Foundry Technology

22MTT-202 (3L + 4T)

Dr. Jyotirmaya Kar

Asst. Professor

Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering

 Marks Distribution
Mid Semester End Semester TA

30 50 20

Text Books:
⌘ Principles of Foundry Technology……………. [P.L. Jain]

⌘ Principles of Metal Casting ……………. [R.W. Heine, C.R. Loper, and P.C. Rosenthal]

⌘ Manufacturing Technology ……………. [P.N. Rao]

⌘ A Text Book of Foundry Technology ……………. [O.P. Khanna]

⌘ Foundry Technology ……………. [D. Kumar and S.K. Jain]

⌘ Foundry Engineering ……………. [H.F. Taylor, M.C. Flemings, and J. Wulf] 2

 Syllabus
Unit I: Introduction to foundry practice as a process of manufacturing, Patterns: Functions, classification,
materials, allowances and design considerations. Molding materials: Types of molding sand and their
characteristics, Ingredients of molding sand, Special additives, Binders: their effect on the properties of
molding sand, Parting and facing materials, Core sand, Cores and their types.

Unit II: Molding/Casting processes: Sand mold casting (Green, dry, floor, pit, cement bonded core sand),
Shell molding, CO2 mold casting, Investment casting, Shell casting, Ceramic mold casting, Plaster mold casting,
Permanent mold casting: centrifugal casting, gravity die- casting and pressure die casting, Gating and risering:
basic requirements of gating and feeding system, design of gating system, types of gates, design of feeders,
Use of exothermic compounds, exothermic sleeves, chills and padding.

Unit III: Solidification of castings: nucleation and growth phenomena, Metal mold vs. sand mold, pure metal
vs. alloy, Effect of grain refiner, Melting furnaces: selection of remelting furnace, Cast iron foundry practice,
Cupola melting practice, Production of SG and cast iron, Remelting practice for ferrous and nonferrous alloys.

Unit IV: Casting defects: causes and remedies, Quality control in foundry, Sand reclamation, Recent
practices in foundry industries. 3
Lecture-25,26

 Melting Practice in Foundries

 Crucible Furnace
 Rotary Furnace
 Hearth Furnace
 Arc Furnace
 Induction Furnace
 Converters
 Melting Practice : Crucible Furnace
♣ These furnaces are convenient for small foundries
which handle a variety of alloys (ferrous & non-
ferrous) intermittently and in small quantities.

♣ Used in Foundries for melting small batches having

capacity up to 150 kg range. Maximum capacity of EIFs
can be up to 20tons or even higher.

♣ These are made using refractory materials like

graphite/silicon carbide with clay. Its sizes varies
from 1 to 400, where the number indicates the
approximate melting capacity in kilograms of copper.

♣ Heat for melting is supplied from outside. Heat

sources can be coke, oil, gas, or electricity (induction). 232
 Melting Practice : Crucible Furnace
▨ Important Properties of Crucibles :

☞ Refractoriness. ☞ Thermal Conductivity.

☞ Thermal Shock Resistance. ☞ Mechanical Strength.

☞ Erosion and Corrosion Resistance. ☞ Chemically Inert.

▨ Crucible Furnace Types :

╋ Pit Furnace ╋ Tilting Furnace

╋ Stationery Furnace ╋ Pot Furnace

233
 Chimney
Cover

Cover
Crucible
Crucible
Coke
/Coal
Pit to help
removing Fuel
ashes and
supply air Air
Blower
Air (ND/FD) Coal Fired Stationary Type Gas/Oil Fired Stationary Type

Pit Type

Pot

Burner

Pot Type
234
Tilting Type
 Crucible Furnace : Pros & Cons
▨ Advantages :

☺ Uniform heating of charge.

☺ No contamination of charge with fuel or POC.
☺ Flexibility with respect to charge metal/alloys .
☺ Low melting losses.
☺ Low capital and installation cost.

▨ Limitations :

 .  .

 .  .

 .  .
235
 Melting Practice : Rotary Furnace
♽ It consists of an horizontal cylindrical steel shell

Chimney
lined with refractories and mounted on a roller drive. Steel Tyre

The cylindrical barrel rotates completely at 1 to 2RPM.

♽ Due to rotation, the charge gets heat from the

Burner
walls and melting becomes more efficient and faster.
Slag
♽ The heat source can be gas, oil or pulverized coal
Aluminum
burned with recuperator based preheated air. Since Charging
Door
fuel is not in contact, chances of [C] & [S] pick up is Roller Drive

minimum. Process capacity: 1 to 50T.

♽ Charging and slagging is done from side, while

tapping is done through a taphole (in shell) with spout.

♽ Process can be used for melting and smelting

purposes. Average campaign time: 200 to 300heats. 236
 Rotary Furnace : Pros & Cons
▨ Advantages :

☺ Low capital investment. ☺ Easier adjustment of metal composition.

☺ High thermal efficiency. ☺ High productivity

☺ Batch or Continuous operation. ☺ Controlled furnace atmosphere.

☺ Environment friendly. ☺ Low maintenance.

▨ Limitations :

 .  .

 .  .

 .  . 237
 Melting Practice : Hearth Furnace
☞ Widest class of all types and includes wide range of fixed, tilting and rotating furnaces.
☞ Used for different applications like roasting, melting, reheating, etc.

☞ In most cases the hearth/floor of the furnace chamber heated by radiation/convection from
flame/electrical source

Hearth Furnace Types:

֍ Air Furnace

֍ Open Hearth Furnace

֍ Multiple Hearth Furnace

֍ Electric Arc Furnace

238
 Melting Practice : ARC Furnace
 In such furnaces the charge/stock is heated by means of an
electric arc.

 Arc can be formed either between two electrodes of sufficient

potential difference or between one electrode and the charge
itself.

 Arc heating furnaces can be of two types such as :

 Direct Arc Heating.  Indirect Arc Heating.

 In the electric furnace where the arc is produced between two

electrodes and the heat generated in the arc is transferred to the
charge is known as the indirect-arc furnace.

 In the electric furnace where the arc is produced between the

electrode and the charge itself is called a direct arc furnace. 239
 Melting Practice : ARC Furnace
DC-EAF
▨ Direct Arc Furnace :
 Used for melting, refining, both melting and refining or just to
hold the molten metal at a constant temperature.

 Most popular type is the Heroult furnace with capacity

ranging from 1 to 125 tonne ( 5 - 25 tonne most common in
foundries). Slagging via Slag Door

 The furnace has a cylindrical steel shell with a spherical or Tapping via Spout

flat base. The furnace is mounted over rollers to enable it for

tilting.

 The charge is contained over the bowl shaped hearth lined

with suitable refractory material, such as magnesite bricks.

 There are two opening opposite to each other, one for slagging
(slag door) and the other for molten metal tapping (spout). AC-EAF 240
 Melting Practice : ARC Furnace
Detachable
Roof

Graphite Shell Section

Electrodes
Electric Arc Spout

Slag Door

Molten Metal

Working Line

Permanent Line

241
 Melting Practice : ARC Furnace
▨ Direct Arc Furnace :
⁂ The electrodes enter through the roof and carry the necessary current to produce
the arc, which in turn provides the necessary heat.

⁂ The arc is produced due to the resistance offered to the flow of current (In solid
state the charge material provides the resistance and in molten state the slag provides
the resistance)

⁂ It is required that the electrodes should have high electrical and low thermal
conductivity, good refractoriness and resistance to oxidation and chemical reaction. They
should also have good mechanical strength at elevated temperature.

⁂ Graphite and amorphous carbon satisfy these requirements, out of which graphite is
superior (higher electrical conductivity and lighter).
242
 Melting Practice : ARC Furnace
▨ Direct Arc Furnace : Advantages

☺ Less contamination of liquid metal.

☺ Accurate temperature control.

☺ Relatively higher efficiency (70%).

☺ Easily to control furnace atmosphere.

☺ Higher recovery of alloying elements like,

Ni, Cr, W from scrap with negligible loss.

☺ Ability to produce steel directly from pig

iron and steel scrap.

243
 Melting Practice : ARC Furnace
▨ Indirect Arc Furnace :
 Can be used for all types of metals, specially for non-ferrous metals. Its capacity varies from
100 kg to 5 tonnes.

 The furnace is made up of a barrel shaped drum, mounted horizontally and has the facility to
rotate back and forth through an angle 180˚.

 Two electrodes (graphite made), each entering the furnace from either end and coinciding the
horizontal axis of the cylinder are used. Charging is done through charging door.

 The arc is struck between the electrodes and the heat is transferred to the charge and the
lining of the furnace by radiation. Later the charge takes the heat from the lining by conduction as
the furnace rotates.

 When melting is complete, furnace is tilted mechanically and tapping is carried out through a
spout. 244
 Melting Practice : ARC Furnace
Arc
▨ Indirect Arc Furnace : Advantages
Rotating
Charging steel shell
 Metal charge does not form a Door
Refractory
Lining
part of electrical circuit. Power
Supply
 Rocking design avoids over
heating of refractories.

 Furnace rotation facilitates Pouring Electrode

Spout
uniform composition.
Molten
Metal Roller Drive
 operation and control of
furnace is simple.

 Ability to melt low cost scrap. Melts copper and

aluminium. 245
 Melting Practice : Induction Furnace
 Induction heating processes make use of currents (eddy
currents) induced by electromagnetic action in the material to be
heated.

 Induction furnace capacity can be from few kgs to few ton.

Such furnaces are used to melt iron and steel, copper, aluminum,
and precious metals.

 Induction furnaces are classified as :

☞ Low Frequency (up to 50Hz).

☞ Medium Frequency (300 to 10kHz).

☞ High Frequency (up to 250kHz).

246
 Melting Practice : Induction Furnace
 The crucible in this furnace is formed by ramming refractory
material around a steel shell. Electric power to the furnace is
supplied by an induction coil placed around the crucible
concentrically.

 The induction coil is made up of thick copper tube inside which Tapping from EIF

cooling water is circulated. The crucible and the coil are placed
inside a rectangular box or shell.

 The box is placed at a raised platform and is provided with a

mechanism to pour liquid metal into ladles.

 Besides crucible, the other attachments of this furnace involve

frequency converter, tilting arrangement, water treatment plant,
pump to circulate water, control panel and capacitor banks. 247
Induction coil of EIF
 Melting Practice : Induction Furnace
▨ Advantages :

Pouring
Spout

Top Cover
☺ For same size, melting is faster than arc furnaces.
☺ Lower energy consumption than arc furnaces.

support Coil
Frame to
☺ Minimum metal loss to slag

Pivot Point
☺ Homogeneous composition due to stirring effect.

Steel Shell
☺ Low maintenance cost.
Water cooled
☺ Environment friendly. Copper Coil

Stirring action
▨ Disadvantages : of Molten Metal

 Higher furnace and auxiliary component cost.

 Inability to carry out refining of liquid metal. Magnetic

Refractory
Screen

Lining
 Needs higher quality and low impurity scrap as charge.
Electric Induction Furnace (EIF)248
 Requirement of specially treated water for coil cooling.
 Melting Practice : Converters
Steel Converter
⁂ These type of furnaces are mainly used for steel
making and copper production.

⁂ Unlike furnaces here external heat supply is not

carried out.

⁂ For processing the heat is supplied from exothermic

oxidation reactions.

Important Converters

 Copper Converter

 Steelmaking Converter

Copper Converter 249

Lecture-27,28

 Introduction to Cast Iron

 Grey Cast Iron
 White Cast Iron

 Production practice for cast iron

 White Cast Iron
 Ductile Cast Iron

 Casting practice of ferrous and non-ferrous metals/alloys

 Ferrous Alloy : Cast Iron
☞ Cast iron is one of the oldest ferrous metals in commercial use. These are basically the alloys
of iron and carbon which covers a wide range of properties.

☞ Cast irons are called so because they are usually manufactured through casting technique owing
to their brittle nature and better fluidity.

☞ It contains 02 - 04% carbon, along with varying amount of (0.5 - 03) silicon and manganese and
traces of impurities such as sulfur and phosphorus.

☞ Plain cast irons contains constituents like silicon, manganese, sulphur and phosphorus while for
alloy cast irons, elements like nickel, chromium, copper and manganese are added.

☞ It is typically brittle and non-malleable and relatively weak in tension. It has excellent
compressive strength and is commonly used for structures that require this property.

☞ The composition of cast iron, the method of manufacture and heat treatments employed are
critical in determining the final characteristics of different types of cast iron. 252
 Ferrous Alloy : Cast Iron
Cast Iron Steel

Carbon content 02 to 04% Less than 02%

Strength More Compressive strength More Tensile strength
Better damping property and wear
Properties Higher weldability and machinability
resistance
Easy to cast because of low shrinkage Less easy to cast than cast iron as it
Castability
and good flowability has low flowability & more shrinkage.
Corrosion Resistance Moderate to Low corrosion resistance Higher corrosion resistance
Impact Resistance Low impact resistance High impact resistance
Cheaper because of the lower material
Cost More expensive than cast iron,
cost, labor, and energy requirement.
Pipe fittings, washers, machine parts, Infrastructure, vehicles, electrical
Applications farm equipment, mining hardware, appliances, rockets, tools, and
hand tools, and electrical fittings. weapons. 253
 Cast Iron : Classification
⚽ Grey Cast Iron – (carbon as graphite)
Eutectic Temperature

Temperature
⚽ White Cast Iron – (Carbon as carbides)
Eutectoid Temperature

Commercial
Cast Iron
Range

⚽ Ductile Cast Iron Fe Fe3C

Hypo-Eutectic Alloy Desulphurized Hypo-Eutectic Alloy (Mg/Ce)

 Nodular and Spheroidal Graphite
Fast Cool Moderate Cool Slow Cool Moderate Cool Slow Cool

⚽ Malleable Cast Iron White CI Pearlitic Gray CI Ferritic Gray CI

⚽ Compacted Graphite Cast Iron

 CG or Vermicular Iron
Reheated & Hold for Pearlitic Ferritic
30+ hours Ductile CI Ductile CI
Fast Cool Slow Cool
The microstructure of cast iron has two extremes :

Liquid — Austenite + Fe3C (White cast iron)

Malleable CI
Malleable CI
Pearlitic

Ferritic
Liquid — Austenite + Graphite (Grey cast iron) 254
 Cast Iron : White Cast iron
 The Cast Iron derives its name to the appearance of its
fracture surface which is white and dull. Here carbon is present in
the form of cementite.

 These are hypo-eutectic alloys and contains more than 2.5 wt.
% C and below 01 wt. % Si. Owing to faster cooling and low Si
content, the carbon forms Fe3C instead of graphite.

 Due to higher cementite content (>1000VHN), these are

extremely hard and brittle. Besides they have better wear
resistance, higher compressive strength & poor machinability.

 They have limited usage - mainly applications requiring

hardness and wear resistance (such a rollers in rolling mills, pump
housings, mill linings and rods, crushers and brake shoes, etc.).

 These are also used as a precursor for malleable iron making. 255
 Cast Iron : Grey Cast iron
⁂ Here carbon is present in the form of graphite flakes. The
fracture surface of this cast iron type has a gray – blackish
appearance (fracture propagates through graphite flakes).

⁂ These are hypo-eutectic alloys and contains more than 2.5 wt.
% C and higher Silicon 01 - 03 wt. %. Owing to slow cooling and
higher Si content, the carbon forms graphite instead of Fe3C.

⁂ Due to presence of irregular graphite flakes, it has low tensile

strength and ductility. However, it has good compressive strength,
better machinability, and higher damping property.

⁂ It also has excellent thermal conductivity, higher wear

resistance and good castability.

⁂ It is the most used cast iron and find applications mainly in

engine blocks, fly wheels, manifolds, and kitchen cookware, etc. 256
 Cast Iron : Grey Cast iron
▨ Factors affecting formation of White or Grey Cast Iron
The main factors which decides whether carbon in cast iron will present in a combined form
(cementite) or graphite are given below:

 Chemical Composition

 Carbon Content

 Silicon Content
Grey Cast Iron White Cast Iron
 Sulphur Content

 Manganese Content

 Phosphorus Content

 Alloying elements

 Cooling Rate Malleable Cast Iron S.G. Cast Iron 257

 Cast Iron : Spheroidal Graphite or Nodular
 It is also called ductile, nodular or spherulitic cast iron. It derives the name as graphite in
the form of spheroids are present in the steel matrix.
 These are produced by treating the melt with magnesium or cerium or a combination of both.
 Other elements like Ca, Ba, Li and Zr are also added which causes growth of graphite
spheroids during solidification.
 It find applications in engine crankshaft, machine tool bed, brake shoes, piston rings, mold
boxes, etc.

▨ Important Properties
♨ It exhibits considerable ductility (up to 12%) in comparison to grey cast iron and better
toughness which lies between ordinary cast iron and steel, and shock resistance.
♨ It can be welded/brazed and heat treated. It exhibits good vibration damping properties.
♨ It exhibits good machinability. It has good lubrication properties. It also exhibits lower
density than steel. 258
 Cast Iron : Spheroidal Graphite or Nodular
▨ Steps involved in Production Practice

♨ Desulphurisation. ♨ Nodularizing. ♨ Inoculation.

♻ The sulphur content should be as low as possible (<0.03%). The Desulphurisation Process
involves addition of strong desulphurisers like soda ash, calcium carbide, etc. It is essential to
prevent formation of graphite flakes and magnesium and cerium are both strong desulphurisers.

♻ The Nodularizing Treatment involves addition of either pure magnesium or an alloy containing
magnesium and cerium into molten iron of suitable chemical composition so as to achieve a residual
magnesium content of 0.03 to 0.05% in the final iron. This helps growth of graphite to the
spheroidal form.

♻ As magnesium is a carbide former, The Inoculation Treatment is immediately followed to avoid

the formation of graphite flakes. Here ferro-silicon is added as the inoculant. 259
 Cast Iron : Spheroidal Graphite or Nodular
▨ Steps involved in production practice
 For making of SG cast irons, hot blast cupolas with basic slag practice is suitable This furnace
facilitates higher reduction in sulphur content and produces melt with high carbon content.
Induction furnaces are also ideal because of their accurate composition and temperature control.

 For nodularising treatment, magnesium is added as nickel or silicon base magnesium alloys or
magnesium impregnated coke . Addition of pure magnesium to melt is difficult (low boiling point).

 Nodularising treatment is done during the ladle transfer process, which involves pre-placing
the magnesium alloy at the bottom of the transfer ladle or its addition during the pouring process.

 During inoculation, ferro-silicon is added which imparts higher ductility with a higher nodule
count. Post inoculation, the metal is normally transferred to another ladle and is cast within 10
minutes after inoculation.

 All the treatments are normally carried out above 1450˚C and the casting is carried out
immediately with melt temperature not less than 1360˚C. 260
 Casting Practice : Ferrous Metals
 High melting point prevents its casting done by permanent
moulds or plaster moulds. Mostly sand, shell or ceramic moulding
techniques are preferred.

 For melting practice, electric furnaces such as EAF/EIF are

preferred. Open hearth furnaces and side blown converters can
also be used.

 Appropriate pouring, gating and risering are employed in the

mould. For pouring, feeder ladles are used. The gating system is
designed considering the required manner of feeding system.

 Risers are needed to be provided as steel can contract by 0.9%.

 Cleaning of casting is difficult as molten steel has higher

adherence towards sand. For quality check, various NDT
methods are used. 261
 Casting Practice : Non-Ferrous Metals
♽ Mostly bench moulding or floor moulding is practiced. Die
casting techniques can also be employed.

♽ Since metallurgy of each of the metals and alloys are

different, it is required to have proper knowledge (Oxidation
and air absorption tendency, density, etc.) about the particular
metal/alloy to be casted.

♽ Non-ferrous metals solidify at a faster rate and hence the

entry path should be wider. Gating system needs to be suitably
designed

♽ For, sand casting, finer sand grains should be chosen as

these metals normally have higher fluidity and seeping tendency.

♽ Non-ferrous metals have higher shrinkage tendency. Hence,

proper care should be taken to avoid cracks and cavities. 262
Lecture-29

 Cooling curves of pure metals and alloys

 Concept of solidification
 Solidification of pure metals and alloys

 Nucleation and Growth phenomena.

 Homogenous and Heterogenous Nucleation

 Coring / Segregation during solidification of alloys.

 Grain refiners during casting.

 Solidification : Cooling Curves
♽ Cooling curve is a graphical plot that represents the
change in temperature with time for a material over the
entire temperature range through which it cools. Liquid

Free Energy (Δg)

♽ It represents the change of phase or matter (for
metals, typically from liquid to solid).
Solid gS
♽ After Tm, the free energy of the parent phase
becomes higher than that of the product phase Tm
resulting a driving force for phase change. Free energy gL
change determines the rate of transformation.
Temperature 

♽ In the parent liquid phase, at Tm, the thermal fluctuation results in the formation of tiny
particles of the product phase within the parent volume which is separated by a thin interface.

♽ The product phase grows by transfer of atoms across the interface. Hence the entire
transformation process can be divided into two steps: Nucleation and Growth. 264
 Cooling Curves : Metals & Alloys
⁂ Pure metals and alloys with eutectic composition melt and solidify at a single temperature
known as melting or freezing point.

Pouring Temperature

Liquid Cooling

Freezing Complete
Freezing
Temperature

Start
Tm Freezing Temperature

Local
Solidification
Time Solid Cooling

Total
Solidification
Time

265
Time
 Cooling Curves : Metals & Alloys
⁂ In case of alloys temperature does not remain constant during solidification. Alloy
solidification mostly occurs under non-equilibrium conditions as diffusion through solid is a slow
process.
Phase Diagram Cooling Curve

Liquidus Line Liquid Cooling

Freezing Start
Temperature

Freezing Complete
Liquid + Freezing
Solid Range

Solidus Line Solid Cooling

Composition  Time  266

 Solidification : Homogenous Nucleation
♽ Here the probability of nucleation remains constant throughout the volume of the parent
phase. (nucleation occurs without any external interface).
♽ Here the process of nucleation is controlled by two factors: volume free energy change and
surface energy of the new solid formed.
♽ Hence the total free energy change (Δf) during nucleation of a spherical particle of radius r is
given as:
4 3
Δf = πr .Δg + 4πr2.σ
3
Where, σ represents the specific surface energy of the interface. When driving force exist for a
phase change, Δg is negative but σ is always positive, therefore, when the spherical particle is
small, Δf increases with r, attains a maximum and then decreases.
The value of Δf corresponding to the maximum (critical nucleation barrier) is obtained by setting:

dΔfൗ = 4πr2.Δg + 8πr.σ = 0 2σ

//// The corresponding critical radius: r∗ =
dr Δg 267
 Solidification : Heterogenous Nucleation
 Here there are certain preferred sites where the probability of nucleation is much greater
than that of other sites. (nucleation occurs with the help of external interface).
 The preferred sites are the wall of the container, inclusions, grain boundaries, stacking fault
or dislocations.
 Here, the foreign matter must be capable of being wetted by the liquid metal with low contact
angle. The nucleus of product is formed on the surface of the foreign matter as here small amount
of surface energy is required.

▨ Growth :
♨ It follows the nucleation where a nuclei grows in size by addition of atoms. Each nucleating
particle grows in size and becomes a grain in the final product.
♨ A high nucleation rate with low growth yields fine grained while a low nucleation with high
growth rate results coarse grained microstructure.
♨ Faster cooling yields higher nucleation while slow cooling results low nucleation rate. 268
 Solidification
Solidification refers to phase change from the liquid state to the solid crystalline state.

▨ Solidification of pure metal :

 Due to chilling action of mold wall, a thin skin of solid metal
is formed at the interface immediately after pouring.

 Skin thickness increases to form a shell around the molten

metal as solidification progresses. It has fine equiaxed grains.

 Rate of freezing depends on heat transfer into mold, as well

as thermal properties of the metal.

 At the central zone, the rate of undercooling is less (solidified shell and latent heat release).

 Nucleation is seized, growth occurs opposite to the heat flow direction. Accordingly, in the
center columnar grains are noticed. 269
 Solidification
▨ Solidification of Alloys :
 In case of alloys freezing takes place over a range of
temperature.

 Alloy solidification mostly occurs under non-equilibrium

conditions as diffusion through solid is a slow process.

 In case of alloys the growth of columnar grains may be

interrupted by equiaxed grains at the center.

 In case of alloys, generally the precipitating solid differs in composition from the liquid due to
which a concentration gradient is set up in the liquid.

 This concentration gradient results into supercooling of liquid ahead of the advancing front,
known as constitutional super cooling and the resultant structure is dendritic. 270
 Coring or segregation
 It is quite common during solidification of alloys. It
alters the final microstructure of the casting and produces
Liquid (L)
a non-homogenous structure. It also affects the freezing

Temperature
Equilibrium
temperature range. Solidus
α + L
 Refers to compositional variation from center to outer
α
portion of a grain or between the region that solidifies first
and the region that solidifies last. The region that solidifies
Non-Equilibrium
first contains higher amount of higher melting component. Solidus
A Wt. % of B 
 Segregation tendency of an alloy system depends on the equilibrium distribution co-efficient
Ko. Ko = Solute concentration in solid/Solute concentration in liquid.

When Ko < 1 – Freezing point is lowered by solute and Ko > 1 - Freezing point is raised by solute

If Ko deviates much from unity, then it will tend to produce high local concentration of solute
271
Lecture-30

 Shakeout operation.

 Fettling operation.

 Finishing operation.
 Shakeout Operation
 Once the casting got solidified, it is then removed from the moulding
box. This operation is called shakeout.
 Here casting temperature before shakeout is important and it
decided by metal type, casting size and complexity.
 Shakeout operation can by carried out by the following ways:

 By dumping the mould assembly upside down on the bench or floor.

 By striking the mould using a metal rod.
 By using a mechanical shake or vibrating platform. Dumping Down

Castings Shakeout Striking Off Mechanical Shake 274

 Fettling Operation
 Under this operation the casting is given a good appearance after the same got shaken out
from the sand mould.

 Fettling operation includes the followings:

 Removal of cores.

 Removal of adhering sand and scales.

 Removal of the gating system.

 Removal of fins and other unwanted projections.

275
 Fettling Operation
▨ Removal of Cores:
 Hammering or vibrations imparted to cores does not loosen and break up the dry-hardened
cores.

 For removal of cores, rapping or knocking action by a metal rod is useful. For larger castings,
pneumatic rapping or hydro-blasting is also effective.

▨ Removal of Surface Oxides and Sand:

 It is essential to remove the casting surface (inside & outside) from the adhering refractory
particles and oxide scales.
 For surface cleaning hand method (wire brush, file, crowbar) or mechanical method (tumbling,
air blasting, hydro-blasting, chemical cleaning) are employed.

Extent of surface cleaning is dependent on the metal/alloy of casting, size of casting and final
application requirement of the casting. 276
 Fettling Operation
▨ Removal of Gates and Risers:
 Different methods are selected for this purpose depending on the type of metal/alloy and
the size and shape of the casting & gating system.

 Few commonly used methods are: Chipping or flogging by hammer, shearing, sawing, machining,
flame cutting, abrasive wheel cutting, etc.

▨ Removal of Fins and other Projections:

 Castings are required to be trimmed off from the unwanted fins, chaplets, wires, parting line
flash, etc.

 This operation is called snagging and it should be conducted with proper care to avoid
excessive metal loss from contour and damage to the casting.

 Different methods employed for snagging are: chipping, sawing, flame cutting or scarfing,
grinding, mechanical trimming, etc. 277
 Finishing Operation
⁂ After completion of fettling, the finishing operation for casting is carried out. Depending on
the requirement, minor repairement and surface treatment operations are conducted.

⁂ Finishing operation is done for the following reasons:

 Smooth the areas from where gates, risers, and other projections are removed.

 Removal of any excess metal left on the casting.

 Improve the surface finish & appearance. Protect the surface from corrosion and wear, etc.

⁂ Different finishing operations carried out are: grinding, machining, chemical treatment,
polishing, brushing, blasting and painting.

⁂ Various surface treatment operations can also given to the casting to impart special
properties.

 For Corrosion Resistance: electroplating, painting, polishing, anodizing, and pickling

 For Wear Resistance: Carburizing and nitriding, flame and induction hardening, hard surfacing.
278
Lecture-31-34

 Casting Defects : Categories and common reason for their formation.

 Classification of casting defects.

 Gaseous defects
 Shrinkage cavities
 Moulding material defects
 Pouring metal defects
 Metallurgical defect
 Casting Defect
 Casting defects may be defined as those characteristics that create a deficiency or
imperfection contrary to the quality specifications imposed by the design and the service
requirements.
 Defects in castings may be of three basic categories:
 Major defects, which cannot be rectified, resulting in rejection of the casting and total loss.
 Defects that can be remedied but whose cost of repair may not justify the salvage attempt.
 Minor defects, which clearly allow the castings to be economically salvaged and thereby
leave a reasonable margin for profit
 Broadly, the defects in castings are attributed to the following reasons:
 Unsuitable or unsatisfactory raw materials used in moulding, core making or casting.
 Unsatisfactory moulding or casting practice by the individual worker and supervisor.
 Use of improper tools, equipment, appliances, or patterns.
 Unprofessional management policies, faulty organization and poor work discipline, or lack of
training. 280
 Casting Defect : Classification
⁂ Casting defects refer to irregularities in the casting that are undesirable as they degrade the
properties of the casting.

⁂ The following are the major defects which are likely to occur in sand castings:

 Gaseous defects

 Shrinkage cavities

 Moulding material defects

 Pouring metal defects

 Metallurgical defects

281
 Casting Defect : Gaseous Defects
♻ All the defects resulting from gas are caused by the lower gas passing tendency of the mould
which may be due to lower venting, lower permeability of the mould and/or poor casting design.

♻ The lower permeability of the mould is, in turn caused by finer grain size of the sand, higher
clay, higher moisture, or by excessive ramming of the moulds.

♻ The defects in this category can be classified into blow holes and open blows, air inclusion, and
pin hole porosity.

▨ Blow Holes and Open Blows:

 These are the spherical, flattened or elongated cavities present inside the casting or on the
surface. On the surface they are called open blows and inside, they are called blow holes.

 It may be either in the form of a cluster of a large number of small holes (diameter up to
3mm) or in the form of one large and smooth depression

 These are caused by accumulation of gas due to low permeability of the mould, presence of
high moisture content, use of fine sand grains, harder ramming of sand, or insufficient venting.
282
 Casting Defect : Gaseous Defects
▨ Air Inclusions or Porosities:
 The atmospheric and other gases absorbed by the molten metal in the furnace, in the ladle,
and during the flow in the mould, when not allowed to escape, would be trapped inside the casting.
 The porosity defect will weaken the casting, may lead to leaking of castings and also reduce
the pressure tightness.
 The possible reasons are (i) use of higher pouring temperatures, resulting increased gas
absorption, (ii) Poor design of gating system like straight sprues, abrupt bends and other
turbulence causing practices, and (iii) low permeability of the mould.

▨ Pin Holes:
 This is caused by hydrogen in the molten metal. This could have been picked up in the furnace
or by the dissociation of water inside the mould cavity. The main reason for this is the high
pouring temperature.
 The hydrogen while leaving the solidifying metal would cause very small diameter and long pin
holes showing the path of escape. It causes severe issue in Aluminium alloys or steels. 283
 Casting Defect : Gaseous Defects

Blow Holes and Open Blows Pin Holes Shrinkage Cavities Air Inclusions or Porosities
284
 Casting Defect : Shrinkage Cavities
 These are voids or depression in the casting caused mainly by uncontrolled and haphazard
solidification of the metal. It can be of two types as given below:
 Open shrinkage: These are open to air and further divided into two types (i) Pipes: Form at
surface and burrow into the casting (ii) Caved surface: Shallow cavities on the surface.
 Closed shrinkage: These are also known as shrinkage porosity and are defects within the
casting and normally form at the top of hot spots. It is further subdivided into (i) macro-porosity
(visible to naked eye) and (ii) micro-porosity (only visible under microscope).
 It may be due to wrong location or an improperly sized gating system,
inadequate risers, or poor design of casting involving abrupt changes of sectional
,thicknesses. It may also be produced if the pouring
temperature is too high.
 The defect can be eliminated by applying the principles
of directional solidification in mould design and by judicious
use of risers, chills, and padding. 285
 Casting Defect : Moulding Material Defects
⁂ Under this category are those defects which are caused because of the characteristics of the
moulding materials. These defects occur essentially because the moulding materials are not of
requisite properties or due to improper ramming.

⁂ The defects that can be put in this category are:

 Cuts and Washes

 Metal Penetration

 Fusion

 Run Out

 Rat Tails and Buckles

 Swell

 Drop
286
 Casting Defect : Moulding Material Defects
▨ Cuts and Washes:
 These appear as rough spots and areas of excess metal, and are caused
by the erosion of moulding sand by the flowing molten metal.
 This may be caused by the moulding sand not having enough strength or
the molten metal flowing at high velocity.
 It can be avoided by suitable selection of moulding sand and binder and
use of an appropriate moulding method.
 Use of suitable gating system design (increased gate size and count) to
reduce the turbulence in flowing molten metal can also be helpful.

▨ Flash:
These are any excess or unwanted material that occurs as thin, irregular-shaped occurrences on
the parting line of a die-casting part.

Possible reasons include insufficient clamping force, inadequate cleaning of the parting surface.,
and deformed or worn-out hinges of the casting machine. 287
 Casting Defect : Moulding Material Defects
▨ Metal Penetration:
 When the molten metal enters the gaps between the sand grains, the result would be
a rough casting surface. It is visible on the surface as it gives an uneven rough texture on surface.

 The main reason for this is that, either the grain size of the sand is too coarse or no
mould wash has been applied to the mould cavity. This can also be caused by higher pouring
temperatures.

 Choosing appropriate grain size, together with a proper mould wash should be able to eliminate
this defect. Harder ramming with suitable vents in mould is also helpful.

288
 Casting Defect : Moulding Material Defects
▨ Fusion:
 Fusion defect is caused when molten metal fuses with the sand in the mould cavity. This results
in metal casting having a glassy appearance and brittle structure.

 The main cause behind the fusion defect is the clay in the mould has of lower refractoriness
property and the temperature of molten metal is too high.

 It can be avoided by using higher refractory property binders such as bentonite and keeping
the temperature of molten metal appropriate.

289
 Casting Defect : Moulding Material Defects
▨ Run Out:
 A run-out defect is caused when molten metal is leaked out of a green sand mould. This may be
caused due to bad sand moulding practice weakening the mould or faulty moulding flask.
 Runout is visible and can be clearly seen. The casting process should be immediately stopped if
the leakage is large.
 A strong cured dry mould with higher strength is immune to this defect. Modification of mould
design with suitable selection of parting line plane and gating system can also reduce the same.

▨ Swell:
 When molten metal pushes the mould (under the influence of the metallostatic forces) causing
it to enlarge is called a swell defect.
 Here the casting will enlarge beyond the desired volume, showing as slight, smooth bulges.
Further, the feeding and machining requirements of casting increases.
 A proper design with hard ramming of the mould sand and slow pouring can reduce this defect.
290
 Casting Defect : Moulding Material Defects
▨ Rat Tails and Buckles:
 Rat tails appear as irregular cracks or lines on castings. It is caused by the
compression failure of the skin of the mould cavity because of the excessive
heat in the molten metal.
 Excess heat will cause the sand to expand thereby moving the mould wall
backwards and in the process when the wall gives away, the casting surface may
have these small line mark.
 If such failure occurs severally during the casting procedure, you may
notice crisscrossing small lines on the surface of the casting. Buckles are the
more severe form of rat tails which on the casting surface under the action of
compression.
 Proper choice of moulding sand mixture (cushioning effect), facing sand
ingredients and the low pouring temperature can effectively reduce these
defects. The mould may be made less hard to ensure adequate expansion. 291
 Casting Defect : Moulding Material Defects
▨ Drop:
 These defects are caused when pieces of loose molding sand or lumps
drop from the surface of the cope into the mold cavity.

 Mould sand can drop just after the mould has been made or during the
pouring operation. Sand having too low green strength, soft ramming or
insufficient reinforcement of the mould may cause this defect.
 It results an abnormal and irregularly shaped projection on the casting surface. Drop
defect may also make the surface of the metal casting look dirty and unsuitable for use.

▨ Shift:
 This defect is caused by side wise shift or displacement of cope relative to drag. If core gets
displaced from its normal position, usually in vertical direction then it is called core shift.
 It can be prevented by ensuring proper alignment of the pattern or die parts, moulding boxes,
correct mounting of patterns on pattern plates, and checking of pattern flasks, locating pins, etc.,
before use. Core shift can be prevented by the use of core prints and chaplets. 292
 Casting Defect : Moulding Material Defects
▨ Scabs:
 Scabs are a sort of projection on the casting which
occur when a portion of the mould face or core lifts
and the metal flows beneath in a thin layer.
 They have rough, irregular projections on the surface containing embedded sand. These are of
two types: (i) Expansion scabs, and (ii) Erosion scabs
 An expansion scab is caused by the expansion of the surface layers of the sand mould. More
often it is found where the sand gets strongly heated, such as the top face of the mould.
 An erosion scab may occur where metal has been agitated or has partly eroded the sand,
leaving behind a solid mass of sand and metal at the spot where erosion took place.

▨ Dirt:
 It appears in the form of foreign particles and/or sand embedded on the surface of the
casting. The causes for this defect may be crushing of the mould due to mishandling, sand wash
during pouring, and passage of slag to the mould. 293
 Casting Defect : Pouring Metal Defects
▨ Misrun:
 Misrun is a pouring defect caused when metal is not able to fill the
section of the mould cavity fully leaving the final casting incomplete.

 This defect can occur when the temperature of the metal is low and
the viscosity of molten metal reduces its fluidity resulting incomplete
filling of the cavity as it solidifies beforehand.

 The remedy to avoid misrun is to maintain the temperature of

molten metal to improve fluidity. The higher the temperature higher
the rate at which metal flows.

 Faster pouring rate, better mould design with larger Misrun

gates and use of dry sand moulds with vents, suitable riser
type, etc. are also some of the possible solutions.
294
 Casting Defect : Pouring Metal Defects
▨ Cold Shuts:
 A cold shut is caused when two metal streams, while meeting in the mould
cavity, do not fuse together properly thus causing a discontinuity or weak spot in
the casting.

 It is similar to a misrun with the difference that molten

metals do not join together to form one desirable section.
Such conditions are sometime observed when no sharp
corners are present in a castings.

 The remedy to avoid cold shut is to maintain the higher

pouring temperature of molten metal. The higher the
temperature higher the rate at which metal flows.

 Faster pouring rate, better mould design with larger gates

and use of dry sand moulds with vents, suitable riser type, etc.
are also some of the possible solutions. 295
 Casting Defect : Pouring Metal Defects
▨ Slag Inclusions:
 Slag inclusion often occurs when the slag is not
properly removed from the mold or when it is introduced
into the casting process through other means, such as a
contaminated casting material.
 The presence of slag can cause a variety of problems in
the casting, including reduced mechanical strength,
reduced ductility, and reduced resistance to corrosion.
 It can be avoided by the use clean molten metal for
casting. During the transfer of molten metal proper care
also needs to be taken.

 Improvement of the gating system design, where

pouring basins with strainer cores & dams, longer runners,
and gates with skim bobs can also reduce the same. 296
 Casting Defect : Metallurgical Defects
▨ Hot tears:
 Hot tears are internal or external ragged discontinuities or cracks on the casting surface,
caused by hindered contraction occurring immediately after the metal has solidified.

 The possible reasons include poor casting design, abrupt sectional changes with no proper
fillets or corner radii, inappropriate positioning of chills, and poor collapsibility of mould and core.

 Its remedies can be improved casting design, directional solidification, uniform cooling rate,
selection of mould and core materials that suit the cast metal, and controlled mould hardness.

▨ Cold Cracks: These are similar in appearance and formation to hot tears except that the
breaks are less ragged and the cracks occur at a temperature below 430°C.

▨ Hot Spots: These are caused by the chilling of the casting. For example, with gray cast iron
having small amounts of silicon, very hard white cast iron may result at the chilled surface. This
hot spot will interfere with the subsequent machining of this region. Proper metallurgical control
and chilling practices are essential for eliminating the hot spots. 297
Lecture-35,36

 Casting Inspection.

 Quality Control.
 Casting Inspection
⁂ When a defective casting is produced, it is necessary to analyze the defect or defects
observed and determine the causes for their occurrence, so as to arrive at appropriate remedial
measures.

⁂ Two basic objectives of inspection are (i) to repair/reject castings that fail to meet the
customer’s requirements, and (ii) to serve as a means of maintaining the quality of workmanship
and materials used in the foundry.

⁂ Inspection of castings broadly covers a large number of methods and techniques used to check
the quality of castings. These methods may be classified into five categories:

 Visual inspection;  Flaw detection by non-destructive methods;

 Dimensional inspection;  Metallurgical inspection..

 Mechanical and Chemical testing;

299
 Casting Inspection : Techniques
▨ Visual Inspection:
 This involves looking at the surface of the casting for possible defects.
 Large defects present on the surface of the casting/gross dimensional variations can be
detected by this method.
 It cannot detect microscopic surface defects, subsurface and internal defects.

▨ Dimensional Inspection:
 This testing ensures correct dimension of the casting as per the requirement.
 The dimensional measurements are carried out with tools like, standard measuring instruments,
contour gauges, fixtures etc.

300
 Casting Inspection : Techniques
▨ Mechanical and Chemical Testing:
 Mechanical tests like, hardness, tensile strength, bend test, fatigue test etc. may be carried
out on the casting.
 Chemical testing ensures allowable limit of different elements in the casting, e.g., in ferrous
casting the amount of carbon, silicon, manganese, phosphorus etc. needs to be checked.
 Accurate and reliable chemical analysis normally takes long time. For quicker analysis
spectroscopic techniques have been developed.

▨ Flaw detection by Non-destructive Methods:

 Non-destructive tests are used to detect any sub-surface or internal defects, which cannot be
detected by visual examination. Here it is also possible to exactly locate the defect position.

 The important non-destructive test for castings include: sound or percussion test; 2. impact
test; pressure test; radiographic examination; magnetic particle inspection; 6. electrical
conductivity test; fluorescent dye-penetrant inspection; ultrasonic test; and eddy current test.
301
 Casting Inspection : Techniques
▨ Metallurgical Inspection:
 It is very useful for checking grain size, non-metallic inclusions, sub-microscopic pin holes, the
type and distribution of phases present in the cast structure, and the response to heat treatment.
 These features can be evaluated by the following methods:

 Chill Test
 Fracture Test
 Macro-etching Test
 Sulphur Print Test
 Microscopic Examination

302
 Quality Control
 The main purpose of quality control is to ‘prevent rather than merely detect’ defective parts.

 Quality control deals with whole system of production and is particularly associated with the
methods adopted to achieve and establish desired standards. Hence, it aims to prevent defective
castings.

 The responsibility for quality has to be shared by the entire organization. All steps involved in
the production of a casting are responsible for quality control.

 The quality control also needs to be achieved in an economic manner with full customer
satisfaction.

 Statistical methods have been developed based upon present and past data to predict the
quality of products to be produced in future. This is known as Statistical Quality Control.

303
 Quality Control : Statistical Quality Control
 With the help of statistical techniques, it is possible to use the data available for present and
past production to predict the quality of items or lots to be produced in future.

 Statistical quality control in foundry may have the following applications in foundry (Not
limited to):

 Sand control  Control of scrap and re-work

 Core control  Product appraisal

 Melting control  Others (cost control, accident prevention,

safety evaluation etc.)
 Casting defect control

 Casting weight control

304
 Quality Control : Statistical Quality Control
 Sand Control:
It aims at limiting variations (composition, permeability, green compressive strength, deformation
etc.) in sand quality within allowable values.

 Core Control:
The quality of the cores may be evaluated from the view point of their dimensions, hardness,
permeability etc. using control charts.

 Melting Control:
This involves control of a number of parameters like, composition control, pouring temperature
control, slag control etc. using control chart based on variable.

 Casting Defect Control:

Along with the above mentioned controls, the process needs to be controlled properly to minimize
the defects in the castings.
305
 Quality Control : Statistical Quality Control
 Casting Weight Control:
Control limits may be established to define the minimum and maximum allowable casting weight and
the related variable needs to be controlled.

 Control of Scrap and Re-work:

By proper control of process it is possible to control/minimize the scrap.

 Product Appraisal:
Various test records such as, mechanical, chemical and non destructive test, dimensional inspection
may also be maintained through control charts for predicting future performance and laying down
policies.

 Others Controls:
This may include cost control, accident prevention, safety evaluation etc. which may ensure quality
of the product being made.
306
THANK YOU

307