Biomes

Study Note
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Biomes Study Note – BY VIRUL WEERAKOON

Biomes
Biomes can be classified as follows.
1. Location and distribution. 2. Annual rainfall.
3. Average temperature. 4. Special features.
5. Animal species distribution. 6. Plant species distribution.
7. Threats.
Tropical rain forests.
(a) Location and distribution.
• Close to the equator and distribution to sub equatorial areas.
• Two types: 1. Tropical rainforests. 2. Tropical dry forests.
(b) Annual rainfall.
• Tropical rain forest - 2000 - 4000 mm
• Tropical dry forest - 1500 - 2000 mm.
• Seasonal rainfall with a dry season of 6 - 7 months is prominent in –the dry
forest.
• Fairly constant rainy season is prominent in the rainforest.
(c) Average temperature.
• Tropical rain - 25 - 29 °C.
• Tropical dry - May reach up to 33°C.
(d) Special features
• In tropical rainforests, an emergent layer, canopy and sub canopy layers are
visible.
• These are followed by an understory layer which consist of shrubs and large
herbaceous plants, mushrooms and thick layer of dead plant litter. Vegetation is
arranged in several vertical layers observed. Tropical forest constitute the
highest diversity of plants and animals out of all terrestrial biomes.
(e) Plant species and distribution.
• Evergreens are prominent in tropical rain forests. In dry forests, leaves of
deciduous species fall in the dry season. Epiphytes are common in rainforests.
However in dry forests, epiphytes are less common. Shrubs with thorns as well
as succulent plants often occur in dry forests.

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Biomes Study Note – BY VIRUL WEERAKOON

(f) Animal species and distribution.

• It has many mammal species and 5-30 minion species of arthropods some of
which have not been fully described yet. Animals have adaptations to suit the
environment. Animals in rainforests show year round activity. Camouflage is
common among small animals. Large animals may have markings in their
bodies. Birds often migrate to other regions during dry period.
(g) Threats
• Human involvement in agriculture and development related activities has led to
destruction of these forests.

Savanna.
(a) Location and distribution.
• Spread close to the equator and subequatorial areas.
(b) Annual rainfall
• 300 - 500 mm
• A prolonged dry season of approximately 8 - 9 months prominent.
(c) Average temperature
• 24 – 29 °C
• In subequatorial areas seasonal changes may occur.

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Biomes Study Note – BY VIRUL WEERAKOON

(d) Special features.

• Characterized by a landscape that supports scattered trees in a tall grass cover.
(e) Plant species and distribution.
• During dry periods the dried grasses catch fire easily. Therefore grasses adapted
to withstand drought naturally grown in savannas. These grasses have a very
good underground connectivity.
• The few herbs found contain small leaves to reduce transpiration and thorns to
be protected from herbivores.
• Seasonal rains encourage a fresh growth of grasses to compensate the loss of
biomass due to consumption by herbivores.
(f) Animal species and distribution.
• Common animals
✓ Many insects (mainly termites)
✓ Lions
✓ Zebras
• Many animals have effective locomotion for long distance migration and long
range vision for hunting .
(g) Threats
• Human settlement from a very early time has been reported in these areas. Due
to rearing of cattle and hunting of animals by humans the population of
mammals have been decreased.
• Fires caused human aid help to maintain the grass cover of this blame in one
way. But it may also have a negative impact by suppressing the growth of trees.

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Desert.
(a) Location and distribution
• Commonly occurring, near 30° north and south latitudes
Sahara center of continents - Gobi desert in north central Asia.
Temperate or tropical biome.
(b) Annual rainfall.
• Annual average rainfall < 300 mm per year.
• This distribution is determined by the non availability of water.
(c) Average temperature.
• Temperature varies seasonally and daily
• In hot desserts > 50 °C
• In cold deserts < - 30 °C
(d) Special feature
• Deserts have more bare lands:
• If vegetation is found they are sparse and distributed widely.
(e) Plant species and distribution
• Plants have adaptations to withstand the high temperature and scarcity of water.
✓ Succulent plant body.
Eg:- Cactus, Euphorbs.
✓ Most plants have C4 pathway of photosynthesis.
✓ Deep roots in shrubs.
✓ Ability to tolerate heat and desiccation.
✓ Reduced surface areas of leaves.
✓ Presence of spines/ thorns.
✓ Presence of toxins in leaves.
(f) Animal species and distribution.
• Nocturnal animal species are abundant in deserts.
• Water conservation is a prominent feature, with some species surviving solely
on water obtained during the breakdown of carbohydrates in seeds.
• Snakes, Lizards, beetles, ants, scorpions, rodents and birds.
(g) Threats.
• Since these areas are covered into human settlements and agricultural lands, the
natural biodiversity le reduced. Deep wells and well developed systems for
transporting water has facilitated human settlement and agricultural lands.

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Biomes Study Note – BY VIRUL WEERAKOON

Chaparral.
(a) Location and distribution
• North America, Chilie, Spain, Southern France, South Africa.
• Mid latitude coastal regions.
• Best developed in Southern California.

(b) Annual rainfall.

• 300 – 500 mm
• Experience rainy winters and dry summers.

(c) Average temperature

• Between 10 - 12 °C but can reach up to 40 °C

(d) Special features

• Typically composed of dwarf forests and shrubs, and interspersed herbaceous
vegetation which include grasses and herbs.
• Highly prone to events of catastrophic wildfire.

(e) Plant species and distribution.

• Adaptation
✓ Seed germination occurring only after a hot fire.
✓ Fire resistant roots.
✓ Use of food stored in the fire resistant roots for re-sprouting after a
fire.
✓ Quick re-sprouting enables usage of nutrients released by the fire.
✓ Tough evergreen leaves in woody plants to survive in drought.

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Biomes Study Note – BY VIRUL WEERAKOON

(f) Animal species and distribution

• Most of the native mammals are browsers.
Eg: Deers, goats.
• Rich in diversity of small mammals and several species of amphibians, birds,
reptiles and insects.

(g) Threats
• Human settlement, urbanization and agricultural conversions have reduced and
disturbed these areas.
• Chaparral is vulnerable to fire caused by human activities.

Temperate grasslands.
(a) Location and distribution.
• Occur under temperate climatic regimes that are intermediate to those that
support forest and desert.
• North America - Prairie
• Eurasia - Steppe
• Argentina – Pampas

(b) Annual rainfall.

• Precipitation is highly seasonal with periodic droughts.
• These grasslands have relatively dry winters and wet summers.
• Average rainfall is 300 - 1000 mm per year.

(c) Average temperature.

• During winter seasons < - 10 °C.
• Summer about 30°c.
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(d) Plant species and distribution

• Grasses are dominant
• The prairie is often divided into 3 types according to height of the dominant
vegetation.
• Tall grass, Mixed grass, Short grass.
• Height of grasses vary from few centimeters to two meters in tall grass prairie .
• Drought and Fires occur in the grasslands but many plants show adaptations to
cope with fire.

(e) Animal species and distribution

• Large grazers such as horses.
• Many types of burrowing animals. (prairie dogs)
(f) Threats
• Tall grass prairie is now an endangered natural ecosystem, because it has been
almost entirely converted to agriculture and farmlands.

Temperate broadleaf forest.

(a) Location and distribution
• Distribution at mid latitudes in northern hemisphere.

(b) Annual rainfall.

• Average annual precipitation - 700 - 2000 mm
• Significant amount of precipitation is received throughout the year in summer as
rain and in winter as snow.

(c) Average temperature

• Winter - o °c
• Summer - 35°C
• Summer is hot and humid and allows a favorable time to the growth of trees.
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(d) Special features.

• A Vertical layering (stratification) can be seen.
• They are,
✓ closed canopy layer
✓ one or two strata of understory trees
✓ shrub layer
✓ herb layer

(e) Plant species and distribution

• Dominant trees ore mostly deciduous.
• Only few epiphytes con be found.

(f) Animal species and distribution

• Many mammals can be seen and they hibernate during winter seasons.
• Bird species migrate to areas where climate is warmer.

(g) Threats
• Forests are logged disturbed due to logging, clearance for agriculture and for
human settlements.

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Northern coniferous forest.

(a) Location and distribution
• Largest biome on earth.
• Extended as a broad band from upper band of Arctic tundra.

(b) Annual rainfall

• Annual overage precipitation 300 - 700 mm
• Periodic drought is common.

(c) Average temperature.

• Winter - 50°C
• Summer - 20°c

(d) Plant species and distribution.

• Dominated by coniferous trees:
Eg:- Fir, Pine, Spruce.
• Many conifers are conical in shape and this shape trees prevents accumulation
of snow thus breaking down of branches.
• They have needle like leaves that prevent high transpiration.
• Diversity of shrubs and herbs in these forests is less than that of temperate broad
leaf forests because of the limitations in precipitation and warm temperature.

(e) Animal species and distribution:

• Brown bears, moose, Siberian tigers.
• Dominant plants can be killed by sudden attacks of insects

(f) Threats
• Logging
• Not heavily populated by humans.

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Tundra.
(a) Location and distribution
• Covers expansive areas of the arctic region, amounting 20% of earths land
surface.
• Alpine tundra - At high altitudes on mountains
• Arctic tundra- High latitudes

(b) Annual rainfall

• Most tundras receive very small inputs of water as precipitation, but
nevertheless their soil may be moist or wet because there is a little evaporation
in such cold climates and deep drainage may be prevented by frozen soil.
✓ Arctic tundra - 200- 600 mm
✓ Alpine tundra > 1000 mm.
(c) Average temperature.
• Winter < - 30 °C
• Summer < 10 °C\

(d) Special features

• A layer of permafrost which is permanently between frozen layer of soil can be
seen.
• Permafrost restrict growth of the roots of plants.

(e) Plant species and distribution.

• Mostly herbaceous plants. Including different types of grasses and forbs
• Shrubs, mosses, lichens and trees also can be found.

(f) Animal species and distribution.

• Large grazing mammals such as Caribou and reindeer (migratory).
✓ musk oxen (resident)
✓ predatory wolves, foxes, bears
✓ Many species of migratory birds.
(g) Threats
• This area is sparsely colonized by humans, but heavily used for extraction of
minerals and oils.

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Eco-systems in Sri Lanka

Tropical wet lowland forests
(a) Location and distribution
• Below 900m elevation in South western quarter of the country.
Eg :- Sinharaja, Nakiyadeniya, Kanneliya.

(b) Annual temperature

• 28 0 C

(c) Annual Rainfall

• Between 2000mm – 5000mm in different locations without any dry period.
• High humidity

(d) Special features

• Characterized by a tall canopy, sub canopy and a sparse shrub layer consisting
mostly of the sapling of canopy trees.
• Sometimes an emergent layer is also seen above the canopy.
• Vegetation is filled with a network of woody lianas that reach to the canopy
layer.

(e) Plant Species and distribution

• A diverse population of epiphytic lichens, mosses, liverworts, orchids, ferns are
found.
• Fungi inhabit decaying woods and soil
• High endemism of floral and faunal diversity can be seen
• Trees found : Hora, Dipterocarpus zeylanicus, Naa, Hal

(f) Animal species

• Purple faced langur
• Sri Lanka slender loris
• Golden wet zone palm civet

(g) Threats
• Tea cultivation, agriculture, industrial and residential development

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Tropical montane forests

(a) Location and distribution

• Occur at elevation beyond 1500m above sea level.
Eg:- Knuckles, Piduruthalagala, Hakgala
(b) Average temperature
• 16 0 C

(c) Average rainfall

• 2000mm without any dry period
• High humidity

(d) Special features

• Characterized by a short capopy of about 13m
• Dense shrub layer
• Trees with umbrella snaped rounded crowns and twisted branches having
leathery small leaves.
• To accommodate the strong winds that prevail in the montane zone

(e) Plant species

• High density of epiphytes cover the branches and stems of trees
Eg: Keena, Gal weralu, Walkurudu.
(f) Animal Species
• Sri Lanka yellow eared bulbul
• Sri Lanka highland shrew
• Sambar
(g) Threats
• Tea cultivation

Tropical dry mixed evergreen forests / Dry monsoon forest.

(a) Location
• Areas below 300m atitudes
Eg: Yala, Wilpattu, Wasgamuwa, Maduru oya, Ritigala

(b) Annual temperature

• 29 0 C

(c) Average rainfall

• 1000mm – 1500mm
✓ Mostly falls during northeast monsoon periods
✓ Marked dry spell from May – August

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(d) Special Features

• Sparse canopy a sub canopy and a well developed shrub / herb layer
• Some of canopy trees are deciduous
• Largest elephant population in Asia
• Most of trees are protected as national parks

(e) Plant species

• Weera
• Palu
• Kaluwara
(f) Animal species
• Leopard
• Bear
• deer

(g) Threats
• Cheno cultivation, human settlement, extracting timber, poching

Tropical thorn scrubs

(a) Location
• Arid lowlands
• Eg: Hambanthota, Mannar, Yala, Puttalam

(b) Annual temperature

• Around 34 0 C

(c) Annual rainfall

• < 1000mm with a long dry period

(d) Special features

• Due to dry conditions many large trees are sparse vegetation mainly consists of
thorny scrubs

(e) Plants
• Gini-andara, Ranawara, Heeressa

(f) Animals
• Deer, Leopard, Elephant
• Due to dry conditions many fauna species cannot be found
(g) Threats
• Development processes

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Savanna
(a) Location
• Hill stopes of the dry or intermediate zone
Eg: Bibile, Monaragala, Mahiyanganaya, Wellawaya
• The thin layer of soil on hill stopes cannot support the growth of trees and the
grass cover helps to bind soil parametes and reduce erosion of soil.

(b) Special
• Periodic fires are common as the fired grass cover easily catch fire in dy period
of the year.

(c) Plants
• Trees with fire resistence species
• Aralu, Nelli, Bulu – trees
• Mana, Iluk – grass

(d) Threats
• Periodic fires set by villagers for various reasons.

Patana

(a) There are 2 types of patina

• Wet patana
• Dry patana

(b) Location
• Wet patina – 1500 m above sea level
• Dry patana – 500 – 1600m
Eg: Hantana, Gampola, Welimada, Haputale
(c) Temperature
• Wet – 5-18 0 C
• Mist , fog and frost are common and do not experience any dry period
• Dry - 18-24 0 C

(d) Rainfall.
• Wet > 2000mm.
• Dry about 1400mm To 2000mm

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(e) Plant species:

Wet patana
• Grasses do not reach more than 1m – Tussock grass
✓ Chysopogon
✓ Nodulibarbis
✓ Arundinella
✓ Villosa
Dry patana
✓ Grass that grow up to 1-2m height
✓ Pangiri mana
✓ Pini bara tana

(f) Animal species

• Large sambar and wild bare population and few leopards

Wetlands
• Wetlands are simply a bitats with permanent or temporary accumulation of
water with associated plants and animals. According to Ramsar convection,
wetlands are areas of marsm, ten, peatland or water, whether natural or
artificial, permanent or temporary with water that is static or flowing, fresh,
brackisn or soft including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide
not exceed 6m.
• The wetlands of Sri Lanka, which fit in to the Ramsar definition can be divided
in 3 broad groups.
• Inland fresh water wetlands ( rivers, streams, marshes, swamps, forests, vinus)

Costal wetlands
• (lagoons, estuaries, mangroves, sea grass beds, salt marshes, coral reefs)
Man made wetlands
• (tanks, reservoirs, rice fields and salterns)
Rivers and streams
(a) Location & others
• Sri Lanka has an extensive network of rivers, which drains a total of 103 distinct
natural river basins.
• The river basins originating in the wet highlands are perennial, through out the
gear while many of those in dry zone are seasonal.
• There is hardly any vegetation to be found in running water.
Reservoirs
• There are no natural lakes in sri lanka
• There are numerous ancient irrigation tanks scattered in the lowland dry zone.

Path to Medical College මිනිස්සුන්ට සීමා නැහැ ළමයි… P a g e 15 | 20

AL/2025/09/S/Study Note Unit - 10 Genuine Biology With Virul Weerakoon
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Biomes Study Note – BY VIRUL WEERAKOON

Typical irrigation tanks

(a) Locations
• Parakrama samudraya
• Kala wewa
• Minneriya wewa

(b) Plants species

• Water lily
• Nelum
• Kekatiya
• Water hyancith

Marshes and swamp forests

(a) Introduction
• Island freshwater marshes or low lying areas which recive water through surface
runoff, ground water seepage or floud water from rivers.
• These contain peat ( partially decomposed organic matter ), and water logged
sticky clay soil.

(b) Animal species

• Many water birds
• Amphibians
• Fish species

(c) Plants
• Plants adapted to grow in swallow sagnant water
✓ Habarala (colocasia species)
✓ Kekatiya
✓ Reeds

• Fresh water swamp forests are not common in sri lanka

• It is a place where forests vegetation is inundated for a short period of time in
the year
Eg: waturana swamp at bulathsinhala located in the ‘kalu ganga bosin’

Villus
• Generally villus are the flood plains of reservations
• Villus grasslands possess a special link with waterlife in the area, especially
elephants and birds populations
• The vegetation is dominant with grasses and sedget

Path to Medical College මිනිස්සුන්ට සීමා නැහැ ළමයි… P a g e 16 | 20

AL/2025/09/S/Study Note Unit - 10 Genuine Biology With Virul Weerakoon
සියළු ම හිමිකම් ඇ විරිණි/ முழுப் பதிப்புரிமையுமையது/All Rights Reserved MBBS Undergraduate

Biomes Study Note – BY VIRUL WEERAKOON

(a) Locations
• Mahaweli flood plains
• Wilpattu national park

Lagoons and estuaries

• Lagoons are generally coastal wetlands separated from the sea by a sand barrier.
Eg: Negambo, Bundala
• Estuaries are formed in places where rivers enter sea and does not contain a
sand barrier separating it from seas.
Eg: Maduganga, Bentota
• The daily tidal fluctuation is a characteristic of these places.

Mangroves
• An interticial vegetation that covers fingers of the lagoons and estuaries are
mangrove ecosystems.

(a) Special features:

• Saline / brackish water
• Loose soil
• Anoxic conditions.
• To protect from sunlight leaves have a thick cutile.
• This reflects sunlight and/ or cut of excesas radiation
• Some have salt glands to secrets excess salts that are absorbed by the plants
• There are special roots to intake atmospheric O2
• Seeds of some mangroves germinate while attached to the mother
plant.(viviparity)
• This help the seeds to establish successfully soon after falling from the tree.
• Mangrove plants can be categorized in to 2 groups;
✓ True mangroves – that occur towards the boundary between sea and land
✓ Mangrove associates – occur more towards inland.
• Common true mangrove species:
✓ kadol
✓ Masa athu gas

• Common mangrove associates:

✓ Karan koku / golden leather tern
✓ Katu-ikili

• Mangroves provide a unique habitat for many crustaceans and mollusks.

Path to Medical College මිනිස්සුන්ට සීමා නැහැ ළමයි… P a g e 17 | 20

AL/2025/09/S/Study Note Unit - 10 Genuine Biology With Virul Weerakoon
සියළු ම හිමිකම් ඇ විරිණි/ முழுப் பதிப்புரிமையுமையது/All Rights Reserved MBBS Undergraduate

Biomes Study Note – BY VIRUL WEERAKOON

(b) Locations
• Puttalam, Trincomalee, Bentota
• Batticaloa, Galle, Negambo

Salt marshes
•Resrricted to the arid coastals of the country where soil dries up to form crystals
of salt during the dry season.
(a) Special features
• Low rainfall
• High wind
• High temperatures
• Loose sand blowing with salt
• The vegetation has only few paint and animals species.plants are short, contain
fleshy succulent plant bodies.
• One common plant species sallcornia sp.

(b) Locations

• Puttalam
• Mannar
• Hambantota
• Vakaral

Sea grass beds

• In large lagoon areas with low wave action, the floor of the shallow sea is
occupied by sea grasses.
• These are not grasses but appear like grasses due to the shape of leaves.
Eg: plant species such as Halodule sp and Halophyla sp.
• Sea grasses grow in a compact cluster and provides the sea bed a favourable
habitat for breeding of many species.
• However these areas often disturbed by the fisheries activity as these are the
parking areas of fishing boats.
Coral reefs
• Coral reefs consist of calcareous structures seereted by a group of marine
invertebrates.
• Coral reefs are considered as rain forests of the sea because of their high
productivity and high diversity of organism inhabit them.

Path to Medical College මිනිස්සුන්ට සීමා නැහැ ළමයි… P a g e 18 | 20

AL/2025/09/S/Study Note Unit - 10 Genuine Biology With Virul Weerakoon
සියළු ම හිමිකම් ඇ විරිණි/ முழுப் பதிப்புரிமையுமையது/All Rights Reserved MBBS Undergraduate

Biomes Study Note – BY VIRUL WEERAKOON

(a) Animal species

• Fish species
• Invertebrates such as spiny lobsters
• Sea cucumbers
• Dolphins
• Sea turtles

(b) Locations
• In southern cost.
Sea shore
• The most common sea shore type is sandy sea shores.
(a) special features
• High temperature
• Salt spray
• High winds especially during monsoon seasons.
(d) Plants in sea shore
• Muhudu binthambaru
• Maha rawana revula
• The vegetation gradually becomes stable a distance away from the tide mark
with the stabilization at the soil.
Eg: Wara, Watekeiya

Sand dunes
(a) Special features
• Stunted or creping vegetation on large masses of sand
• Sand dune structure is determined by wind speed and direction. Dune are raised
beaches of sand and are characteristies of certain coastal areas in the arid zone.
Eg: Mullativ, Trincomalee

(b) Invasive alien species.

• Invasive alien species are alien(exotic) plants and/or animals whose introduction
and spread outside their natural geographic range threaten native biodiversity.
• Alien invasive species compete against or prey on native species, which can lead
to their extinction.

• Once introduced, for a considerable period of time , they may lock natural
predators in the new environment. This is a great opportunity for them to
reproduces successfully and spread without limits to take over the environment.

• They can spread disease, out-compete native species, alter food chains, decrease
biodiversity and even change ecosystem properties by altering soil composition
or creating habitats that encourage wildfires

Path to Medical College මිනිස්සුන්ට සීමා නැහැ ළමයි… P a g e 19 | 20

AL/2025/09/S/Study Note Unit - 10 Genuine Biology With Virul Weerakoon
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Biomes Study Note – BY VIRUL WEERAKOON

• Although only a small percentage of alien species become invasive, they damage
biodiversity in everywhere they invade and alter the services and ecosystem
value of the introduced environment.

• Therefor they are considered as a major cause for depletion of biodiversity and
environment degradation.

Eg:
• Kalutara Golubella / Giant African Land snail
Was introduced to Sri Lanka as a contamination of soil
brought with some other plants.

• Japan jabara / Water Hyacinth.

Was introduced nearly 110 years ago as an ornamental
plant

• Lantana camara / Gandapana

Facilitates fire due to it dry biomass during drought
seasons.

Path to Medical College මිනිස්සුන්ට සීමා නැහැ ළමයි… P a g e 20 | 20