Course Outline:
Abstract data types, complexity analysis, Big Oh notation, Stacks (linked lists
and array implementations), Recursion and analyzing recursive algorithms,
divide and conquer algorithms, Sorting algorithms (selection, insertion,
merge, quick, bubble, heap, shell, radix, bucket), queue, dequeuer, priority
queues (linked and array implementations of queues), linked list & its various
types, sorted linked list, searching an unsorted array, binary search for
sorted arrays, hashing and indexing, open addressing and chaining, trees
and tree traversals, binary search trees, heaps, M-way tress, balanced trees,
graphs, breadth-first and depth-first traversal, topological order, shortest
path, adjacency matrix and adjacency list implementations, memory
management and garbage collection.
Reference Materials: (or use any other standard and latest books)
1. Data Structures and Algorithm Analysis in Java by Mark A. Weiss
2. Data Structures and Abstractions with Java by Frank M. Carrano & Timothy
M. Henry
3. Data Structures and Algorithms in C++ by Adam Drozdek
4. Data Structures and Algorithm Analysis in C++ by Mark Allen Weiss
Java Software Structures: Designing and Using Data Structures by John Lewis
and Joseph Chase
Lecture on Memory Management and Garbage Collection in Data Structures
and Algorithms
Introduction
Memory management is a critical aspect of programming that ensures efficient utilization of
memory resources. Understanding how memory is allocated, used, and reclaimed is essential for
developing optimized and error-free software. This topic is deeply intertwined with data
structures and algorithms, as the efficiency of many operations depends on effective memory
management.
1. Memory Management
Memory in a computer is divided into different segments, each serving specific purposes:
1. Stack Memory:
o Stores local variables and function call information.
o Operates in a Last-In-First-Out (LIFO) manner.
o Automatically managed (allocation and deallocation occur with function calls).
2. Heap Memory:
o Used for dynamic memory allocation.
o Requires explicit allocation (malloc, new) and deallocation (free, delete) in
many languages.
o Offers flexibility but introduces challenges such as fragmentation and memory
leaks.
3. Static/Global Memory:
o Stores global and static variables.
o Lifetime corresponds to the program's execution.
2. Memory Allocation
Static Allocation:
o Memory is allocated at compile time.
o Example: Fixed-size arrays, global variables.
Dynamic Allocation:
o Memory is allocated at runtime.
o Example: Dynamic arrays, linked lists.
Dynamic allocation is central to many data structures like linked lists, trees, and graphs, which
require nodes to be created and destroyed during program execution.
3. Challenges in Memory Management
1. Memory Fragmentation:
o Occurs when free memory is divided into small, non-contiguous blocks.
o Reduces the ability to allocate large contiguous memory blocks.
2. Memory Leaks:
o Happens when allocated memory is not deallocated, causing it to remain unused
but unavailable for reuse.
3. Dangling Pointers:
o Pointers that reference deallocated memory, leading to undefined behavior.
4. Garbage Collection
Garbage collection (GC) automates memory management by reclaiming unused memory,
reducing the likelihood of memory leaks and dangling pointers.
Garbage Collection Techniques
1. Reference Counting:
o Keeps track of the number of references to an object.
o Object is deallocated when the reference count drops to zero.
o Limitation: Cannot handle cyclic references.
2. Mark-and-Sweep:
o Divides memory into "reachable" and "unreachable" objects.
o Steps:
Mark: Traverse all reachable objects.
Sweep: Deallocate unreachable objects.
o Handles cyclic references effectively.
3. Generational Garbage Collection:
o Divides memory into generations:
Young generation (short-lived objects).
Old generation (long-lived objects).
o Focuses on collecting garbage from the young generation frequently.
4. Copying Garbage Collection:
o Divides memory into two regions and copies live objects from one to the other.
o Compacts memory to reduce fragmentation.
5. Relevance in Data Structures
Dynamic Data Structures:
o Linked lists, trees, graphs, and hash tables require dynamic memory allocation.
o Effective garbage collection ensures these structures do not cause memory leaks.
Algorithms:
o Recursive algorithms rely on stack memory; inefficient use can cause stack
overflow.
o Algorithms like Dijkstra’s or A* may require efficient heap memory usage to
manage priority queues.
6. Best Practices
1. Use Smart Pointers (C++):
o std::shared_ptr, std::unique_ptr manage object lifetimes automatically.
2. Avoid Cyclic Dependencies:
o Especially important when using reference counting-based garbage collectors.
3. Use Efficient Data Structures:
o Choose data structures that minimize memory overhead.
4. Profile and Optimize:
o Use tools to monitor memory usage and identify leaks or inefficiencies.
Conclusion
Memory management and garbage collection are foundational concepts in data structures and
algorithms, ensuring efficient use of resources and program stability. By understanding and
leveraging these techniques, developers can write robust, efficient, and scalable software.
