Unit IV

Synthesis of LC, RL & RC Network

Hurwitz polynomial:-

A polynomial is said to be Hurwitz polynomial, if its zeros lie on the left hand side of S-plane or on jω
axis provided on the jω axis, zeros are simple.

Conditions:

The conditions for the polynomial

P(S) = ansn + an–1sn–1 + ··· + a1s + a0 to be Hurwitz are

i) P(S) is real, when ‘s’ is real

ii) The roots of polynomial P(S) must have zero or negative real parts.

Properties:-

Let P(S) = ansn + an–1sn–1 + ··· + a1s + a0 be a Hurwitz polynomial where a0, a1, … an are the coefficients

i) All the coefficients of the polynomial a i where i = 0, 1 … n are positive.

ii) All the terms starting from highest power of S to lowest power of S must be present.
P(S) = S4 + 2S2 + 8 ⟹ evenpolynomial
P(S) = S5 + 2S3 + 5 ⟹ evenpolynomial
iii) If the polynomial is even or odd then all the roots must be on imaginary jω axis.
iv) Given Hurwitz polynomial can be separated into even and odd parts. Odd part is denoted by
O(S) & even part denoted by E(S).P(S) = E(S) + O(S)
v) If the ratio of odd to even parts of P(S) or even to odd parts of P(S) is expressed in the
continued fraction expansion then all the quotient terms must be positive.

O(S) E(S)
P(S)= or
E(S) O(S)
1
=q (S)+
1
1
q2 (S)+ 1
q 3 (S)+
+ 1
qn (S)

1
 E(S)  O(S)  q1 (S)
---

R 1 (S) E(S)  q 2 (S)
---

R 2 (S) R 1 (S)  q 3 (S)
---
R 3 (S)

vi) If P(S) is either odd or even function then the continued fraction expansion is obtained from
the ratio of polynomial P(S) to its derivativeP ′ (S).
Eg: P(S) = S 4 + 3S 2 + 2. ThenP′ (S) = 4S 4 + 6S
vii) If the continued fraction expansion terminates prematurely, then that indicates the functions
E(S) & O(S) contain a common factor X(S).In that case, P(S) = X(S)Y(S).If X(S) & Y(S) are
Hurwitz, then P(S) is Hurwitz.

1) Examine whether the given polynomials are Hurwitz or not

a) S 5 + 4S 4 + 7S 2 + 6S + 2 ⇒ S 3 term is missing. So not Hurwitz.
b) S 6 + 7S 5 + 5S 4 − 3S 3 + 2S 2 + S + 4 ⇒ S 3 term is negative. So not hurwitz.

2) Test whether the following polynomials are Hurwitz.

a) P(S) = S3 + 2S2 + 4S + 2
O(S) = S3 + 4S; E(S) = 2S2 + 2.

2S2  2  S3  4S S  2
S S
3

3S  2S2  2 2 S
3 
2
2S

2  3S 3 S
2 
3S
0

𝑠 1
C(s) = + 2𝑠 1 .All quotient terms are positive. So P(s) is a Hurwitz polynomial.
2 + 3𝑠
3
2

2
 (b) P  S  S3  2S2  3S  6
O  S  S3  3S
E  S  2S2  6
2S2  6  S3  3S S  2
S  3S
3

Continued fraction expansion is terminated abruptly. There exists a common factor.

2
P(S)=(S3+3S)(1+ ). Here(1+2𝑆) is Hurwitz. All quotients are positive.
𝑆
S3+3s is odd polynomial and be m(S) and m/ (s) = 3S2+3.

3S2  3 S3  3S S 3
S S
3

2S 3S2  3 3S  2
2
3S

3 2S 2S  3
2S
0

5 1
Continued fraction expansion, C(S)  
3 3S  1
2 2S
3
All quotient terms are positive. Hence P(S) is Hurwitz.

3) Test whether the polynomial is Hurwitz or not.

P  S  S4 +S3  5S2  3S  4
E  S  S4 +5S2  4
O  S  S3  3S

3
 E(S)
C(S) 
O(S)
S3  3S  S4  5S2  4  S
S4  3S2

2S2  4  S3  3S S 2
S  2S
3

S  2S2 +4  2S
2S2

4 S S  4
S
0
1
C(S)  S 
S 1

2 2S 1

S
All quotient terms are.
4

All the quotient terms are positive. So P(S) is Hurwitz.

.
4) Prove that the polynomial P(S) = S4 + S3 + 2S2 + 3S +2 is not Hurwitz.
C  S  S4 +2S2  2
S3  3S S4  2S2  2  S
O  S  S +3S
3

E(S) S4  3S2
C  S 
O(S) S2  2  S3  3S  S
S3  2S


5S  S2 +2 S
5
 S2


2  5S 5
2
5S
0

4
 1
C(S)  S 
S 1

S  1
5 5 S
2
Two quotient terms are negative. So, P(S) is not Hurwitz.

5) Test whether the polynomial P(S) = S5 + S3 + S is Hurwitz.

Given polynomial contains odd function only,
P(S)
C  S 
P(S)

P1 (S)  5S4  3S2  1

S
5S4  3S2  1 S5  S3  S 
5
3 S
S5  S3 
5 5
2 3 4S  4  25
S   5S  3S2 +1 S
5 5   2
5S4  10S2
4S  2
7S2  1 S3   S3
2
5 5  35
2 3 2S
S 
5 35
26   269S
 S   7S2 +1
35   35
7S2
26S  26
1  S
35  35
26S
35
0

5
 S 1
C(S)  
5 25 S  1
2 2 3 1
S 
35 269S 1
+
35 26
S
35
All the quotient terms are not positive. P(S) is not Hurwitz.

6) Test whether the polynomials are Hurwitz or not

Y(S)  S7  2S6  2S5  S4  4S3  8S2  8S  4

O(S)  S7  2S5  4S3  8S

E(S)  2S6  S4  8S2  4

O(S)
P1 (S) 
E(S)


2S6  S4  8S2  4  S7  2S5  4S3  8S S
2
5
S
S7   4S3  2S
2
3 5
2
S
3
+6S 2S6  S4  8S2  4 4 S

2S6  O  8S2

S4 +2 
3S5
2

 6S 3S
2
5
3S
 6S
2
0
Continued fraction expansion is terminated abruptly. So there is a common factor in the
function Y(S).

Y(S)  S7  2S6  2S5  S4  4S3  8S2  8S  4

Taking S4 as common in the 1st 4 terms & 4 as common in the last 4 terms.

Y(S)  S4 S3  2S2  2S  1  4 S3  2S2  2S  1

Y(S)  S4  4 S3  2S2  2S  1

Y(S)  F1 (S)  F2 (S)

6
 F1 (S)  S4  4
Missing terms are there. So F1 (S) is not Hurwitz.
F2 (S)  S3  2S2  2S  1
O(S)  S3  2S
E(S)  2S2  1

Continued fraction expansion is,

2S6  1 S3  2S S  2
S
S3 
2
3  2

S  2S  1 4 S
2  3
2S2
3

1  S 3 S
2 2
3
S
2
0

5 1
P1 (S)  
2 4S  1
3 3S
2
Since all the quotient terms are positive. F2(S) is Hurwitz.
F1 (S) is not Hurwitz & F2 (S) is Hurwitz, the polynomial Y(S) is not Hurwitz.

Routh Hurwitz array method:

 In this method, an array is constructed using the coefficients of given polynomial in a specific
way. By the inspection of such an array formed, the polynomial can be decided to be Hurwitz or
not.

Let

7
Routh Hurwitz array is

Sn an a n 2 a n 4

Sn 1 a n 1 a n 3 a n 5

Sn 2 bn b n 1 b n 2

cn cn 1 c n 2
⁞
⁞
S0 a0
 1st row consists of all the coefficients of alternate power of S starting from n.
 Next row consists of all the coefficients of alternate power of S starting from n–1.
 A row corresponding to sn-2 is generated from first two rows as

a n 1a n 2  a n a n 3 a a a a
bn  , bn 1  n 1 n 4 n n 5
a n 1 a n 1

 Row corresponding to Sh 3 is generated from the two previous rows

bn a n 3  a n 1bn 1 b a a a
cn  ; cn 1  n n 5 n 1 n 2
an an

 Procedure is continued until the row corresponding to S0 is obtained.

 Last row a0 = constant term of the polynomial.
 For the given polynomial P(S) to be Hurwitz
1) All the elements in the 1st column should be non zero
2) There should not be any sign change in the 1st column.

Special case:

Sn a1 a2 a3

Sn 1 b1 b2 b3

Sn 2 c1 c2 c3

Sn 3 0 0 0 ← Rows of zeros

8
If there occur a complete row as row of zeros while generating an array, an equation is formed using the
coefficients of a row which is just above the row of zeros. Such an equation is called the auxiliary
equation A(S). A(S) is always odd or even polynomial in S.

A(S)  c1Sn2  c2Sn4  c2Sn6 

dA(S) dA(S)
Find and replace the row of zeros by the coefficients of equation
dS dS

The special case is of repeated roots of P(S) on imaginary axis. Such case can be identified by solving the
equation A(S) = 0. This is because the roots of A(S) = 0 are some of the roots of P(S) = 0, which decide
whether polynomial is Hurwitz or not. If there is any sign change in the 1st column of the completed
array, then the given polynomial is not Hurwitz or else it is Hurwitz.

(1) Test whether P(S)  S  8S  24S  28S  23S  6 is Hurwitz or not using Routh array method.
5 4 3 2

Routh array can be obtained as

S5 1 24 23
S4 8 28 6
20.5 22.25 No sign change in the 1st column,
S3 8  24  1 28 8  23  1 6 0 all coefficients are positive.
8 8 So P(S) is Hurwitz.
2
S 19.32 6
S1 15.88 0
S0 6

(2) Test whether F(S)  2S +S  13S  6S  56S  26S  25 is Hurwitz or not using Routh array
6 5 4 3 2

method.

S6 2 13 56 25

S5 1 6 25 0

S4 1 6 25

S3 0 0 0 ← Rows of zeros

A(S)  S4  6S2  25

9
 dA
 4S3  12S
dS
S3 4 12 0

S2 3 25

S1 –21.33 0

S0 25
There is sign change in the 1st column. So, P(S) is not Hurwitz.

Positive Real Function:-

Significance of positive real function is that if the driving point imitance (i.e.) [admittance or impedance]
is a positive real function, then only it is physically realizable using passive R, L & C components. Hence
imitance function must be checked for positive realness before synthesizing.

For a function to be positive real function it has to satisfy the following basic properties.

i) Given function F(S) is real for real S.

ii) Real part of F(S) is greater than or equal to zero, when the real part of S is greater than or
equal to zero
Re  F(S)  0 for Re | S |  0.

P(S) a 0Sn  a1Sn 1   an

Let F(S)  
Q(S) b 0Sm  b1Sm1   am
a 0  S  Z1  S  Z2   S  Zn 

b0  S  P1  S  P2  S  Pm 
Where Z1, Z2, … Zn are zeros & P1, P2, … Pm are poles.
iii) F(S) must not have any poles on the right half of S plane.
iv) F(S) may have simple poles on the jω axis with real & positive residues
v) Real part of H(jω) is greater than or equal to zero for all ω values
(ie) Re  H(jω)  0 ω

Properties:-

1) Coefficients of Numerator & Denominator polynomials P(S) & Q(S) are real and positive.
2) Poles & zeros of F(S) have zero or negative real parts.

10
 1
3) Poles of F(S) or lying on the imaginary axis must be simple & their residues must be real
F(S)
& positive.
4) Poles & zeros are real or they occur in complex conjugate pairs.
5) Highest degree of F(S) & Q(S) differ almost by 1.
6) Lowest degree of F(S) & Q(S) differ almost by 1.
1
7) IF F(S) is positive real, then is also positive real function
F(S)
8) Sum of positive real function is also positive real.
9) Difference of positive real function is not necessarily positive real.

1. Derive the condition for positive realness?

P(S)
Let F(S) 
Q(S)
E1 (S)  O1 (S)
F(S) 
E 2 (S)  O 2 (S) Where E1(S) & O1 (S) are even & odd functions of P(S)
& E2(S) & O2(S) are even & odd functions of Q(S).
E1  O1
F(S)  For simplicity let us drop S.
E 2 +O 2

By dividing& multiplying by E2 – O2.

F(S) 
 E1  O1  E 2  O2 
 E 2  O2  E 2  O2 
E1E 2  O1O2 E 2O1  E1O2
F(S)  
E 2 2  O2 2 E 2 2  O2 2
E1E2 & O1O2 are even functions, while E2O1 & E1O2 are odd functions
E1E 2  O2 E O  E1O2
Where Even F(S)  , odd F(S)  2 21
E 2  O2
2 2
E 2  O2 2
 F(S)  Even  F(S)  odd F(S)

Let S = jω,

F( jω)  Even  F( jω)  odd  F( jω)

Even function of F(jω) gives real value, as even power of jω removes j. odd function of F(jω) gives
imaginary value. F( jω)  Re  F( jω)  j Im  F( jω)

11
Where Re  F( jω)  Even  F( jω) & Im  F( jω)  odd  F( jω)

Conditions for positive realness, is Re  F( jω)  0 ω

Even  F( jω)  0 for all values of ω

E1E 2  O1O2
0
E 2 2  O2 2

The condition to be satisfied is E1E 2  O1O2  0

2. Find the condition for the given function to be a positive real function.

S a
a) H(S) 
S  bS+c
2

E1 (S)  a, O1 (S)  S

E2 (S)  S2  c, O2 (S)  bS

For positive realness, the condition to be satisfied is E1E2  O1O2  0

a S2  c   S(bS)  0

a S2  c   bS2  0

Let S = jω,

a  (jω)2  c   b(jω)2  0

a  ω2  c   bω2  0

ω2  b  a   ca  0

ω lies between 0 to infinity,

a, b, c ≥ 0 & b – a ≥ 0 (i.e) b ≥ a.

S2  a1S  a 0
b) H(S)  2
S  b1S  b0

E1 (S)  S2 +a 0 , O1 (S)  a1S

12
 E2 (S)  S2 +b0 , O2 (S)  b1S

E1E2  O1O2  0

S 2
 a 0 S2  b0   (a1S)(b1S)  0

S4  a 0S2  b0S2  a 0b0  a1b1S2  0

S4   a 0  b0  a1b1  S2  a 0b0  0

Let S = jω, Therefore  jω   a 0  b0  a1b1  jω  a 0b0  0

4 2

ω4     a 0  b0  a1b1  ω   a 0b0  0

2

→ should be either zero or

 a 0  b0  a1b1      a 0  b0   a1b1 
2
 4a 0b 0 negative
ω2 
2
(ie) a1b1   a 0 +b0   4a 0b0  0
2

a1b1   a 0 +b0   4a 0b0

2

Taking square root on both sides,

a1b1   a 0 +b0   2 a 0b0

As –ve value is lesser than +ve value,

a1b1   a 0 +b0   2 a 0b0

a1b1  a 0 +b0  2 a 0b0

 
2
a1b1  a 0  b0

So condition for positive realness is,

 
2
a1b1  a 0  b0

S 4
N(S) 
(3). Check the positive realness of the function, S  2S  1
2

Sa
This is of the form, S  bS  c
2

13
a = 4, b = 2, c = 1.

For +ve realness, a,b,c  0 & b  a

But a > b, the function is not a p.r.f. (or)

S 4 S 4
N(S)  
S  2S  1 (S  1)2
2

(S  1)2  0

S  1.
There are multiple poles at S = –1. Hence the function is not a p.r.f.

(4). Prove that the given function is a p.r.f.

S 2
N(S) 
S  3S  2
2

a = 2, b = 3, c = 2.

a, b, c ≥ 0, b > a, the given function is a p.r.f.

S2  S  6
(5). Check the positive realness of N(S)  2
S  S 1

S2  a1S  a 0
The given function is of the form, S2  b S  b
1 0

Condition for p.r.f. is

 
2
a1b1  a 0  b0

a 0  6, b0  6, a1  1, b1  1

a1b1  1

   
2 2
a 0  b0 6  1  2.1

≥ .
2
a1b1 a 0  b0

So it is not a p.r.f.

14
 (S  2)(S  4)
(6) Prove that the function Z(S)  is +ve real.
(S  1)(S  3)
(S  2)(S  4) S2  6S  8
Z(S)  
(S  1)(S  3) S2  4S  3
S2  a1S  a 0
This function is of the form,
S2  b1S  b0
a 0  8, a1  6; b0  3, b1  4.

   
2 2
a 0  b0 8 3  1.2
a1b1  (6)(4)  24

 
2
a1b1  a 0  b0 , the given function is a p.r.f.

3S  5
(7) Find whether the given function is +ve real or not Z(S) 
S(S2  1)
3S2  5 A BS+C
Z(S)   
S(S2  1) S S2  1
3S2  5  A(S2  1)  BS2 +CS

3S2  5  (A  B)S2  CS  A
Equating constant terms, A  5
Equating S terms, C0
Equating S2 terms, AB3
B  3  A  3  5  2
Residue value B is –ve, given function is not a p.r.f.

(8) Check the positive realness of the following function

S3  5S
H(S) 
S4 +2S2  1
S3  5S S  S2  5 
H(S)  
S4 +2S2  1  S2  12

S  1  0
2 2

S  1S  1  0
2 2

S2  1
S  j &  j Multiple poles, not a p.r.f.

15
Elementary Synthesis Procedure:

Properties of LC driving point functions:

1) LC imitance function is the ratio of odd to even or even to odd polynomials.

2) Poles and zeros are simple & on the imaginary axis.
3) Poles & zeros are alternating.
4) At origin (i.e.) at S = 0, there is a pole or zero
5) At infinity (i.e.) at S   , there is a pole or zero
6) Re  F(jω)  0 ω

7) The residues of imaginary axis poles are positive & real

8) Highest power of Numerator & Denominator differ by unity. The lowest powers also differ by
unity.

The main methods for realizing a reactance function as a network are

1) Foster form I
2) Foster form II
3) Cauer form I
4) Cauer form II

H S2  ω12 S2  ω32 S2  ω5 2 

Foster form I: Z(S) 
S S2  ω2 2  S2  ω4 2 S2  ω0 2 

 Used to realize impedance function. If admittance function is given, the reciprocal of the function
is realized.
By partial fraction
K0 2K S 2K S
Z(S)   2 2 2 2 4 2  K S
S S  ω2 S  ω 4
K0 2K S
Z(S)    2 i 2  K S
S i 2,4 S  ωi
K 0 ,Ki , K  are the residues of Z(S) at origin, ω and ∞ respectively.
K0 1
represent a capacitor of farads
S 𝐾0
K S represent an inductor of K  Henrys

16
 2K iS 1 2K
represent a parallel combination of a capacitor of F & inductance of 2i H
S  ωi
2 2
2K i ωi

Foster form II:-

 Used to realize admittance function.

 If impedance function is given, reciprocal of the function which gives admittance is realized.

H  S2  ω12 S2  ω32 

Y(S) 
S  S2  ω32  S2  ω4 2 

K0 2K S 2K S
Y(S)   2 2 2 2 4 2 K S.
S S  ω2 S  ω 4
K0 2K S
Y(S)    2 i 2  K S.
S i2,4 S  ωi

Where K 0 , Ki & K  are the residues of Y(S) at origin, ωi and ∞ respectively.

K0 1
represent a inductor of Henrys
S 𝐾0
K S represent an inductor of K  farads

2K iS 1 2K
represent a series combination of a inductor of H &capacitor of 2i F.
S  ωi
2 2
2K i ωi
Y(S) is the parallel combination of elemental admittance.

17
 1) The driving point impedance of a one-port reactive network is given by
5  S2  4  S2  25 
Z(S)  Obtain the 1st& 2nd Foster networks.
S  S  16 
2

Foster 1:
5  S2  4 S2  25  5 S4 +4S2  25S2  100 
Z(S)  
S  S2  1b  S3  16S
5S4  145S2  500

S3  16S

S3  16S 5S4  145S2  500  5S

5S4  80S2
65S2  500

65S2  500 65S2  500

Z(S)  5S   5S 
S3  16S S S2  16 

65S2  500 A BS+C

 
S S2  16  S S2  16

135S
125
Z(S)  5S+  24
4S S  16
K0 2K S
Z(S)   2 i 2   K S.
S S  ωi

1 4
C0   F
K 0 125
135
2K 2 4  135  H
L1  2 
ω2 16 64
1 1 4
C2   = F
2K 2 135 135
4
L  K   2H

18
Foster form 2:

S  S2  16 
Y(S) 
5  S2  4  S2  25 

S S2  16  AS  B CS  D
Y(S)   
5 S  4 S  25 
2 2
S2  4 S2  25

4 S 3 S
Y(S)  235  2 35
S  4 S  25

2K iS
Y(S)  K 0S    K S
i 2,4 S  ωi
2 2

1 35
L1   H
2K i 4
2K 1
C1  2i  F
ωi 35
1 35
L2   H
2K i 3
3
2K i 3
C2  2  35 = F
ωi 25 875

Cauer form I:-

 Network is realized in Cauer I form by continuous fraction expansion. Highest power of

numerator & denominator differ by unity.
 Nr &Dr are arranged in the form of descending power of S.

19
 1
Z(S)  Z1 (S)
1
(series)
Y2 (S)
1
(shunt )
Z3 (S)
(series) 1
Y4 (S) +
(shunt ) Z5 (S)
1
Z(S)  4(S) 
1
C1S 
L 2S  C2

 It gives a ladder network with series arm as inductors & shunt arm as capacitors
 If Numerator power is less than its denominator power, then driving point function is inverted.
 In that case, continued fraction will give capacitive admittance as 1stshunt element and a series
inductance.

Cauer II form:

Here Numerator &Denominator are arranged in the ascending power of S.

1
Z(S)  Z1 (S)
1
(series)
Y2 (S)
1
(shunt )
Z3 (S)
(series) Y4 (S)
(shunt )

Here the series arms are capacitors and shunt arm are inductors.

20
 1 1
Z(S)  
C1 (S) 1
1
4S 
1
2S 
1

L 2 (S)

S  S2  4 
1) Realise the network in both Cauer forms. Z(S) 
S 2
 1S2  9 

Cauer I:
Given Numerator degree should be higher than Denominator.

Y(S) 
S2
 1S2  9 

S4  10S2  9
S S2  4  S3  4S

S3  4S S2  10S2  9  S Y
S4  4S2

6S2  9  S3  4S S  6
Z

3S
S3 
2
5  2  12
S  6S  9  Y
2   5
6S2
5 5
9 S  S Z
2  18
5
S
2
0

1
Y(S)  S 
S
1
6
12S  1
5 5S
18

21
 Cauer II:

S4  10S2  9 9  10S2  S4
Y(S)  
S3  4S 4S  S3

 9
4S  S3  9  10S2  S2  Y
 4S
9
9  S2
4
31 2
4



S  S4  4S  S3 16
31S
Z

16
4S  S
31
15 3  31 2  961
S  S  S4  Y
31  4  60S
31 2
S
4
15 3  15
S4  S  Z
31  31S
15 3
S
31
0

9 1
Y(S)  
4S 16  1
31S 961  1
60S 15
31S

22
 10S4  12S2  1
(2) Find the two Cauer realisations of driving point function given by Z(S) 
2S3  2S

Cauer 1:

2S3  2S10S4  12S2  1 5S

10S4  10S2
2S2  1 2S3  2S  S
2S3  S
S 2S2  1 2S
2S2
1 S  S
S
0

1
Z(S)  5S 
1
S+
1
2S 
S

Cauer II

10S4  12S2  1 1  12S2 +10S4

Z(S)  
2S3  2S 2S  2S3

23
  1
2S+2S3 1  12S2  10S4 
 2S
1 S 2

 2
11S2  10S4  2S  2S3 
 11S
20S3
2S 
11
2S3  2 4  121
11S  10S 
11   2S
11S2
2 3 2
10S4  S 
11  110S
2 3
S
11
0

1 1
Z(S)  
2S 2 1

11S 121 1

2S 2
110S

Properties of RC Driving point function

 RC network consists of R & C components.

 Driving point impedance of RC network is denoted as ZRC (S) .

 Properties of driving point admittance of RL network are identical.

24
 (S  1)(S  4) Poles are S  0, 2
eg:  z RC (S) 
S(S  2) Zeros are S  1, 4

Properties of RC Driving point Impedance fns:

1) Poles and zeros are simple, no multiple poles & zeros.

2) Poles & zeros are located on negative real axis & alternating.
3) Critical frequency nearest to the origin is a pole (located at origin).
4) Critical frequency farthest from the origin is a zero (located at  ).
5) The partial fraction expansion gives the residues values which are real & positive.
6) If ZRC (0)  ZRC ().

7) There is no zero at the origin & no pole located at infinity.

Synthesis of RC network:

Foster form I:
H  S  σ1  S  σ3 
Driving point impedance RC n/w, Z(S) is given by Z(S) 
S  S  σ 2  S  σ 4 
K0 K1 K2 Ki
ZRC (S)        K
S S  σ1 S  σ 2 S  σi
Where K 0 , K  , K i are the residues at origin, infinity & σ i respectively.
K0 1
represents a capacitor of F.
S K0
K  represents a capacitor of K  ohms.
Ki 1 K
represents a parallel combination of capacitor of & resistance of i
S  σi Ki σi

25
Foster Form II:
1
It is used to realize YRC (S)  [negative residues at poles]
ZRC (S)
YRC (S) K 0 K1 K2 Ki
       K
S S S  σ1 S  σ 2 S  σi
Y (S)
Residues of the expansion Ki will be negative, to make positive RC .
S
KS KS KS
 YRC (S)  K 0  1  2   i   K S
S  σ1 S  σ 2 S  σi
1
K 0 represents a resistance of .
K0
K iS 1 K
represents a series combination of resistance of ohms & a capacitance of i .F
S  σi Ki σi
K
K  represents a capacitance of i .F
σi

3  S  2  S  4 
1) Find the Foster I & II form for the function Z(S) 
S  1S  3
Numerator degree>denominator degree

3 S2 +2S+4S  8 
3S2 +18S+24
Z(S)  2  2
S  S  3S  3 S  4S  3
S2  4S+3 3S2  18S  24  3
S2  12S  9
6S  15
6S+15 6S+15
Z(S)  3   3
S  4S  3
2
(S  1)(S  3)

26
 A B
Z(S)  3  
S 1 S  3
9 3
Z(S)  3  2  2
S 1 S  3
K0 Ki
Z(S)    K
S S  σi
R  3

Ki 9
9 Ri   
2  σi 2
S 1 1 2
Ci   F
Ki 9

Ki 1
3 Ri   
2  σi 2
S3 1 2
Ci   F
Ki 3

Foster II:

S2  4S+3
Y(S) 
3S2  18S  24
1
3S2  18S  24  S2  4S  3 
3
S  6S  8
2

 2S  5
Negative terms appear.

27
Y(S) (S  1)(S  3) A B C
   
S 3S(S  2)(S  4) S S+2 S+4
1 1 1
Y(S) 8
  12  8
S S S+2 S+4
1 S
1 112 S
Y(S)    8
8 S+2 S+4
1 1 1
  
8 12 (S+2) 8 (S+4)
S S
1 1 1
  
8 12  24 8  32
S S

K iS
Y(S)  K 0   K S
S  σi
1
K0 =  R 0  8
8

1 K 1
Ki   Ci  i  F
K iS 12 σi 24

S  σi 1
σi  2 Ri   12
Ki

1 K 1
1 S K i  ,  Ci  i  F
8  K iS  8 σi 32
S 4 S  σi 1
σi  4, Ri   8
Ki

28
Synthesis of RC network by Cauer method:

Cauer I method:-

1
F(S)  q1 
1
q 2S+
1 1
q3   
q 4S q nS
1
 R1 
1
C1S+
1
R2  
C 2S

Cauer II method:-

1 1
F(S)  
C1S 1 + 1
R1 1  1 
C 2S 1
R2

(S  2)(S  4)
(1)Find the 1st& 2nd Cauer form of Z(S) 
S(S  3)

Foster 1:

S2  6S  8
Z(S) 
S2  3S

29
S2  3S  S2  6S  18 1 Z
S2  3S

3S  18  S3  3S S  3
Y

S2  8S
3
S
3  3S  8 9 Z
3S

8 S
3  S 24 Y
S
3
0

1
Z(S)  1 
S 1
+
3 9 1 
S
24

Cauer II:

3S  S2  8+8S  S2 8  35
Z

8  8S
3

3 
10S  S2 3S+S2 9
10  Y
2
3S  9S
10
S2
10 10S 3  S 100 3S
2
Z
10S
3
S2  S
2

10  110 Y
S2
10
0

30
 8 1
Z(S)  
3S 9 1
+
10 100 1

3S 1
10

Synthesis of Driving point Impedance functions of RL Network’s:-

 Driving point impedance is denoted as ZRL (S) .

 ZRL (S) & YRC (S) are identical

Properties:-

1) Poles & zeros are on the negative real axis of S-plane and are simple.
(S  1)(S  3)
Z(S) 
(S  2)(S  4)
Poles at S  2, 4
Zeros at S  1, 3
2) Poles & zeros are alternating.
3) Poles & zeros are the critical frequencies.
4) Critical frequency nearest to the origin is a zero.
5) Critical frequency farthest from the origin is a pole.
6) There cannot be a pole at the origin and cannot be a zero at infinity.
7) ZRL ()  ZRL (0)

ZRC (S)
8) Residues of ZRL (S) at its poles are real & negative and those of are real and positive.
S

Synthesis:-Foster form I:-

K1S KS K iS
ZRL (S)  K 0   2     K S
S  σ1 S  σ 2 S  σi

31
ZRL (S) K 0 K1 Ki
      K
S S S  σ1 S  σi

K1S KS K iS
ZRL (S)  K 0   2     K S.
S  σ1 S  σ 2 S  σi

Foster form II:-

K0 K1 K2 Ki
YRL (S)        K
S S  σ1 S  σ 2 S  σi

1) Find the 1st foster form of the driving point function:-

S(S  1)(S  4) S(S2 +S  4S  4)(S  4) S2 +25S  20

Z(S)    2
(S  3)(S  5) S2  3S  5S  15 S  8S  15

S2  8S  15  5S2 +25S  20  5
(–) (–)
5S2 +40S  75
 15S  55
Z(S) 5(S  1)(S  4) A B C
   
S S(S  3)(S  5) S S+3 S+5

5(S  1)(S  4) 5(1)(4) 4

A  
S(S  3)(S  5) S0 (3)(5) 3

32
 5(S  1)(S  4) 5(2)(1) 5
B  
(S  3)(S  5) S3 (3)(2) 3

5(S  1)(S  4) 5(4)(1)

C  2
S(S  3) S5 (5)(2)

4 5
Z(S) 3 2
  3 
S S S+3 S+5
5 S
4 2S
Z(S)   3 
3 S+3 S+5
4 1 1 4 1 1
     
3 3 (S+3) 1 (S+5) 3 3  9 1 5
5S 2S 5 5S 2 2S

2) Find the 2nd foster form of the driving point function:-

2S2 +16S  30
Y(S) 
S2  6S  8
S2  6S  8  2S2 +16S  30  2
2S2 +12S  16
4S  14

2S2 +16S  30 4S  14 4S  14
Y(S)   2 2  2
S  6S  8
2
S  6S  8 (S+4)(S  2)
4S  14 A B
 
(S+4)(S  2) S+4 S+2
4S  14 16  14
A  1
S  2 S4 2

4S  14 8  14
B  3
S  4 S2 2

33
 1 3
Y(S)  2  
S+4 S+2
1 1
 2 
S+4 S +2
3 3

Cauer I:-
Descending power of S.
1 1
F(S)  q1 (S)  L1S 
1 1
(series)
Y2 (S) R2 +
1 1 1
(shunt )
Z2 (S) L3 (S)   
(series) Y2 (S) R4 R
(shunt )

Cauer II:-

Ascending power of S.

1
Z(S)  R1 
1
SL1 +
1
R2 
1
SL 2  
R3

34
 (S+4)(S+8)
1) Find the 1st Cauer form of Y(S) 
(S+2)(S+6)

S2 +12S  32
Y(S) 
S2 +8S+12

S2  8S+12  S2  12S  32 1 Y
S2  8S+12


4S  20  S2  8S+12 S
4
Z
S2  5S

3S  12  4S  20 4 3
Y
4S+16


4  3S  12 3 S
4
Z
3S

12  4 1  3
Y
4
0

1
Y(S)  1 
S 1
+
4 4 1
3 3S  1
4 3

35
 2S2 +8S+6
(2)Find the 2 Cauer form for Z(S)  2
nd
S +8S+12

6+8S  2S2
Z(S) 
12  8S  S2

1
12+8S+S2  6+8S  2S2  Z
2
1
6  4S+ S2
2
3 
2 

4S  S2 12  8S+S2 3
S
Y

12+ 9 S
2

2 
7 S  S2 4S  3 S2 8
2 7  Z

4S+ 8 S2
7
5
14  2 
S2 7 S  S2 49
5S
7 S
2
S2  5
14 
S2 5
14
Z
5 S2
14
0

36
 1 1
Z(S)  
2 3+ 1
S 8 1
7 49  1
5S 5
14

Synthesis of RLC networks:-

S2  7S  70
1) Synthesize the impedance function Z(S)  .
S(S  10)

S2  7S  70
Z(S)  has a pole at origin.
S(S  10)

10S  S2  70+7S  S2 7  S
70  7S
S2

7 S2
Z(S)   2
S S  10S
7 S 1
Z1 (S)  , Z2 (S)  
S S  10 1  10
S

37
 2) Synthesize a network having impedance function,

6S  3S2  3S  1
Z(S) 
6S3  3S
6S3  3S 6S3  3S2 +3S  11  Z
6S3  3S
3S2 1

3S2  1
Z(S)  1 
6S3  3S
Z(S)  Z1 (S)  Z1 (S)

3S2  1
Z2 (S) 
6S3  3S
6S3  3S
Y2 (S) 
3S3  1

3S2  1 6S3  3S  2S Y
S3  2S
S 3S2  1 3S Z
3S2
1 S  S Y
S
0

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 Part A

1. What are the properties of RC network?

2. What is mean by synthesis of network?
3. Test whether the polynomial H(S) =S5+7S4+5S3+S2+S is Hurwitz. Give reason
4. Maintain the difference between first cauer form and second cauer form of LC network
5. What are the two foster forms?
6. For the given function determine cauer form of realization Y(S) = (S(S+2)(S+4))/(S(S+3))
7. Give any two conditions for a polynomial to be Hurwitz.
8. What are the properties of impedance function?
9. Write the conditions of the positive real function.
10. List out the properties of the RL impedance function

Part B

1. Check whether the given polynomial is Hurwitz or not P(S)=S6+3S5+8S4+15S3+17S2+12S+4

2. Realize the given RC network impedance function using foster I and Cauer II forms
Z(S)=((S+1)(S+4))/(S(S+2))
3. Synthesis the transfer impedance Z21=1/(S3+3S2+3S+2) with 1Ω termination.
4. Discuss the synthesis of RL network by cauer method and obtain first and second cauer of the
network
5. Test the following polynomial are Hurwitz
a) P(S)= S3+4S2+5S+2
b) P(S)= S4+S3+S2+2S+12
6. Synthesis the network using foster method II. Give admittance
Y(S)=((S(S2+2)(S2+4))/((S2+1)(S2+3))
7. Find the Two foster realization of Z(S)=(4(S2+1)(S2+16))/(S(S2+4)
8. Test whether the give equation is Hurwitz polynomial or not
a) P(S)= S5+8S4+24S3+28S2+23S+6
b) F(S)= 2S6+S5+13S4+6S3+56S2+25S+25
9. Find two cauer realization of driving point function given by Z(S)=(10S4+12S2+1)/(2S3+2S)
10. The driving point impedance of a one port reactive network is given by Z(S)=
(5(S2+4)(S2+25))/(S(S2+16)) obtain first and second foster networks

39
 SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

UNIT – V – NETWORK TOPOLOGY

1
 NETWORK TOPOLOGY

1. Basic definitions:
Network Topology:
 Is another method of solving electric circuits
 Is generalized approach
Network:
A combination of two or more network elements is called a network.
Topology:
Topology is a branch of geometry which is concerned with the properties of a geometrical
figure, which are not changed when the figure is physically distorted, provided that, no parts of the
figure are cut open or joined together.
The geometrical properties of a network are independent of the types of elements and their
values.
Every element of the network is represented by a line segment with dots at the ends irrespective
of its nature and value.
Circuit:
If the network has at least one closed path it is a circuit.
Note that every circuit is a network but every network is not a circuit.
Branch:
Representation of each element (component) of a electric network by a line segment is a branch.
Node:
A point at which two or more elements are joined is a node. End points of the branches are called
nodes.

Graph:
It is collection of branches and nodes in which each branch connects two
nodes.
Graph of a Network:
The diagram that gives network geometry and uses lines with dots at the ends to represent
network element is usually called a graph of a given network. For example,

Fig.5.1 Network

2
 Fig.5.2 Graph

SUB GRAPH
A sub-graph is a subset of branches and nodes of a graph for example branches 1, 2, 3 & 4
forms a sub-graph. The sub-graph may be connected or unconnected. The sub- graph of graph shown in
figure 2 is shown in figure 3.

Fig.5.3 Sub-graph
Connected Graph:
If there exists at least one path from each node to every other node, then graph is said to be
connected. Example,

Fig.5.4 Connected Graph

Un-connected Graph:
If there exists no path from each node to every other node, the graph is said to be un-connected
graph. For example, the network containing a transformer (inductively coupled parts) its graph could be
un-connected.

3
 Fig.5.5
Network
Fig.5.6 Un-connected Graph

A sequence of branches going from one node to other is called path. The node once considered
should not be again considered the same node.
Loop (Closed Path):
Loop may be defined as a connected sub-graph of a graph, which has exactly two branches of
the sub-graph connected to each of its node.
For example, the
branches1, 2 & 3 in figure 7 constitute a loop.

Fig 5.7 Graph

Planar and Non-planar Graphs:

A planar graph is one where the branches do not cross each other while drawn on a plain sheet
of paper. If they cross, they are non-planar.

Fig.5.8 Planar Graph Fig.5.9 Non-planar graph

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Oriented Graph:
The graph whose branches carry an orientation is called an oriented graph

Fig.5.10 Oriented Graph

The current and voltage references for a given branches are selected with a
+ve sign at tail side and –ve sign at head

Tree:
Tree of a connected graph is defined as any set of branches, which together
Connect all the nodes of the graph without forming any loops. The branches of a tree are called Twigs.
Co-tree:
Remaining branches of a graph, which are not in the tree, form a co-tree. The branches of a co-
tree are called links or chords.
The tree and co-tree for a given oriented graph shown in figure5.11 is shown in
Figure 5.12 and figure5.13.

Fig. 5.11 Oriented Graph

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 Fig. 5.12 Trees

Fig.5.13 Co-trees

Properties of Tree:
i) It contains all the nodes of the graph.
ii) It contains (nt-1) branches. Where ‘nt’ is total number of nodes in the given graph.
iii) There are no closed paths.
Total number of tree branches, n = (nt-1)
Where nt = Total number of nodes Total number of
links, l = (b-n)
Where b = Total number of branches in the graph.

Degree of Node:
The number of branches attached to the node is degree of node.
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 II. Complete Incidence Matrix (Aa):
Incidence matrix gives us the information about the branches, which are joined to the nodes and
the orientation of the branch, which may be towards a node or away from it.
Nodes of the graph form the rows and branches form the columns. If the branch is not
connected to node, corresponding element in the matrix is given the value ‘0’. If a branch is joined, it
has two possible orientations. If the orientation is away from the node, the corresponding matrix
element is written as ‘+1’. If it is towards the node, the corresponding matrix element is written as ‘-1’.

Example: 1) Obtain complete incidence matrix for the graph shown

Solution: Aa =

Properties of Incidence Matrix:

i) Each column has only two non-zero elements and all other elements are zero.
ii) If all the rows of ‘Aa’ are added, the sum will be a row whose elements equal zero.
If the graph has ‘b’ branches and ‘nt’ nodes, the complete incidence matrix is of the order (nt x b).

III. Reduced Incidence Matrix (A):

7
 When one row is eliminated from the complete incidence matrix, the remaining matrix
is called reduced incidence matrix
If the graph has ‘b’ branches and ‘nt’ nodes, the reduced incidence matrix is of the order
(nt-1) x b.
Example: 2) write the complete and reduced incidence matrix for the given graph shown

Solution:
Nodes Branches
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
Aa = 2 0 -1 1 1 0 0
3 0 0 0 -1 0 1
4 -1 0 -1 0 1 0
5 0 0 0 0 -1 -1

Example: 3) Draw the oriented graph of incidence matrix shown below

1 0 0 0 1 -1
-1 1 1 0 00
0 -1 0 -1 0 1
Aa = 0 0 -1 1 -1 0
Solution:

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 Total number of nodes = nt = 4 Total number of
branches = b = 6

Oriented Graph

Example: 4) Draw the oriented graph of incidence matrix shown below

Oriented Graph

TIESET
A tie-set is a set of branches contained in a loop such that each loop contains one link or chord and
remainder are tree branches.
Or
The set of branches forming the closed loop in which link or loop current circulate is called a Tie-set.
The tie-set consists of only one link and remaining are Twigs.
• The fundamental loop formed by one link has a unique path in the tree joining the two nodes of the link.

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 This loop is also called f-loop or a tie set.
• The orientation of the cut-set is same as orientation of link.

TIE-SET SCHEDULE
For a given network tree, a systematic way of indicating the links through the use of a schedule is called tie-
set schedule
To write the tie-set for network graph,
(i) Consider an oriented network graph
(ii) Write any one possible tree of the network graph
(iii)Connect a link to the tree branches to form a loop. In the same way form all Fundamental loops.
(iv)The loop current direction is same as that of the link.
(v) Form the Matrix the rows denotes the loop and columns denotes the branches

Problem 1:For the Given Network, Write a tie-set Schedule.

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 LOOPS 1 2 3 4 5 6
ABD 1 0 1 0 0 -1
ABC 0 0 -1 -1 1 0
BCD 0 1 0 1 0 1

Problem 2: For the Given Network, Write a tie-set Schedule.

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Problem 3: Find the Tieset Matrix and the Branch Voltages.

12
13
14
CUTSET
The cut set is a minimal set of branches of the graph, removal of which cuts the graph into two parts. It
separates the nodes of the graph into two groups.
• The cut-set consists of only one tree branch and remainders are links.
• Each branch of the cut-set has one of its terminal incident at a node in one group and its other end at a node
in the other group and its other end at a node in the other group.
• The orientation of the cut-set is same as orientation of tree branch.
CUT-SET SCHEDULE
For a given network tree, a systematic way of indicating the tree branch voltage through use of a schedule
called cut-set schedule
To write the cut-set schedule for network graph,
(i) Consider an oriented network graph
(ii) Write any one possible tree of the network graph
(iii)Assume tree branch voltages as (e1, e2…en) independent variables.
(iv)Assume the independent voltage variable is same direction as that of a tree branch voltage
(v) Mark the cut-sets (recognize) in the network graph.

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PROBLEM 5: Determine the Cut set Schedule

BRANCHES 1 2 3 4 5 6

NODE A -1 1 1 0 0 0

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Problem 6: Find the Cutset Matrix and the Branch Voltages

17
Oriented Graph TREE & Co-TREE

18
19
Problem 8:For the circuit shown frame the Cutset schedule and find the branch currents

20
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DUALITY AND DUAL NETWORK:

The network is said to be dual network of each other if the mesh equations of given network are the
node equations of other network. The property of duality is a mutual property. If network A is dual
network B, then the network B is also dual of network A.

Some of the dual pairs are given in the following table:

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Methods of drawing the dual of a network

The following steps are followed to draw the dual of given electrical network:

1. A dot is placed in each independent loop of the original network. These dots placed inside the
loops correspond to the independent nodes in dual network.

2. A dot is placed outside the given network. This corresponds to the reference node of the
dual network.

3. All the dots are connected by dotted lines crossing all the branches. The dotted lines should
cross only one branch at a time. The dual elements will form the branches connecting the
corresponding nodes in the dual network.

Note A: The voltage rise in the clockwise direction corresponds to a current flowing
towards the independent network.

Note B: A clockwise current in a loop corresponds to positive polarity for the at the dual
independent node.

Example Draw a dual network for the given network below.

The procedure for drawing the dual network is given below:

The dual network is given below:

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References:
1. A Sudhakar Shyammohan S Palli, “Circuits and Networks Analysis and Synthesis”, 5th Mc Graw Hill education
(India)
Pvt. Ltd, 2015.
2. M.E.Van Valkenburg, “Network Analysis”, 4th edition, Pearson Education Pvt. Ltd, 2015.
Isaak Mayergoyz W. Lawson, “Basic Electric Circuit Theory”, 1st Edition, Elsevier, 2012.
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/network_theory/network_theory_topology.htm
https://www.electrical4u.com/trees-and-cotrees-of-electric-network/

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