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CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL IT: COURSEBOOK

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BEFORE YOU START

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• Do you know that a sensor is a type of input device?

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• Do you know that a monitoring system is different from a control system?
• Do you know the difference between analogue data and digital data?
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There are several advantages of using sensors to

Introduction collect data.

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You use monitoring systems and control systems every 1 Data can be repeatedly collected 24 hours a day.

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day. They are an important part of your life. These This means that a human does not need to be
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systems help with tasks such as keeping the temperature present all the time and can rest.

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of your fridge at the correct level. They also help 2 Data can be collected in harmful and dangerous
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keep you safe in workplaces that may be dangerous. environments, without the need for a human to be

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A monitoring system could collect data about the present. This means that the lives of humans are
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temperature in your local area so this can be reported. not endangered to collect the data.

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A control system could help keep a chemical factory 3 A sensor may be more consistent in the data that it

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worker safe as it will make sure that the production
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samples as it is a mechanical device. It is therefore

process is working correctly, so that the worker is not likely to be accurate. A human may be inconsistent
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exposed to chemicals for a dangerous amount of time. and this could lead to errors in data samples.
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KEY WORDS
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monitoring system: a system that observes and

often records the activities in a process
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control system: a system that manages or

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regulates a process by physically changing aspects

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of the system depending on collected data

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It is important for you to learn how these important

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systems operate and how they help many aspects of

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daily life.
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3.1 Sensors
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A sensor is a type of input device. It is used to collect

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data about a physical environment automatically.

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This removes the need for a human to collect the data

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manually. The data collected from a sensor is input into

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a system and any necessary action required is taken.

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KEY WORD
Figure 3.1: Collecting data.
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sensor: an input device that collects data from

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the surrounding physical environment If you look at the environment around you, you will see
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that it has many different elements to it.

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3 Monitoring and control

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Question Question

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1 What kind of things can you see, hear and feel in 3 a Think of two situations where a sensor may

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your environment?
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b What detrimental effect could this have?
When answering Question 1, you may have noticed
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things such as: For this reason, sensors can be regularly put through a

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• the temperature • the level of light process of calibration, to make sure the readings they
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take are accurate.

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• the level of sound • movement.

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There are also many more things that are changeable
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about the environment, such as:

3.2 Calibration
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• moisture
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An inaccurate set of data is useless. It could also be very

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• electromagnetic fields

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dangerous if the data is used in a control system that
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• pressure. takes vital action based upon the data. To make sure

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that the data collected by a sensor is accurate it can be
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If you attempted to create a sensor to collect data about

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all these different aspects of the environment, it would put through a process of calibration. No sensor will be

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probably need to be quite large. When you are trying absolutely perfect, but it is important to make sure that

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to collect data, it is important that the sensor is quite the readings that are taken are as accurate as possible.
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small so that it can fit into convenient places. There are

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different sensors that collect data about different aspects KEY WORD
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of the environment. There are sensors for:

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• light/UV • infrared calibration: the process of testing and modifying

a device to make sure that it is taking the
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• temperature • touch correct readings

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• pressure • electromagnetic field

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• humidity • proximity. To calibrate a sensor, you need a calibration reference.

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• sound This is a standard that you can calibrate against. A

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simple method of calibration is to test readings against

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another sensor that you know is calibrated, to see if the

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Question
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same readings are produced by both sensors. Another

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way to calibrate a sensor is by using another physical

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2 It may be obvious what some of the sensors collect

reference. For example, a ruler or measuring tape could
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data about, for example, light and sound. What

be used to find out if an item that should trigger the
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sort of data do you think some of the less obvious

proximity sensor does so from the correct distance set.
sensors collect, for example:
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• infrared Each sensor has a characteristic curve. This curve maps

the sensor’s response in comparison to an ideal response.
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• electromagnetic field
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There are three main categories of result that can be

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• touch given by a sensor. These are:

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• proximity? • Offset – this means that the readings are higher or

lower than the ideal reference
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You have learnt that there are advantages to using

• Sensitivity – this means that the readings change
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sensors, but there can also be disadvantages too. The

over a range at a different rate to the ideal reference
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biggest disadvantage is that a sensor can be subject to

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wear and tear and may become faulty. This might make
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• Linearity – this means that the readings are directly

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it start to provide incorrect readings. This could be proportional to the ideal reference.
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detrimental to the whole system.

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There are three different types of calibration that can be

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offset
used for a sensor. These are:

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ideal reference

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one point calibration

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• two point calibration
• multipoint calibration.
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One point calibration is the simplest form of calibration.
It can be used to correct an offset calibration curve.
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This is because the sensor is reading partly correct, as

it is changing at the same rate, but it is just consistently

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offset
error measuring too high or too low. The sensor can be

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actual calibrated based on a single reading to be brought closer

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Ideal to the ideal reference.

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Figure 3.2: Offset. There are different methods for performing a one point
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calibration check depending on the sensor. One simple

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method could be:
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1 Take a reading with the sensor.

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ideal reference
0.100
2 Compare the reading with a device measuring at

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the ideal standard.

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0.075
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3 Subtract the reading from the reference to get
actual the offset.
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4
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0.050 Add the offset to every reading to get the

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calibrated value.
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0.025 For example, if a thermometer tells you the

temperature of a room is 22 °C, but the reading from
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your sensor tells you that the room is 20.5 °C, the
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0.000
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 calculation would be:
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[BSA] mg/mL
22 – 20.5 = 1.5
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Figure 3.3: Sensitivity. This means the offset that needs to be added to each
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reading from the sensor is 1.5.

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Actual value
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Displayed value
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Figure 3.4: Linearity. Figure 3.5: Calibration curve.

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3 Monitoring and control

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Two point calibration can be used to correct a data the sensor of 37 °C. You can use a set of common ideal

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set suffering both offset and sensitivity. It rescales standard readings for iced water (0.01 °C) and boiling

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the output to do this. It can often be a more accurate water (100 °C).

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method of calibration than one point calibration.
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There are different methods, to perform a two point
IdealRangeValue = 99.99
calibration check depending on the sensor. One
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method could be: CorrectValue = (((37 – 0.75) * 99.99) / 97.25) + 0.01

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= 37.28 (2dp)
1 Take two different readings with your sensor. It
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works best if you take a reading at the lower end This means that the correct value for the sensor reading
of the scale and a reading at the higher end of of 37°C is 37.28 °C.

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the scale. Multipoint calibration is similar to the other calibration

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2 Compare the readings to readings from a device methods but is performed using many different readings,
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measuring at the ideal standard. at least three. This further increases the accuracy of

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3 Calculate the range value for the sensor readings by the calibration and can help calibrate sensors that
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subtracting the low reading from the high reading. would produce readings that do not naturally form a

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4 Calculate the range value for the ideal standard by linear line.
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subtracting the low reading from the high reading. When a sensor has collected the data, this data will be

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5 Use a formula to calculate the correct value for sent to a computer system. What happens to the data

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each reading such as: at this stage will depend on whether the system is a
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monitoring system or a control system.

6 CorrectValue = (((SensorCurrentValue –
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SensorLowValue) * IdealRangeValue) /
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SensorRangeValue) + IdealLowValue.
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For example, if a temperature sensor measures the 3.3 Monitoring systems

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temperature of an iced water bucket as 0.75 °C and

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a boiling kettle as 98 °C, you can use this two point A monitoring system is designed to collect the data and
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then store it so that it can be used at a later stage. For

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calibration method to get a correct reading for the

example, data may be collected about the temperature in
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temperature sensor. You can use a current reading from

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a garden over a period of 24 hours, for a week. The data

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could then be analysed at a later stage to see which day

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was the warmest and what time of the day the warmest
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temperature was recorded.

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The main technologies used in a monitoring system are

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sensors. Other technologies that may be used are storage

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devices to store the data collected. Graphing software

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could also be used to create visual representation of the

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data to make it easier to interpret.

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An example of this type of system could be a

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monitoring system for the level of chlorine in the water

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of a swimming pool:
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• a pH sensor is placed in the swimming pool

the pH sensor takes readings at regular intervals,
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•
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such as every minute

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• the readings are sent to a storage device

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• the readings are put into a graph by the manager

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so that she can see the level of chlorine in the water

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Figure 3.6: Thermometer. throughout the day.

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Figure 3.7: Monitoring chlorine levels. Figure 3.8: Weather station.

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A real-world example of a PRACTICAL ACTIVITY 3.01

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Research how a weather station makes use of

monitoring system – weather
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sensors. Draw an infographic, using the software

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of your choice, to inform your classmates how a
stations weather station makes use of different sensors.
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Weather stations use many monitoring systems to

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provide everyone with daily information about the

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weather in their area, and all over the world. On an

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Question
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individual level, this daily information is important in

knowing how to plan your day: how you should dress 4 A textile factory is about to open. The factory is
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or how it will affect your activities. On a wider scale, near a river. The local authority is worried that
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industries such as the farming industry heavily depend chemicals used to colour the textiles may leak into
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on weather reports to make sure they task the right the nearby river. They decide to set up a monitoring
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actions for their crops. system to check the pH level of the river at regular
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intervals. Explain what sensors could be used and

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A weather station uses lots of temperature sensors that

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are spread across a region or country. These temperature how they could be used in this system.
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sensors take data samples of the ambient temperature in

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that area. The data samples are sent back to the weather
3.4 Control systems
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station. This data can then be used in many ways, for

example, to report the current temperature. The weather
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station could also analyse lots of samples of data and A control system is designed to collect data and then
predict what the weather may be in the future. send this to a computer system so that it can be analysed
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(and any resulting action taken).

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A weather station may also use pressure sensors,

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humidity sensors and light sensors. The main technologies used in a monitoring system are
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sensors, microprocessors and sometimes actuators. You

have looked at the different kind of sensors that can be
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used and what the advantages and disadvantages are of

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using sensors. You also need to understand the use of

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microprocessors and actuators, and the advantages and

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disadvantages of each.
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3 Monitoring and control

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A microprocessor is an electronic component that An actuator is used to move and operate other different

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can perform similar functions to a central processing mechanisms or devices. Actuators can be based on

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unit (CPU). It can process instructions and perform different methods of operation such as hydraulic,

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mathematical comparisons and calculations.
am pneumatic or electric. Actuators could control

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Microprocessors also have small areas to hold data operations such as opening and closing a valve, turning
called registers. Microprocessors are normally a single a switch on and off or driving a mechanism to open
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integrated circuit. a door. They can also be used to drive each of the

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individual parts in a robot.
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KEY WORD
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KEY WORD

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microprocessor: an integrated circuit that is used

in monitoring and control systems actuator: a type of motor that is used to move

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and operate another mechanism or device

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An actuator is vital in a control system because it is the

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element that drives the action to be performed to control
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the element of the environment that is at the focus.

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Figure 3.9: Microprocessor.

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There are both advantages and disadvantages to using a

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microprocessor in control systems. Figure 3.10: Robot arm.

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Advantages Disadvantages There are both advantages and disadvantages to using

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actuators in control systems.

They can be There is a limit on the
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programmed to execute size of the data they are

Advantages Disadvantages
several different tasks. able to handle.
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Hydraulic and electric Pneumatic actuators can

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They are small in size so They are only small in actuators are fairly quiet. be quite noisy.
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can be easily built into size and can overheat

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The cost of pneumatic The cost of hydraulic

different technologies. if too much demand is
actuators is relatively and electric actuators is
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placed on them.
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low. relatively high.

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They are relatively Most actuators have Fluid leaks can be a

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fast at moving data moderate to high speed problem in hydraulic

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between different abilities to perform an actuators.

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memory locations. action.

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Table 3.1: Advantages and disadvantages of microprocessors. Table 3.2: Advantages and disadvantages of actuators.
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Sensors, microprocessors and actuators are programmed 6 If the data sample is greater than 22 degrees,

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to interact with each other to create a control system. the microprocessor sends a signal to an

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actuator, triggering the system to increase the

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There are several stages in the process of a

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cooling function.
control system.
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7 If the data sample is less than 22 degrees, the
1 The sensor collects the data at set-time intervals, for microprocessor sends a signal to an actuator to
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example once every minute.

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trigger the system to increase the heating function.

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2 The data is sent to a microprocessor. 8 If the data sample is equal to 22 degrees, no
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3 The microprocessor will analyse the data. This action is taken.
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could involve comparing it to a pre-stored value, or 9 The whole process is then repeated at a set time

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range of values. interval, for example, once every minute.

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4 If the data does not match the pre-stored value, the
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This list represents an algorithm, which is a set of

microprocessor will send a signal to an actuator
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instructions or steps to be followed to achieve a certain

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or device.
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outcome, for this example of a control system.

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5 The actuator or device will trigger any action that

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needs to be taken.
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An example of this type of system could be an air- KEY WORD

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conditioning system.

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algorithm: a set of instructions or steps to be

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followed to achieve a certain outcome

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This system could also be represented as a flowchart:
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Start
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User sets temperature

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for room
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Temperature
is stored
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Temperature sensor
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collects data sample

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Data sample is analysed

by microprocessor
Figure 3.11: Air conditioning.
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1 The user sets the temperature to 22 degrees Celsius. Is data = 22

Yes

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This value is stored.

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3 A temperature sensor collects data about the No

ambient temperature in the room.

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Yes No
Is data > 22
4 The data collected by the sensor is sent to the
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microprocessor. The data is converted from

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analogue to digital.
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Microprocessor sends Microprocessor sends

5 The microprocessor analyses each data sample
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signal to actuator that triggers signal to actuator that triggers

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cooling function heating function

sent to see if it is equal to the stored value of
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22 degrees Celsius.
Figure 3.12: Temperature control flowchart.
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A real-world example of a

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control system – growing

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crops

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A farm that grows fruit and vegetables makes use of

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many different control systems. It relies on these systems

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to make sure that the produce it grows are kept in the
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correct conditions to make sure that they do grow.

It would be a huge task for a farmer to constantly

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check his produce, so he relies on these systems to do

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this for him.

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One control system that he could use is to control the

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conditions within his greenhouses. The correct level

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of light and temperature will need to be maintained.

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The control systems will incorporate light sensors,
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temperature sensors, microprocessors and actuators to
maintain the correct conditions. The farmer wants to

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make sure the temperature is between 22 °C and 25 °C.

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1
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The control system uses a temperature sensor to

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Figure 3.13: Environment control.
read the temperature within the greenhouse on a
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regular basis.
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2 The readings are sent to a microprocessor. They PRACTICAL ACTIVITY 3.02

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will need to be converted from analogue data to

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digital data to be processed by the microprocessor. Discuss with a partner how the control system
might work to control the correct level of light.
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3 The microprocessor compares the reading to the

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set range.
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4 If the reading is within the range, no further

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A real-world example of a
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action is taken.
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5 If the reading is greater than 25 °C, the control system – protecting

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microprocessor sends a signal to an actuator that

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could drive an action, such as open a window to the against intruders

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greenhouse.
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A jewellery store uses three main control systems to keep

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6 If the reading is less than 22 °C, the microprocessor the jewellery they sell safe and secure. These systems are
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sends a signal to an actuator that could drive an vital to the security of the jewellery and the store heavily
action, such as turn on a heater in the greenhouse. relies on them.
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7 The whole process is repeated.

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Their first security control system detects if an intruder

enters the store through a door or window. Infrared
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beams of light are run across each doorway and

Question window. If one of these beams is broken, an alarm will
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5 a Draw a flowchart to demonstrate how this sound and metal bars will close every door and window,
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environment control system will operate. trapping the intruder inside the room.
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b The control is missing two vital processes, can

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Question
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you identify what they are?

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6 Write an algorithm to demonstrate how this entry

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detection control system will operate.

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Their second security control system detects if a window The jewellers’ third security control system detects if any

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is broken by an intruder trying to enter. The sound of of the jewellery glass cabinets are opened by an intruder.

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any breaking glass is measured. If the sound of breaking The weight of the glass for each cabinet is 5 kg. If any

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glass is detected, the alarm will sound again.
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bars will close every door and window.

Question
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Question

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7 Draw a flowchart to demonstrate how this broken
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glass detection control system will operate. 8 Either write and algorithm or draw a flowchart to

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demonstrate how this glass cabinet control system

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will operate.
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REFLECTION

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Look at your flowchart. Can you see any way that

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REFLECTION

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you can improve it? Is it easy to follow? Have you
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used the correct symbols? How did you work out which sensors would be
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used in each system?

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EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
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1 Define the role of a sensor. [1]
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2 Define the role of a microprocessor. [1]

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3 Define the role of an actuator. [1]

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4 Describe how a sensor is calibrated using two point calibration. [3]

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5 State two advantages of using a microprocessor in a control system. [2]

6 Explain the difference between a monitoring system and a control system. [4]
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7 Describe how a control system using touch sensors can be used to make sure the level of cooling liquid
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[5]
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in a nuclear power plant is maintained at a certain level.

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8 Draw a flowchart to represent a control system with the following requirements:

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• A proximity sensor is used in a mobile phone.

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• The proximity sensor measures the immediate environment, using infrared (IR), to see if it is close to
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a human ear.
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• If an IR level of 12 micron is detected, the screen on the mobile turns off. The screen will
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immediately turn back on again when the IR level reduces. [6]

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SUMMARY CHECKLIST
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I can identify a variety of different sensors and explain how they are used in monitoring systems.
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I can identify a variety of different sensors and actuators and explain how they are used in control systems.
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I can explain how sensors are calibrated, using different types of calibration.
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I can draw a flowchart to represent a control system.

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I can write an algorithm to represent a control system.

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I can explain at least two different advantages and disadvantages of control technologies.
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am

-R

52
-C

s
es

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