Chem 12AP 1

Chapter 21
Nuclear Chemistry
21.1 Radioactivity

Nucleons: particles in the nucleus; proton and neutron.

Atomic Number: number of protons in a nucleus. Determines identity of element.

Mass Number: total of protons and neutrons.

Isotope: elements with different mass numbers. (different number of neutrons).

Isotopes are indicated showing the mass number, as the atomic number must be the
same, e.g. U-233, U-235, U-238. Also in more detail 23392U.

Nuclear Equations

 Radionuclides are unstable and spontaneously emit particles and electromagnetic

radiation.

 Emission of radiation is one of the ways in which an unstable nucleus is transformed

in to a more stable one with less energy.

Alpha particle: a helium nucleus ejected from the nucleus of a radionuclide. 42He.

 Mass number and atomic number must be conserved during nuclear reactions.
238
U 
92
234
90 Th + 4
He
2

 Radioactive properties of the nucleus are independent of the state of the chemical
combination of the atom, i.e. can be an element or in compound and decay occurs
identically.

Types of Radioactive Decay

 The three most common kinds of radioactive decay are: alpha (), beta () and
gamma ().

 Alpha particles: see above. He nuclei. Heavy. Poor penetrating. Very damaging,
especially in you (see radon below).
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 Beta particles: electrons ejected from the nucleus. Light. Medium penetrating. 0-1e.
Beta emission is equivalent to the conversion of a neutron (10n) to a proton (11p).
0n 
1 1 0
1p + -1e

 However, just because an electron is ejected from the nucleus, we need not think
that the nucleus is composed of these particles, any more than we consider a match
to be composed of sparks simply because it gives them off when struck. The
electron comes into being only when the nucleus undergoes a nuclear reaction.

 Gamma radiation: consists of high-energy photons (electromagnetic radiation).

Very low wavelength = extremely high energy. It accompanies all radioactive
emissions. Generally not included in nuclear reactions.

 High penetrating and high damage.

 Positron Emission: really just a positive electron. Emitted from the nucleus.
Changes a proton to a neutron, atomic number goes down one. E.g.
6C 
11 11 0
5B + 1e

 Electron Capture: the nucleus captures an inner shell electron. Not very common.
-1e 
81 0 81
37Rb + 36Kr

21.2 Patterns of Nuclear Stability

Neutron to Proton Ratio

 Strong Nuclear Force: laws of electrostatics state that like charges repel. It is
amazing that nuclei, packed with protons, don’t fly apart. The strong nuclear force
prevents this. (There must be some force holding the whole thing together).

 Neutrons are somehow involved in this process. All nuclei with two or more protons
have neutrons.

 At low atomic numbers (20) the ratio is 1 : 1.

 As atomic number increases the neutron : proton ratio increases.

 Fig. 21.2 shows there is a belt of stability rather than one stable ratio.

 All nuclei with Z > 84 are unstable and radioactive. They are too heavy.
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Types of Decay

1. Nuclei above the belt of stability (high n : p) emission of a beta particle will
change a neutron to a proton and lower n : p.
2. Nuclei below the belt of stability(low n : p) emission of a positron or electron
capture will change a proton to a neutron and raise n : p. Positron emission is
common in light nuclei and electron capture becomes more common in heavy
nuclei. (For a VIKE, why?)
3. Z > 84 these are just too heavy and emit alpha particles to get lighter.

Radioactive Series

 Some nuclei cannot achieve stability in one step and must go through a series of
steps to become stable. NO NEED to memorize any of these.

Further Observations

NOT WORTH THE TIME OR EFFORT

21.3 Nuclear Transmutations

 A nuclear transmutation is when a nucleus absorbs a nucleon(s).

 The first transmutation was performed in 1919 by Ernest Rutherford. He

converted nitrogen-14 into oxygen-17 using -particles.
2He 
14 4 17 1 1
7N + 8O + 1H ( 1H = a proton)

 Such reaction have permitted synthesis of hundreds of radioisotopes in the

laboratory and the production of new elements; #92 .

Using Charged Particles

 High speed, charged particles () are used to synthisize new elements and to
investigate the fundamental nature of matter. (Big Bang)

 The higher the nuclear charge on the projectile or the target, the higher the
velocity of the projectile necessary to overcome the repulsions.

 Particles are accelerated in particle accelerators. Cyclotrons, Synchrotrons

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Using Neutrons

 Because neutrons don’t have charges they don’t have to be accelerated to cause
nuclear reactions. In fact they can’t be accelerated.

 Neutrons necessary for reactions are obtained from nuclear reactors where the
ejection of neutrons is a by-product.

 Transuranium Elements: The artificial elements beyond uranium.

21.4 Rates of Radioactive Decay

 Half-life: the time required for half of any given quantity of a substance to react
or decay. Quantities can be mass or number of disintegrations. Half-lives range
from millionths of seconds to billions of years.

 Half-lives for nuclear decay are unaffected by external conditions such as

temperature, pressure, or state of chemical combination. In other words there is
no fast way to remove radioactive wastes from the environment.

Dating

 Because the half-life of any nuclide is constant, the half-life can serve as a
molecular clock to determine the ages of different objects.

 Carbon-14 is used to date organic samples back some 20 000 to 50 000 years.
Beyond that the C-14 : C-12 ratio is so small it cannot be measured.

Calculations Based on Half-Life

 Worry about first order reactions later.

 We need to be able to time calculations based on what is present now (Nt) and
what was present initially (No) after a given amount of time (t).

 What seems strange is the amounts seem to be in mass units or number of

atoms disintegration. (The equation is in the data booklet in different form)

ln Nt = -kt “ln” = natural log

No
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 Without going into the math, which I can’t, k = 0.693/t1/2.

21.5 Detection of Radioactivity

 Radiation is capable of exposing photographic film. (How is was discovered)

 A Geiger counter is used to detect the ionization of matter by radiation. It

produces audible clicks

Radiotracers

 Because radioisotopes can be detected so readily, they can be used to follow an

element through its chemical reactions.

 Radioisotopes of various elements are used to detect organ function in humans.

Chemistry and Life page 893.

21.6 Energy Changes in Nuclear Reactions

 Einstein’s famous equation: E = mc2 N.B. mass in kg.

 During nuclear reactions mass is lost and changed into energy according to the
above equation.

 In chemical reactions the mass loss is extremely low,  9.9 x 10-9 g.

Nuclear Binding Energies

 The mass difference between a nucleus and its constituent nucleons is called the
mass defect.

 The energy required to separate a nucleus into its individual nucleons is called
the nuclear binding energy.

 The larger the binding energy, the more stable the nucleus (toward
decomposition).
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 Figure 21.12 shows that binding energies increase rapidly up to iron and then
decrease slowly.

 This is significant in that heavy nuclei gain stability and give off energy if they are
fragmented into two mid-sized nuclei. This is fission and used in nuclear power
plants.

 Even greater amounts of energy are released if very light nuclei are combined or
fused together to give more massive nuclei. This fusion is the energy producing
process in the sun.

21.7 Nuclear Fission

 Radioisotopes undergo fission when struck by slow moving neutrons.

 There are many possible products so don’t sweat it.

 For uranium-235 it gives off 2.4 neutrons per fission (some reactions give 2
neutrons, some 3 neutrons)

 These 2 neutrons can cause 2 more fissions  4 fissions  8 …..

 If this continues unchecked . . . BOOM! A chain reaction.

 For a fission chain reaction to occur the sample of fissionable material must have
a certain minimum mass; the critical mass. For U-235 that’s about 1 kg.

 Fig. 21.16 shows a simple diagram of an atomic bomb.

 Nuclear Reactors

 Nuclear reactors use controlled chain reactions to generate heat to produce

steam to drive turbines/generators to produce electricity.

 The concentration of fissionable material is too low to go supercritical.

 The chain reaction is controlled by rods which absorb neutrons slowing the
reaction.

21.8 Nuclear Fusion

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 Fusion is when 2 light atoms combine to form one heavier atom.

 This requires huge amounts of start-up energy to overcome the repulsion of the
protons.

 What is intriguing about this process is the eventual energy output is huge, and
the reactants are cheap, hydrogen, and the products are harmless, helium.

21.9 Biological Effects of Radiation

 The energies of radiation is easily large enough to ionize or break bonds in

biological molecules. The products are free radicals, substances with one or
more unpaired electrons. These free radicals can attack a host of other
compounds to produce new free radicals, and so on, disrupting the normal
operations of cells.

 Read over the rest of this section for interest. Don’t sweat all the units or
radioactivity. DO spend some time on table 21.7.

 Figure 21.23 shows that the gas radon is the major source of radiation we are
exposed to. This is a problem as many rocks used in construction (cement)
contain elements which decay to radon. As a gas it can be inhaled and is now
inside, a problem.