CHAPTER 5

Competence and Performance

in Language Teaching*
Jack C. Richards

INTRODUCTION
This chapter explores the knowledge, beliefs, and skills that language teachers make use
of in their practice. The focus is on the understandings and practices of those teachers who
would generally be regarded by their peers as exemplary language teaching professionals.
Such teachers are easily recognized, but what distinguishes the way they understand and
approach their work? In trying to answer this question 10 qualities or characteristics of
exemplary language teachers will be examined in an attempt to conceptualize the nature
of competence, expertise, and professionalism in language teaching. At the same time it is
recognized that the nature of effectiveness in teaching is not always easy to define because
conceptions of good teaching differ from culture to culture (Tsui 2009). In some cultures
a good teacher is one who controls and directs learners and who maintains a respectful
distance between the teacher and the learners. Teaching is viewed as a teacher-controlled
and -directed process. In other cultures the teacher is viewed more as a facilitator. The
ability to form close interpersonal relations with students is highly valued and there is a
strong emphasis on individual learner creativity and independent learning. Notwithstanding
the reality of culturally determined understandings of good teaching, this chapter focuses
on those dimensions of teacher knowledge and skill that seem to be at the core of expert
teacher competence and performance in language teaching, at least from the perspective of
a “western” understanding of teaching.

1. THE LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY FACTOR

Most of the world’s English teachers are not native speakers of English and it is not necessary
to have a nativelike command of a language in order to teach it well (Canagarajah 1999).

* A longer version of this paper with the same title appeared in RELC Journal 41, 2010, pp. 101–122.

46

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 Competence and Performance in Language Teaching 47

The issue is, how much of a language does one need to know to be able to teach it
effectively, and how does proficiency in a language interact with other aspects of teaching
(Bailey, 2006; Kamhi-Stein 2009)? To answer these questions it is necessary to consider
the language-specific competencies a language teacher needs in order to teach effectively.
These include the ability to provide good language models, to maintain use of the target
language in the classroom, to give correct feedback on learner language, and to provide
input at an appropriate level of difficulty. Learning how to carry out these aspects of a
lesson fluently in English is an important dimension of teacher learning for those whose
mother tongue is not English. For these teachers as well as those who are native speakers of
English, other discourse skills will also need to be acquired – skills that enable the teacher
to manage classroom discourse so that it provides opportunities for language learning.
There appears to be a threshold language proficiency level a teacher needs to have
reached in the target language in order to be able to teach effectively. In some countries
education departments set benchmark standards for their nonnative English teachers to
meet in order to be able to teach English. A teacher who has not reached a threshold level
of proficiency in English will be more dependent on teaching resources (e.g., textbooks)
and less likely to be able to engage in improvisational teaching (Medgyes 2001). Apart
from the contribution to teaching skills that language proficiency makes, research has
also shown that a language teacher’s confidence is also dependent upon his or her own
level of language proficiency, so a teacher who perceives herself to be weak in the target
language will have reduced confidence in her teaching ability and an inadequate sense of
professional legitimacy (Seidlhofer 1999). Hence, research into teachers’ views of their
needs for professional development have often identified the need for further language
training as a high priority (Lavender 2002).

2. THE ROLE OF CONTENT KNOWLEDGE

A central issue in second language teacher-education concerns what the content knowledge
or subject matter of language teaching is, and consequently the question of what it is that
teachers need to know in order to reach their full potential as language teachers. Content
knowledge refers to what teachers need to know about what they teach (rather than what
they know about teaching itself) and constitutes knowledge that would not be shared with
teachers of other subject areas. Traditionally the content knowledge of language teaching
has been drawn from the discipline of applied linguistics, which generated the body of
specialized academic knowledge and theory represented in the curricula of MA TESOL
programs.
Two kinds of content knowledge need to be distinguished: disciplinary knowledge and
pedagogical content knowledge. Disciplinary knowledge refers to a circumscribed body
of knowledge that is considered to be essential to gaining membership of the language
teaching profession. Disciplinary knowledge is part of professional education and does not
translate into practical skills. When language teaching emerged as an academic discipline
in the 1960s, this disciplinary knowledge was largely drawn from the field of linguistics,
but today it encompasses a much broader range of content. For example, it could include
the history of language teaching methods, second language acquisition, sociolinguistics,
phonology and syntax, discourse analysis, theories of language, critical applied linguistics,
and so on.
Pedagogical content knowledge, on the other hand, refers to knowledge that provides
a basis for language teaching. It is knowledge that is drawn from the study of language
teaching and language learning itself and that can be applied in different ways to the resolu-
tion of practical issues in language teaching. It could include course work in areas, such as

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 48 Jack C. Richards

curriculum planning, assessment, reflective teaching, classroom management, teaching

children, teaching the four skills and so on. The Teacher Knowledge Test developed by
Cambridge ESOL is an example of a recent attempt to provide a basis in relevant pedagog-
ical content knowledge for entry-level teachers.
A sound grounding in relevant pedagogical content knowledge should prepare teach-
ers to be able to understand learners’ needs, diagnose learning problems, plan suitable
instructional goals for lessons, select and design learning tasks, and evaluate and choose
published materials. Teachers with relevant content knowledge should consequentially be
able to make better and more appropriate decisions about teaching and learning and to
arrive at more appropriate solutions to problems than a teacher without such knowledge.

3. TEACHING SKILLS
The initial challenge for novice teachers is to acquire the basic classroom skills needed to
present and navigate their lessons. Teaching from this perspective is an act of performance,
and teachers need a repertoire of techniques and routines, including routines and procedure
for such things as opening the lesson, introducing and explaining tasks, setting up learning
arrangements, checking students’ understanding, guiding student practice, making transi-
tions from one task to another and ending the lesson. The term “teacher training” refers to
instruction in basic classroom skills such as these, often linked to a specific teaching con-
text. Training involves the development of a repertoire of teaching skills, acquired through
observing experienced teachers and often through practice teaching in a controlled setting
using activities such as microteaching or peer teaching. Over time, experience is said to lead
to the development of routines that enable these kinds of skills to be performed fluently,
automatically and with less conscious thought and attention, enabling the teacher’s to focus
on other dimensions of the lesson (Tsui 2009; Borg 2006).
This view of the process of teaching has been extended through research on teacher
cognition (Borg 2006, 2009). Concepts such as teacher decision making introduce a cog-
nitive dimension to the notion of skills, since each “skill” involves the teacher in engaging
in sophisticated processes of observation, reflection, and assessment, and making online
decisions about which course of action to take from a range of alternatives that are available.
As teachers accumulate experience and knowledge there is thus a move toward a degree of
flexibility in teaching and the development of what is sometimes called “improvisational
teaching.”
So while learning to teach from the perspective of skill development can be thought
of as the mastery of specific teaching competencies, at the same time these reflect complex
levels of thinking and decision making, and it is these cognitive processes that also need to
be the focus of teacher training.

4. CONTEXTUAL KNOWLEDGE
Language teachers teach in many different contexts and in order to function in those contexts
need to acquire the appropriate contextual knowledge that will enable, for example, an
Australian teacher to learn how to be an effective teacher in China or vice versa, or a
Singapore teacher how to be an effective EFL teacher in Japan. Different contexts for
teaching create different potentials for learning that the teacher must come to understand.
Teaching involves understanding the dynamics and relationships within the classroom
and the rules and behaviors specific to a particular setting. Learning to teach involves

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 Competence and Performance in Language Teaching 49

understanding the dynamics and relationships within the classroom and the rules and
behaviors specific to a particular setting. Schools have their own ways of doing things. In
some schools, textbooks are the core of the curriculum and teachers follow a prescribed
curriculum. In others, teachers work from course guidelines and implement them as they
see fit. In some institutions there is a strong sense of professional commitment and teachers
are encouraged to cooperate with each other. In others, teachers work in relative isolation.
This is reflected in many different aspects of the way the school functions (Cooke and
Simpson 2008).
The notion of “context” here is hence a very broad one, since it includes issues such
as the school’s goals and mission, its management style and “school culture,” its physical
resources, including classroom facilities, media, and other technological resources, the
curriculum and course offerings, the role of textbooks and tests, as well as the characteristics
of teaches and learners in the school.
Teaching in a school thus involves induction to a community of practice (see 9,
below). Learning to teach involves becoming socialized into a professional culture with its
own goals, shared values, and norms of conduct. This “hidden curriculum” is often more
powerful than the school’s prescribed curriculum and teacher-learning involves learning to
teach within the constraints of the hidden curriculum.

5. THE LANGUAGE TEACHER’S IDENTITY

One of the things a person has to learn when he or she becomes a language teacher is what
it means to be a language teacher. Identity refers to the differing social and cultural roles
teacher-learners enact through their interactions with their students during the process of
learning (Miller 2009). These roles are not static but emerge through the social processes
of the classroom. Identity may be shaped by many factors, including personal biography,
gender, culture, working conditions, age, and the school and classroom culture. The concept
of identity thus reflects how individuals see themselves and how they enact their roles within
different settings.
Native-speaker and nonnative-speaker teacher-learners may bring different identities
to teacher learning and to teaching. For many ESL teachers their identity may partly reflect
their wish to empower immigrants, refugees, and others for whom English is way out of
their current circumstances (Cooke and Simpson 2008). Untrained native speakers teaching
EFL overseas face a different identity issue: they are sometimes credited with an identity
they are not really entitled to (the native-speaker-as-expert syndrome), finding that they
have a status and credibility which they would not normally achieve in their own country.
(In some parts of Asia high school graduates from the US can find jobs teaching English
and are given the status of “experts,” much to the chagrin of the experienced local teachers).
Teacher learning thus involves not only discovering more about the skills and knowledge
of language teaching but also what it means to be a language teacher.

6. LEARNER-FOCUSED TEACHING
While teaching can be viewed as a type of teacher performance, the goal of teaching is to
facilitate student learning. The extent to which the focus of a lesson is teacher rather than
learner focused is reflected in the extent to which input from learners directs the shape and
direction of the lesson, the quantity of student participation and interaction that occurs, the
ability of the teacher to present subject matter from a learner’s perspective, and how the
lesson reflects learners’ needs and preferences. These different perspectives on teaching

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 50 Jack C. Richards

are seen in how two teachers responded to the question, “What constitutes an effective
language lesson from your perspective?”

Teacher A
I believe the best lesson is a well-planned lesson. I find it much easier to
teach when I have a detailed plan to follow. I find that I am more likely to
use the time efficiently in the classroom if I know exactly what I will do and
what I expect students to do during the lesson.
Teacher B
A good lesson for me is one where students learn something. I believe every
child in my class has got the capacity to learn, even if he or she is not aware
of it. Every learner is a winner. I try to encourage each student to discover
what he or she is good at and to help them be successful at it.

It is natural when teachers first start teaching for them to be preoccupied with their own
performance, to try to communicate a sense of confidence, competence and skill, and to try
to create lessons that reflect purpose, order, and planning. Hence studies of teachers in their
first year of teaching have revealed a transition from a survival and mastery stage where
the teacher’s performance is a central concern, to a later stage where teachers become more
focused on their students’ learning and the impact of their teaching on learning (Farrell
2009). The challenge is to make sure that such a transition occurs and that the teacher’s
initial teaching experiences do not lead to a style of teaching that sticks, one that provides
a comfort zone for the teacher but that fails to provide learners with the opportunity to
achieve their full potential as learners (Tudor 1996; Benson 2001).
Learner-centeredness as a characteristic of expert teachers is seen in some of the
research Borg reviews (Borg 2006), where the characteristics of expert teachers include:

r they are familiar with typical student behaviors;

r they use their knowledge of learners to make predictions about what might
happen in the classroom;
r they build their lessons around students’ difficulties;
r they maintain active student involvement.

Senior (2006) suggests that a central aspect of learner-focused teaching is creating a class-
room that functions as a community of learners.

It is sometimes forgotten that language classes operate as communities, each

with its own collection of shared understandings that have been built up over
time. The overall character of each language class is created, developed, and
maintained by everyone in the room. (p. 200).

Effective teachers use different strategies to develop a sense of community among their
learners, including using group-based activities, by addressing common student interests
and concerns, by regularly changing seating arrangements so that students experience
working with different classmates, by using humor and other ways of creating a warm and
friendly classroom atmosphere, and by recognizing that students have social as well as
learning needs in the classroom.

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 Competence and Performance in Language Teaching 51

7. PEDAGOGICAL REASONING SKILLS

An important dimension of teaching is the teacher’s pedagogical reasoning skills. Shulman
(1987) described this ability as a process of transformation in which the teacher turns
the subject matter of instruction into forms that are pedagogically powerful and that are
appropriate to the level and ability of the students. These are the special skills that enable
English teachers to do the following:

r Analyze potential lesson content (e.g., a piece of realia, a text, an advertisement,

a poem, a photo, etc.) and identify ways in which it could be used as a teaching
resource
r Identify specific linguistic goals (e.g., in the area of speaking, vocabulary,
reading, writing, etc.) that could be developed from the chosen content
r Anticipate any problems that might occur and ways of resolving them
r Make appropriate decisions about time, sequencing, and grouping arrangements

Experienced teachers use these skills every day when they plan their lessons, when
they decide how to adapt lessons from their course book, and when they search the Internet
and other sources for materials and content that they can use in their classes. It is one of
the most fundamental dimensions of teaching, one that is acquired through experience,
through accessing content knowledge, and through knowing what learners need to know
and how to help them acquire it. While experience is crucial in developing pedagogical
reasoning skills, working with more experienced teachers through shared planning, team
teaching, observation, and other forms of collaboration can also play an important role in
helping less experienced teachers understand the thinking processes employed by other,
more experienced teachers.

8. THEORIZING FROM PRACTICE

Teacher development involves developing a deeper understanding of what teaching is, and
developing ideas, concepts, theories, and principles based on our experience of teaching
(Borg 2006). The development of a personal system of knowledge, beliefs and understand-
ings drawn from the practical experience of teaching is known as the theorizing of practice.
The belief system and understanding built up in this way helps teachers make sense of
experience and also serves as the source of the practical actions they take in the classroom.
The theorizing of practice involves reflecting on teaching experiences in order to better
understand the nature of language teaching and learning. The theorizing that results from
these reflections may take several different forms. It may lead to explanations as to why
things happen in the way they do, to generalizations about the nature of things, to princi-
ples that can form the basis of subsequent actions, and to the development of a personal
teaching philosophy (Richards 1998). The following are examples of teachers’ theorizing
from practice and arriving at explanations and generalizations:

Children are much better language learners than adults because they are
not worried about making mistakes and are much more prepared to take
risks.

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 52 Jack C. Richards

When we begin learning a language it’s better to follow the natural way,
using imitation. But when you are more advanced, then you need to know
more about the grammar.
The essential thing in language learning is knowing how to say what you
want to say but not why you have to say it in a particular way.

Teacher learning also involves developing principles and a teaching philosophy, as in

the following example where a teacher describes some of the beliefs and principles she
brings to her teaching:

I think it’s important to be positive as a personality. I think the teacher has

to be a positive person. I think you have to show a tremendous amount of
patience. And I think if you have a good attitude you can project this to the
students and hopefully establish a relaxed atmosphere in your classroom so
that the students won’t dread to come to class but have a good class. I feel
that it’s important to have a lesson plan of some sort. Because you need
to know what you want to teach and how you are going to go from the
beginning to the end. And also taking into consideration the students, what
there ability is, what their background is, and so on. I have been in situations
where I did not understand what was being taught or what was being said,
and how frustrating it is, and so when I approach it I say: how can I make it
the easiest way for them to understand what they need to learn? (Richards
1998, 52)

Activities in which teachers articulate their theories, beliefs, and principles are an
important component of professional development, and journal writing, narratives, discus-
sion, and critical reflection can all be used for this purpose.

9. MEMBERSHIP OF A COMMUNITY OF PRACTICE

Teacher development involves capitalizing on the potential for learning and growth that
comes from participating in a community of teachers having shared goals, values, and
interests. The school or the teaching context becomes a learning community and its members
constitute a community of practice. A community of practice has two characteristics:

1. It involves a group of people who have common interests and who relate and interact
to achieve shared goals.
2. It focuses on exploring and resolving issues related to the workplace practices that
members of the community take part in.

Membership in a community of practice in a school provides opportunities for teachers

to work and learn together through participation in group-oriented activities with shared
goals and responsibilities, involving joint problem solving. Collegiality creates new roles
for teacher, such as team leader, teacher trainer, mentor, or critical friend (Richards and
Farrell 2005).
This collaboration can take a number of different forms (Johnston 2009). For example:

Collaboration with fellow teachers. This often involves a focus on teaching issues and
concerns, such as use of the textbook, development of tests, and course planning.

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 Competence and Performance in Language Teaching 53

Collaboration with university colleagues. This may involve collaborative research or

inquiry into issues of shared interest, such as exploring aspects of second language
acquisition or learning strategies.
Collaboration with others in the school. This may involve working with administrators
or supervisors on issues of concern to the school.

Many forms of professional development can help foster the sense of a community
of practice, such as reading groups, action research, team teaching, peer observation, and
peer coaching, however this may require a change in mindset for some teachers who do not
see themselves as members of a team. For others, however, collaboration can be seen as a
source of strength that can have valuable personal as well as practical benefits. Making the
transition from seeing oneself as a self-contained independent individual to seeing oneself
as a member of a community of practice is an important component of the shaping of
teacher identity and an important milestone in professional development.
An example of how this kind of collaboration can happen is with the Lesson Study
Approach that has been widely implemented in Japan (Lewis and Tsuchida 1999). As
reported by Johnson (2009), teams of teachers coplan a lesson that focuses on a particular
piece of content of unit of study. Throughout the planning process, they draw on outside
resources, including textbooks, research, and teaching theories, and engage in extended
conversations while focusing on student learning and the development of specific outcomes.
Once the plan has been developed, one member of the team volunteers to teach it while
the others observe. (Sometimes outsiders are also invited to observe). After the lesson, the
group discusses its findings in a colloquium or panel discussion. Typically the teachers
who planned the lesson focus on their rationale for how they planned the lesson and their
evaluation of how it went, particularly focusing on student learning. The planning group
then reconvenes to review the lesson, revise it, and a different teacher then teaches it to a
different class.
The cycle culminates in the team publishing a report that includes lesson plans,
observed student behavior, teacher reflections, and a summary of the group discussions.
These are then made available to others.

10. PROFESSIONALISM
English language teaching is a profession, which means that it is seen as a career in a field
of educational specialization, it requires a specialized knowledge base obtained through
both academic study and practical experience, and it is a field of work where membership is
based on entry requirements and standards. Becoming an English language teacher means
becoming part of a worldwide community of professionals with shared goals, values,
discourse, and practices. There are two different dimensions to professionalism (Leung
2009). The first can be called institutionally prescribed professionalism – a managerial
approach to professionalism that represents the views of ministries of education, teaching
organizations, regulatory bodies, school principals, and so on, which specify what teachers
are expected to know and what quality teaching practices consist of. There are likely
to be procedures for achieving accountability and processes in place to maintain quality
teaching. Such specifications are likely to differ from country to country. This aspect
of professionalism involves becoming familiar with the standards the profession sets for
membership and a desire to attain those standards. Such standards involve acquiring the
qualifications the profession recognizes as evidence of professional competence, as well
as demonstrating a commitment to attaining high standards in our work, whether it be as
classroom teachers, supervisors, administrators, or teacher trainers.

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 54 Jack C. Richards

The second dimension to professionalism is what Leung calls independent profes-

sionalism, which refers to teachers’ own views of teaching and the processes by which
teachers engage in reflection on their own values, beliefs, and practices. A key to long-term
professional development is the ability to be able to reflect consciously and systematically
on one’s teaching experiences.
There are many ways in which teachers can engage in critical and reflective review
of their own practices throughout their teaching career (see Richards and Lockhart 1994,
Richards and Farrell 2005), for instance through analyzing critical incidents, teacher sup-
port groups, journal writing, discussion groups, action research, and portfolios. Reflection
involves both looking back at teaching experiences and looking forward and setting goals
for new or changed directions.

CONCLUSION
Any attempt to characterize the nature of quality, expertise, professionalism, or effectiveness
in language teaching is liable to the charge of different kinds of bias, since it is bound to
reflect understandings that are shaped by culture, by context, by individual belief and
preference, as well as by limitations in our present state of knowledge. These limitations
however should not prevent us from reflecting on the beliefs and assumptions that shape the
way we understand the nature of teacher knowledge and teacher development for language
teachers. For when we do so we are in a better position to assess what the goals of teacher
development for language teachers are, as well as the means by which we seek to achieve
them.

Key readings
Bartels, N. (2005). Applied linguistics and language teacher education. New York:
Springer.
Bailey, K. M. (1996). The best laid plans: Teachers’ in-class decisions to depart from their
lesson plans. In K. M. Bailey & D. Nunan (Eds.), Voices from the language classroom
(pp. 115–140). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cullen, R. (2002). The use of lesson transcripts for developing teachers’ classroom lan-
guage. In H. Trappes-Lomaz & G. Ferguson (Eds.), Language in language teacher
education (pp. 219–235). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Motivational strategies in the language classroom. Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press.
Golombek, P. (2009). Personal practical knowledge in L2 teacher education. In A. Burns
& J. C. Richards (Eds.), The Cambridge guide to second language teacher education
(pp. 155–162). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Johnson, K. (2009). Second language teacher education: a sociocultural perspective. New
York: Routledge.
Senior, R. M. (2006). The experience of language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press.

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Benson, P. (2001). Teaching and researching autonomy in language learning. London:

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Borg, S. (2006). Teacher cognition and language education: Research and practice.
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