familiar with the different PV technology efficiencies

Understand how PV module efficiency relates to surface area required for a certain output

The efficiency of a PV module describes how efficiently the module converts light energy into electrical
energy. For example, a PV module which is 15% efficient converts 15% of the sunlight that falls onto it
into electrical energy. The efficiency given on a module datasheet is the efficiency at Standard Test
Conditions (STC).

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Once installed, modules will rarely achieve this efficiency but rather the ‘field efficiency’ which will
vary depending on the installation, the time of day and other technical and environmental factors.

The table compares the efficiency of different PV modules with the array surface area required to meet
a rated capacity of 1 kWp. Note that since thin film modules have a lower efficiency than crystalline
silicon, a larger surface area and therefore more modules and mounting structure are required to
achieve the same total power output.

PV module efficiencies are set to improve with continued research and development.

30
Efficiency (%)

25
20
15
10
5
0
Mono c-Si Poly c-Si CIGS CdTe a-Si triple
Module Type junction
Data Source Fraunhofer ISE: Photovoltaicsreport 2017
Efficiency comparison of the best lab modules of different technologies
Types of modules and their efficiency (Data Source: EPIA 2011,)

4.6 Effects of shading

Learning objectives: Upon completion of this page, you should be able to…
• Understand the effects of shading of PV modules on power output

Shading strongly affects the output of PV systems and should therefore be avoided.

Even partial shading of a PV cell causes:

- a small drop in voltage,
- a significant drop in current and thus
- a significant drop in power output.

If all cells in a module are connected in series then the current is the same through all cells. Therefore,
if the current in one cell is restricted due to shading, the current in the whole line will be reduced to
this level. Then the shade on one module in a string of modules can reduce the power output of the
total string considerably, reducing it to near zero in some cases. The analogy is similar to blocking a
river by building a dam (representing the shade).

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Moreover, this shaded cell becomes reverse biased and consumes the additional current coming from
its neighbouring cells. It dissipates this power in the form of heat, causing the shaded cell to heat up.
If the module does not have bypass diodes (explained later), this effect can lead to irreversible damage
to the cell and the module. Heat build-up in a localised area of the cell, known as a hot spot, can
physically damage the cell, thereby also destroying the operation of the entire module.

4.7 Types of shading

Learning objective: Upon completion of this page, you should be able to…
• Learn about different types of shading and how they can be avoided

There are several types of shading:

Direct shading: This causes high reductions in the output yield of the PV system. In this case, an object
close to the modules shades the PV array constantly. The closer the object to the array, the darker the
shadow and the less diffuse light reaches the module’s surface, hence the more problematic the
situation becomes.
Temporary shading: This is caused by natural conditions such as snow, leaves, soiling, etc. This effect
is especially significant in ground-mounted systems in rural areas where the module surface frequently
becomes soiled. Regular cleaning is required.
Self-shading: At certain times of the day and year when the sun is low in the sky, PV modules might
shade other modules behind them.

In order to avoid inter-row shading, the required distance between rows needs to be calculated using
geometry. First, the mid-day sun elevation angle γ for the location should be determined for the most
extreme case, i.e. the day of the year when the sun is lowest in the sky. That day is the 21st December
in the northern hemisphere and 21st June in the southern hemisphere. Then the required distance
between rows d can be determined from the lowest sun angle γ, the module height h and the module
tilt angle β. The actual formula is:

ℎ 𝑤 × sin 𝛽
ℎ = 𝑤 × sin 𝛽, 𝑑1 = 𝑤 × cos 𝛽 , 𝑑2 = =
tan 𝛾 tan 𝛾
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽
𝑑 = 𝑑1 + 𝑑2 = 𝑤 × (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 + )
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛾

Shading of PV arrays in an open field PV farm (Source: RENAC)

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 Determination of module row distance (Source: RENAC)

4.8 Diodes

Learning objectives: Upon completion of this page, you should be able to…

• Learn about one method for protecting PV modules against damage due to shading
• Learn one method for reducing energy yield losses due to shading

Bypass diodes are installed in the junction boxes of PV modules to mitigate the effect of shading (see
figure “Junction boxes of PV modules”). They are connected in parallel to the cell string. During normal
operation the bypass diode blocks, meaning that it does not allow any current to pass through it, and
thus does not participate in the circuit. When a cell becomes shaded, the cell becomes reverse biased
and therefore the bypass diode becomes forward biased. Once forward biased, the diode begins to
conduct and diverts the incoming current through it rather than through the shaded cell.

When the diode is operating, the cell or group of cells across which it is connected are completely cut
out of the circuit. The voltage output of the bypassed cells is lost, but the current output of the module
is not limited by those shaded cells. The power output drops, but in most cases not as much as it would
without bypass diodes. Most importantly the shaded cells are protected from ‘hot spot’ damage.

Bypass diodes connected across sets of PV cells within one module (Source: RENAC)

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 Junction boxes of PV modules
4.9 Shading: crystalline vs. thin-film modules

Learning objective: Upon completion of this page, you should be able to…
• Learn about the different effects of shading on crystalline and thin-film modules

Thin-film modules typically are less effected by shading than crystalline silicon modules. This is because
the cells in thin-film modules are long and thin, as opposed to square or almost-square as in crystalline
cells. So if a thin-film module is shaded, the shadow often falls on a much smaller portion of a cell’s
total surface area. This allows the un-shaded portion of the cell to still produce some current. In
situations where shading cannot be avoided, it is worth considering whether thin-film modules might
be the better module choice. Although their overall efficiency and energy yield per square metre are
lower when unshaded, the reverse may be true if shading occurs frequently.

Different effects of shade on thin-film and crystalline silicon PV modules (Source: RENAC)

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4.10 International standards

Learning objective: Upon completion of this page, you should be able to…
• Learn about the various international standards which need to be considered in PV technology

Here are some of the most important international standards for PV modules:
- IEC 61215 Crystalline Silicon Terrestrial Photovoltaic (PV) Modules – Design Qualification and
Type Approval
- IEC 61345 UV Test for Photovoltaic (PV) Modules
- IEC 61646 Thin-film Terrestrial Photovoltaic (PV) Modules – Design Qualification and Type
Approval
- IEC 61701 Salt Mist Corrosion Testing of Photovoltaic (PV) Modules
- IEC 61730–1 Photovoltaic (PV) Module Safety Qualification Part 1: Requirements for
Construction
- IEC 61730–2 Photovoltaic (PV) Module Safety Qualification Part 2: Requirements for Testing
- IEC 61829 Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic (PV) Array – On-site Measurement of I-V
Characteristics
- IEC 62108 Concentrator Photovoltaic (CPV) Modules and Assemblies – Design Qualification
and Type Approval
- IEC 62446 Grid-connected PV Systems – Minimum Requirements for System Documentation,
Commissioning Tests and Inspection
- EN 50380: Datasheets and Nameplate Information for Photovoltaic Modules
- Underwriters Laboratories (UL) in the USA, sets standards for, and certify PV modules to UL
1703.
- The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) is another source of standards. ASTM
standards (incl. ASTM E 1038, 1171, 1596, 1802 and 1830).

Modules which comply with these standards can be considered reliable and likely to have long working
lives.

Roof-top PV system with polycrystalline cells (Source: RENAC)

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5 Summary

This unit covered the technological basics of PV systems. First, the physics of a PV cell was explained.
The energy of photons activates electrons in a semiconductor and due to the electric field of the doped
silicon material the electrons become mobile and produce an electric current.

Different types of PV cells were introduced briefly. Crystalline PV cells have the largest market share
followed by thin-film modules. Other types which promise lower costs or higher efficiencies are still
under development.

PV modules are made up of PV cells connected in parallel and/or in series. The number of cells and the
connection configuration determines the output characteristics of the module (voltage, current and
power). These parameters are required for PV system design, e.g. when designing the most
appropriate PV array configuration for a given inverter or charge controller. Module efficiency and the
effect of shading were discussed. Bypass diodes can be connected across cells within a module to limit
the negative effects (e.g. formation of hot spots) of module shading. Then the power losses will be less
compared to modules without such diodes.

Roof-top PV system (Source: RENAC)

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6 Further reading

James P Dunlop; Photovoltaic systems; ISBN: 978-0826913081; American Technical Publishers

Photovoltaic Systems is a comprehensive guide to the design and installation of several types of
residential and commercial PV systems. In chapter 5 are the PV modules and arrays discussed.

Mark Hankins; Stand-alone solar electric systems: the Earthscan expert handbook for planning
design, and installation; ISBN: 978-1844077137; Routledge publisher
Comprehensive book on components as well as planning, installing and operating of stand-alone
photovoltaic systems. Chapter 3 taps onto solar cells modules.

Assessment of photovoltaic module failures in the field; ISBN: 978-3-906042-54-1; IEA

This report of the International Energy Agency presents a database on module failure modes and their
impact on the PV module power.

M.A. Munoz, A. Garcia, F. Chenlo; Early degradation of PV modules and guaranty conditions; CIEMAT
This paper presents some findings in campaigns of PV plants evaluation. This calculation usually
consists of visual inspection, I-V curve measurement in the fields, thermal evaluation by IR imaging,
and, in some cases, measurement of the I-V characteristic and thermal behaviour of selected modules
in the plant.

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24/07/2020