UNIT 2

STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING CONCEPTS

1. Introduction to Structured Programming

Structured programming is a programming paradigm that improves clarity, quality, and

development time by using clear, logical structures for code execution. It emphasizes dividing
a program into smaller blocks known as modules or functions. These blocks are connected
using control structures such as sequence, selection, and repetition.

Key Points: - Encourages top-down program design. - Avoids the

got statements. -
use of debugging and testing simpler. - Enhances readability and o Makes
maintainability.

2. Sequence Structure (Input/Output/Assignment)

A sequence structure executes statements one after another in a linear

order.

Example:

int a = 10, b = 20,

sum; sum = a + b;
printf("Sum = %d", sum);

Explanation: Each statement executes sequentially — first variable declaration, then calculation,
and finally output.

Flowchart:

[Start]
|
[Read a, b]
|
[sum = a + b]
|
[Display
sum]
|
[En
d]

3. Selection Structure (Decision Making)

Used to execute different statements based on a condition.

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Example (if):

if (x > 0)
printf("Positive");

Example (if-else):

if (x % 2 == 0)
printf("Even");
else
printf("Odd");

Explanation: The program checks the condition and executes the block that meets the requirement.

Flowchart:

[Start] → [Input x]
↓
[x % 2 == 0?]
/
Yes No
| |
[Print Even][Print Odd]
\ /
[End]

4. Repetition Structures (Looping Statements)

Repetition structures allow executing a set of statements multiple times.

a) For Loop (Entry Controlled)

Used when the number of iterations is known.

for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i+

+) { printf("%d ", i);
}

Explanation: The loop

i , checks the condition, executes, and increments until the
initializes fails. condition

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b) While Loop (Entry Controlled)

Executes while the condition is true.

int i = 1;
while (i <= 5) {
printf("%d ",
i); i++;
}

c) Do-While Loop (Exit Controlled)

Executes at least once, even if the condition is false.

int i =
1; do {
printf("%d ",
i); i++;
} while (i <= 5);

5. Control Structure Stacking and Nesting

Stacking: Sequential use of multiple structures. Nesting: One control structure inside another.

Example (Nested Loop):

for (int i = 1; i <= 3; i++) {

for (int j = 1; j <= i;
j++) { printf("*");
}
printf("\n");
}

Output:

*
**
**
*

Explanation: The outer loop controls rows, and the inner loop prints stars in each row.

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6. Different Kinds of Repetitions

•Entry Controlled: Condition tested first for

( , while )
•Exit Controlled: Condition tested after execution ( do-while )
•Counter Controlled: Runs a fixed number of times.
•Definite Loops: Known limit of iterations.
•Indefinite Loops: Number of iterations unknown.
•Sentinel Controlled: Stops when a specific value (sentinel) is input.

Example (Sentinel Controlled):

int n, sum = 0;
while (1) {
scanf("%d", &n);
if (n == -1)
break; sum +=
n;
}
printf("Sum = %d", sum);

7. Procedure and Flowcharts

A procedure defines a set of steps or instructions to solve a problem.

Flowchart Symbols: | Symbol | Meaning | |---------|--------| | Oval | Start/Stop | | Rectangle |

Process | |
Parallelogram | Input/Output | | Diamond | Decision |

Example Flowchart (Sum of Two Numbers):

[Start] → [Input A, B] → [Sum = A + B] → [Print Sum] → [End]

8. Algorithms

An algorithm is a finite set of well-defined instructions to perform a task or solve a problem.

Characteristics: - Input and output clearly defined - Finiteness and effectiveness - Unambiguous
steps - Generality and correctness

Standard Algorithm Format: 1. Start 2. Input values 3. Process (computation) 4. Output results 5.
Stop

Example (Finding Factorial):

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 Start
Read n
fact =
1
for i = 1 to n
do fact =
fact * i
Print fact
Stop

9. Problems Involving Iteration and Nesting

•Simple Loops: Printing numbers, squares, or sums.

•Nested Loops: Patterns and tables.

Example – Print Multiplication Table:

for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {

for (int j = 1; j <= 10;
j++) { printf("%d\
t", i * j);
}
printf("\n");
}

10.Displaying Patterns and Shapes

Example – Triangle Pattern:

for (int i = 1; i <= 4;

i++) { for (int j =
1; j <= i; j++)
printf("* ");
printf("\n");
}

Output:

*
* *
* * *
* * * *

Explanation: Nested loops are used to print stars in an increasing pattern.

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11.Arithmetic and Geometric Progression

AP Example:

int a = 2, d = 3;
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++)
printf("%d ", a + i * d);

GP Example:

int a = 3, r = 2;
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i+
+) printf("%d ", a *
pow(r, i));

12.Fibonacci and Other Sequences

Example:

int n1 = 0, n2 = 1, n3;
printf("%d %d ", n1, n2);
for (int i = 2; i < 8;
i++) { n3 = n1 +
n2;
printf("%d ",
n3); n1 = n2;
n2 = n3;
}

Output: 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13

13.Approximation Problems (π, sin(x), cos(x))

Used in scientific calculations using series expansions.

Example (Approximation of π):

double pi =
0; int sign =
1;
for (int i = 1; i <= 1000; i
+= 2) { pi += sign *
(4.0 / i);

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 sign = -sign;
}
printf("Approx value of pi = %lf", pi);

14.Representation of Data in Computer Memory

Data is represented using binary digits (0 and 1). Each type of data (integer, real number,
character) has a specific format.

a) Representation of Integers

•Signed Magnitude: MSB represents sign (0 = +, 1 = –)

•1’s Complement: Invert all bits.
•2’s Complement: Invert bits and add 1.

b) Representation of Real Numbers (IEEE 754)

Represented as: - Sign bit (1 bit) - Exponent (8 bits) - Mantissa (23 bits)

Example:

(+1.101)₂ × 2³ = 13.0

c) Character Representation

•ASCII: 7-bit (A = 65, a = 97)

•UNICODE: 16-bit supports multiple languages.