Subject Name: Electronic Devices & circuits
Subject Code: CS-3002
Semester: 3rd
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Unit-:05
Introduction to IC, Advantages and limitations, IC classification, production process of monolithic IC,
fabrication of components on monolithic IC, IC packing, general integrated circuit technology,
photolithographic process, u polar IC s, IC symbols.
5.1 Introduction to IC
First generation electronic computers employed vacuum tubes. Vacuum tubes are replaced by transistors,
cheaper in cost, smaller in size, less power consuming and reliable, in second generation computers. The third
generation computers used digital ICs largely reducing computer size and increasing computational reliability
and speed. Integrated circuits have further reduced product dimensions and cost, while ensuring greater
reliability. As the state of the art advanced, specially designed ICs were used in linear circuits in
communications, military, and industrial applications. ICs and large scale ICs have changed the design of
electronic devices from the use of only discrete components to hybrid solid state devices which mix discrete
components with ICs.
Discrete Circuits: consists of separately manufactured components, such as resistors, inductors, capacitors,
and diode transistors etc., joined by wires or plated conductors on printed circuit boards. Such circuits have
two main drawbacks. Firstly, They occupy large space. Secondly, there is problem of reliability, as hundreds of
components are to be soldered. To overcome these drawbacks, engineers started a drive for miniaturized
circuits. This led to the developments of Integrated circuits in 1958. Integrated circuit is a complete electronic
circuit consisting of both the active and passive components (including their interconnections) fabricated on
an extremely tiny single chip of silicon. The processes employed in fabrication of IC chips are basically the
same as employed in the fabrication of discrete transistors, diodes etc. However in IC technology, all the
circuit elements including their interconnections are fabricated at a time.
5.2 Advantages and Limitations of ICs
The integrated circuits offer numerous advantages over those made by interconnecting discrete components.
These are summarized as follows:
a) Extremely small size – thousands times smaller than discrete circuits. It is because of fabrication of
various circuit elements in a single chip of semiconductor material.
b) Very small weight owing to miniaturized circuit.
c) Very low cost because of simultaneous production of hundreds of similar circuits on a small
semiconductor wafer.
d) More reliable because of elimination of soldered joints and need for fewer interconnections.
e) Low power consumption because of their small size.
f) Increased operating speeds because of absence of parasitic capacitance effect.
g) Easy replacement as it is more economical to replace them than to repair them.
Limitations: The integrated circuits have few limitations also, as listed below:
a) In an IC the various components are part of small semiconductor chip and the individual component or
components cannot be removed or replaced, therefore, if any component in an IC fails, the whole IC
has to be replaced by a new one.
b) Need of connecting inductors and transformers exterior to the semiconductor chip as it is not possible
to fabricate inductors and transformers on the semiconductor chip surface.
c) Need for connecting capacitor exterior to the semiconductor chip as it is neither convenient nor
economical to fabricate capacitances exceeding 30pF. Therefore for higher values of capacitance,
discrete components exterior to IC chip are connected.
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d) Operation at low voltage as ICs functions at fairly low voltage.
5.3 Classification of ICs
On the basis of fabrication techniques used, the ICs can be divided into three classes:
a) Monolithic ICs-The ord Mo olithic is deri ed fro the Greek o os ea i g si gle a d lithos,
ea i g sto e Thus monolithic circuit is built into a single stone or single crystal i.e. in monolithic
ICs, all circuit components, (both active and passive) and their interconnections are formed into or
on the top of a single chip of silicon. This type of technology is ideal for manufacturing identical ICs
in large quantities and, therefore, provides lowest per unit cost and highest order of reliability.
These are the most common type of ICs. Commercial available ICs of this type can be used as
amplifiers, voltage regulators, AM receivers, TV circuits, and computer circuits.
b) Thin and Thick Film ICs-Commercially available thin and thick film circuits are combinations of
integrated circuits and discrete components. With a thin and thick film IC, passive components like
resistors and capacitors are integrated, but transistors and diodes are connected as discrete
components to form a complete circuit. Thus these devices are larger than monolithic ICs but
smaller than discrete circuits. These ICs can be used for when power requirement is comparatively
higher.
The essential difference between the thin and thick film ICs is not of their relative thickness but the
method of deposition of film.
Thin- Film ICs-Are fabricated by depositing films of conducting material on the surface of glass or
ceramic base. One method used for producing thin film is vacuum evaporation in which vaporized
material is deposited on the substrate contained in the vacuum. In another method called cathode
sputtering, atoms from a cathode made of the desired film material are deposited on a substrate
located between a cathode and an anode.
Thick- Film ICs-Are sometimes referred to as printed- thin film circuits. In their manufacturing
process silk-screen printing techniques are used to create the desired circuit pattern on a ceramic
substrate. The screens are actually made of fine stainless steel wire mesh, and the inks are pastes
having conductive, resistive or dielectric properties. After printing, the circuits are high
temperature-fired in a furnace to fuse the films to the substrate. Thick film passive components are
fabricated in the same way as those in the thin-film circuits.
c) Hybrid Or Multichip ICs-As the name implies, the circuit is fabricated by interconnecting a number
of individual chips. Hybrid ICs are widely used for high power audio-amplifier applications. An
approximate method of classifying the amount of circuit or component density as follows:
Type of ICs Number of Gates Or
Components Per Chip
Small Scale Integration(SSI) <
Medium Scale Integration(MSI) 10-100
Large Scale Integration(LSI) 100-1000
Very Large Scale Integration(VLSI) >1000
Classified according to their mode of operation, ICs are of two types namely linear ICs and digital
ICs. LICs are also referred to as analog ICs because their inputs and outputs can take on a
continuous range of values and outputs are generally proportional to the inputs. Digital circuits are
primarily concerned with only two levels of voltage (or current): High and Low.
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5.4 Production Processes of Monolithic ICs
A monolithic IC is one in which all circuit components and their interconnections are formed on a single
thin wafer, called a substrate. The basic production processes for the monolithic ICs are given below:
1. Crystal Growth of Substrate
Substrate is a bottom most layer that serves as the body or substrate upon which the complete IC
is built. A typical P- type crystal is grown in dimensions of 250mm length and 25mm diameter, as
shown in Fig 5.1. Silicon is preferred because its characteristics are suitable for manufacture of ICs.
The crystal is then cut by a diamond saw into thin slices called wafers.
a
Fig.5.1 (a) P-type Silicon Crystal (b) Wafer
These wafers after being lapped and polished to mirror finish serve as the base or substrate on which hundreds of ICs
are produced.
2. Epitaxial Growth
On the high resistivity P-type substrate a low resistivity 25�m thick layer of N-type is epitaxially grown. For this
purpose, the wafers are placed in a diffusion furnace over 1200℃ and a gas mixture of silicon atoms and
pentavalent atoms is passed over the wafers. This forms a thin layer of N-type semiconductor on the heated
surface of the substrate as shown in Fig. 5.2. It is this epitaxial layer that all active and passive components of
an IC are formed.
N-Epitaxial layer
P-Substrate
Fig.5.2 N- Epitaxial Layer over P-Substrate
3. Oxidation
In order to prevent the contamination of the epitaxial layer, a thin layer of ���2 is formed over the entire
surface as illustrated in Fig 5.3. The ���2 layer is grown by exposing the epitaxial layer to an oxygen
atmosphere to about 1000℃. This surface layer of ���2 will prevent any impurities from entering the N-type
epitaxial layer.
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���2 Layer
N-Epitaxial layer
P-Substrate
Fig.5.3 Formation of ���2 layer over epitaxial layer
4. Photolithographic Process
The Monolithic technique requires the selective removal of the silicon dioxide ���2 to form openings
through which impurities may be diffused, if required. The photolithographic process shown in Fig. 5.4
is used for this process. During this process the wafer is coated with a thin layer of photo-sensitive
material, commonly known as a photo-resist (Such as Kodak photoresist KPR). A large black and white
layout of the desired pattern of openings or windows is made and then reduced photographically. This
negative or stencil, of the required dimensions is placed as a mask over the photoresist, as illustrated
in Fig. 5.4 (a). This wafer surface with mask is then exposed to the ultraviolet light. Due to ultraviolet
light, the photoresist below the transparent portions of the mask becomes polymerized. The mask is
now removed, and the wafer is developed by using a chemical like trichloroethylene. The chemical
dissolves the unpolymerised portions of the phoresist film and leaves the surface as shown in Fig.
5.4(b). The oxide not covered by polymerized photoresist is then removed by immersing the chip in an
etching solution of HCl. Those portions of the ���2 which are protected by the photoresist remain
unaffected by the acid. After etching and diffusion of impurities, the resist mask is stripped off with a
chemical solvent like hot sulphuric acid (�2 ��4 ) and by means of a mechanical abrasion process. The
appropriate impurities are then diffused through the oxide free windows.
Silicon Chip
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Fig. 5.4 Photolithographic Process
5. Isolation Diffusion
���2 layer is removed from the desired areas, as shown in Fig. 5.5 (Four selected portions from the wafer)
using photolithographic etching process. The remaining ���2 layer serves as mask for the diffusion of acceptor
impurities. The wafer is now subjected to isolation diffusion at suitably high temperature and for appropriate
time period allowing P-type impurity (e.g. Boron) to penetrate in N-type epitaxial layer through the openings
in ���2 layer and ultimately reach the P-type substrate. The process results formation of N-type regions, called
isolation islands.
N-Type N-Type N-Type
P+ P+ P+
P+
P type substrate
Fig. 5.5 Isolation Diffusion
6. Base Diffusion
During the process a new layer of ���2 is formed over the wafer. The new pattern of openings is created
depending on the circuit needs. In these openings P-type impurities like boron are diffused under regulated
environments to form P-regions. This forms the base region of an N-P-N transistor or as well as resistors, the
anode of diode, and junction capacitor as shown in Fig. 5.6.
Fig. 5.6 Base Diffusion
7. Emitter Diffusion
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A layer of ���2 is again formed over the entire surface and Opening in P-type regions, as shown in Fig. 5.7 are
formed again by employing masking and etching process. The N-type impurities like phosphorous are then
diffused through these windows under controlled environments to form transistor emitters.
N N N
P type substrate
Fig. 5.7 Emitter Diffusion
8. Aluminium Metalization
For making electrical connections between various components of the IC, several windows are opened
on a newly created ���2 layer.
9. Scribing and Mounting
The wafer is scribed with a diamond-tipped tool and separated into individual chips. Each chip is then
mounted on a ceramic wafer and is attached to the suitable header.
5.5 Fabrication of Components on Monolithic IC
The outstanding feature of an IC is that it comprises a number of circuit elements inseparably
associated in a single small package to perform a complete electronic circuit. Example of Transistor and
diode fabrication is given below:
Transistor and Diodes
Transistors and diodes are usually formed using the epitaxial planar diffusion process. Collector, base
and emitter regions are diffused into P-type silicon Substrate as shown in Fig. 5.8 and surface terminals
are provided for connections. In discrete transistors the substrate is employed as collector.
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N-Type Emitter
P-Type Base
N-Type Collector
P-Type Substrate
Fig.5.8 Transistor
Integrated circuit diodes are usually fabricated by diffusion exactly as transistors. Only two of the regions are
used to form to form one P- N junctions. In Fig. 5.9 Collector-base junction of the transistor is used as a diode.
Anode of the diode is formed during the base diffusion of the transistor and the collector region of the diode
becomes the cathode of the diode.
Fig.5.9 Diode
5.6 IC Packaging
For the protection of ICs from external environment and to provide mechanical protection and terminals for
electrical connections, various types of packaging are used as follows. Metal can type container provides
electromagnetic shielding for the IC chip which cannot be provided by plastic or ceramic packages. Standard IC
packages are shown in Fig. 5.10.
The plastic dual line package is much cheaper than other types of packages and is widely employed for general
industrial and consumer applications where high temperature are not met with. Ceramic or metal containers
are used where ICs are subjected to high temperatures. Dual-in-line and flat packages are more convenient for
circuit board use than are cans, because of their lead arrangement and because they are flatter and permit
greater circuit densities.
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8 pin Plastic
14 pin Plastic Dual in line
Metal Can
Dual in line
Fig. 5.10 Standard Packages for ICs
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