Core data structures overview
short answers
array, linkedlist , heap memory , static memory , dynamic memory, stack , queue,
and other conepts that might come according to the precious questions
Here’s a short and exam-ready summary of all those and related core concepts 👇
🔹 Array
A collection of elements stored in contiguous memory locations.
Elements are accessed using index.
Fixed size once declared.
🔹 Linked List
A linear data structure where each element (node) contains data + pointer to next node.
Dynamic size, easy insertion/deletion.
Types: Singly, Doubly, Circular Linked List.
🔹 Stack
LIFO (Last In, First Out) structure.
Operations: push(), pop(), peek().
Used in recursion, expression evaluation, function call stack.
🔹 Queue
FIFO (First In, First Out) structure.
Operations: enqueue(), dequeue().
Used in scheduling, buffering, and BFS algorithm.
🔹 Heap Memory
Used for dynamic memory allocation (created at runtime).
Accessed via pointers.
Managed manually in C/C++ (malloc(), free()), or automatically by garbage collector in Java.
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🔹 Static Memory
Memory allocated at compile time.
Size fixed; cannot be changed during execution.
Includes global, static, and constant variables.
🔹 Dynamic Memory
Allocated at runtime using functions like new, malloc().
Size can be modified during execution.
Requires manual deallocation (delete, free()).
🔹 Pointer
A variable that stores the address of another variable.
Used for dynamic memory, arrays, and function arguments.
🔹 Structure
A user-defined data type that groups different types of variables under one name.
🔹 Class & Object (OOP)
Class: Blueprint for creating objects.
Object: Instance of a class with attributes and methods.
🔹 Recursion
Function calling itself to solve smaller subproblems.
Uses stack internally.
🔹 Heap (Data Structure)
A complete binary tree used for priority queues.
Types: Min-Heap (parent < child), Max-Heap (parent > child).
🔹 Algorithm Complexity
Time Complexity: How time grows with input size.
Space Complexity: How memory grows with input size.
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🔹 Searching Algorithms
Linear Search: O(n)
Binary Search: O(log n), works on sorted arrays.
🔹 Sorting Algorithms
Bubble Sort, Selection Sort, Insertion Sort: O(n²)
Merge Sort, Quick Sort: O(n log n)
Would you like me to add C++ code examples for each (array, stack, queue, linked list, etc.) next?
function
Here’s a short and clear explanation of “Function” and related key concepts 👇
🔹 Function
A block of code that performs a specific task.
Used to make code modular, reusable, and easy to debug.
Syntax (C++ Example):
cpp
returnType functionName(parameters) {
// code
return value;
}
🔹 Types of Functions
1. Built-in Functions – Already provided by the language (e.g., sqrt(), printf()).
2. User-defined Functions – Created by the programmer.
🔹 Parts of a Function
Function Declaration (Prototype): tells compiler about function name & type.
cpp
int add(int, int);
Function Definition: actual code of the function.
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cpp
int add(int a, int b) {
return a + b;
}
Function Call: executes the function.
cpp
cout << add(5, 3);
🔹 Parameter Types
Pass by Value: Copy of the variable is passed.
Pass by Reference: Actual variable (address) is passed.
🔹 Return Type
Specifies what a function returns (e.g., int, float, void).
🔹 Void Function
A function that does not return any value.
cpp
void greet() {
cout << "Hello!";
}
🔹 Recursive Function
Function calls itself to solve a smaller problem.
cpp
int fact(int n) {
if(n==0) return 1;
return n * fact(n-1);
}
🔹 Inline Function
Function whose code is expanded inline to reduce overhead of calling.
cpp
inline int square(int x) { return x*x; }
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🔹 Function Overloading
Same function name but different parameters.
cpp
int add(int a, int b);
double add(double a, double b);
Would you like me to add short notes on constructor, destructor, and inline/static functions next
(they usually come with function-related questions)?
loops
Here’s a short and exam-ready explanation of Loops 👇
🔹 Loops
A loop is used to repeat a block of code multiple times until a condition is false.
Helps in reducing code repetition.
🔹 Types of Loops
1. for loop
Used when the number of iterations is known.
cpp
for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
cout << i << " ";
}
👉 Output: 1 2 3 4 5
2. while loop
Used when the number of iterations is unknown and depends on a condition.
cpp
int i = 1;
while (i <= 5) {
cout << i << " ";
i++;
}
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3. do...while loop
Executes at least once, even if condition is false.
cpp
int i = 1;
do {
cout << i << " ";
i++;
} while (i <= 5);
🔹 Loop Control Statements
break: Exit the loop immediately.
continue: Skip current iteration and continue to next.
goto: Jump to a labeled statement (rarely used).
🔹 Nested Loops
Loop inside another loop.
cpp
for (int i = 1; i <= 3; i++) {
for (int j = 1; j <= 3; j++) {
cout << i << "," << j << " ";
}
}
🔹 Example Output:
1,1 1,2 1,3 2,1 2,2 2,3 3,1 3,2 3,3
Would you like me to add short notes on conditional statements (if, else, switch) next? They usually
come right after loops in exams.
can you give me in details about all the topics
Perfect 👍 — here’s a detailed yet easy-to-understand explanation of all the important core
programming concepts (arrays, linked lists, stack, queue, memory types, functions, loops, etc.)
Everything below is written in exam-style + practical C++ understanding — ideal for revision or notes.
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🧩 1. Array
🔹 Definition
An array is a collection of elements of the same data type, stored in contiguous memory locations.
Each element can be accessed using its index.
🔹 Syntax
cpp
int arr[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
🔹 Features
Fixed size (cannot grow/shrink at runtime)
Random access using index
Index starts from 0
🔹 Example
cpp
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++)
cout << arr[i] << " ";
🔗 2. Linked List
🔹 Definition
A linked list is a linear data structure where each element (called a node) contains:
Data
Pointer to the next node
🔹 Types
1. Singly Linked List — one pointer to next node
2. Doubly Linked List — pointers to next & previous nodes
3. Circular Linked List — last node points back to the first node
🔹 Example
cpp
struct Node {
int data;
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Node* next;
};
🔹 Advantages
Dynamic size
Easy insertion/deletion
🔹 Disadvantages
No random access
Extra memory for pointers
📚 3. Stack
🔹 Definition
A Stack is a LIFO (Last In, First Out) data structure.
🔹 Operations
push() → insert element
pop() → remove element
peek() → show top element
🔹 Example
cpp
#include <stack>
stack<int> s;
s.push(10);
s.push(20);
cout << s.top(); // 20
s.pop();
🔹 Applications
Function calls (recursion)
Undo/Redo in text editors
Expression evaluation
📦 4. Queue
🔹 Definition
A Queue is a FIFO (First In, First Out) data structure.
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🔹 Operations
enqueue() → add element at rear
dequeue() → remove element from front
🔹 Example
cpp
#include <queue>
queue<int> q;
q.push(10);
q.push(20);
cout << q.front(); // 10
q.pop();
🔹 Applications
CPU scheduling
Printer queues
Breadth-First Search (BFS)
🧠 5. Memory Types
🔸 Static Memory
Allocated at compile time
Fixed size, cannot be changed
Example: global or static variables
cpp
static int x = 10;
🔸 Stack Memory
Used for local variables, function calls
Automatically created and destroyed
Fast access but limited in size
🔸 Heap Memory
Used for dynamic memory allocation
Managed manually (new, delete)
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cpp
int* ptr = new int;
delete ptr;
🔸 Dynamic Memory
Memory created at runtime
Flexible and efficient for varying data sizes
⚙️ 6. Function
🔹 Definition
A function is a block of reusable code that performs a specific task.
🔹 Syntax
cpp
returnType functionName(parameters) {
// statements
return value;
}
🔹 Example
cpp
int add(int a, int b) {
return a + b;
}
cout << add(2, 3); // Output: 5
🔹 Types
User-defined
Built-in (Library)
Recursive
Inline
🔹 Pass Types
By Value → Copy passed
By Reference → Actual variable passed
🔁 7. Loops
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🔹 for Loop
Used when number of iterations is known.
cpp
for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++)
cout << i << " ";
🔹 while Loop
Used when number of iterations is unknown.
cpp
int i = 1;
while (i <= 5)
cout << i++;
🔹 do...while Loop
Executes at least once.
cpp
int i = 1;
do {
cout << i++;
} while (i <= 5);
🔹 Control Statements
break → exits loop
continue → skips current iteration
🧩 8. Pointers
🔹 Definition
A pointer stores the address of another variable.
🔹 Example
cpp
int a = 10;
int* p = &a;
cout << *p; // prints value at address
🔹 Use
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Dynamic memory
Function arguments
Arrays and structures
🧰 9. Structure
🔹 Definition
A structure groups variables of different data types under one name.
🔹 Example
cpp
struct Student {
int id;
char name[20];
float marks;
};
Access:
cpp
Student s1 = {1, "Sudip", 92.5};
cout << s1.name;
🧱 10. Class and Object (OOP)
🔹 Class
A blueprint for creating objects.
Contains data members and functions.
🔹 Object
An instance of a class.
🔹 Example
cpp
class Car {
public:
string model;
void show() {
cout << "Model: " << model;
}
};
Car c1;
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c1.model = "Tesla";
c1.show();
🔄 11. Recursion
🔹 Definition
A function calling itself until a base condition is met.
🔹 Example
cpp
int factorial(int n) {
if (n == 0) return 1;
return n * factorial(n - 1);
}
🧮 12. Algorithm Basics
🔹 Searching
Linear Search: check each element → O(n)
Binary Search: divide and search → O(log n)
🔹 Sorting
Bubble, Selection, Insertion: O(n²)
Merge, Quick: O(n log n)
🏗️ 13. Heap (as Data Structure)
🔹 Definition
A complete binary tree used for priority queues.
🔹 Types
Min Heap: Parent < Children
Max Heap: Parent > Children
🔹 Applications
Priority queue
Heap sort
Dijkstra’s algorithm
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⚖️ 14. Time & Space Complexity
Time Complexity: Execution time vs. input size
Space Complexity: Memory usage vs. input size
Common notations: O(1), O(n), O(log n), O(n²)
Would you like me to make a PDF of all these notes (with C++ examples) so you can keep it for offline
or exam use?
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