Milling Applications

And Cutter Basics

ISCAR’s Reference Guide

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THE STANDARDS INSTITUTION OF ISRAEL THE STANDARDS INSTITUTION OF ISRAEL THE STANDARDS INSTITUTION OF ISRAEL THE STANDARDS INSTITUTION OF ISRAEL THE STANDARDS INSTITUTION OF ISRAEL

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 MILLING APPLICATIONS AND CUTTER BASICS
Contents
Milling and Milling Cutters Defined 6
Motions in Milling................................................................................................................................................. 7
Milling Methods and Milling Operations........................................................................................................ 7
Up (Conventional) and Down (Climb) Milling.............................................................................................. 12

Classification of Milling Cutters 14

The Main Elements of a Milling Cutter 16

The Geometry of a Milling Cutter 19

Pitch of a Milling Cutter................................................................................................................................... 26
Helix Angle......................................................................................................................................................... 28

Milling Calculations 30
Cutting Data........................................................................................................................................................ 30
Chip Thickness...................................................................................................................................................34
Cutting Forces, Cutting Torque, and Power Consumption.................................................................... 40

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MILLING APPLICATIONS AND CUTTER BASICS

Vibrations in Milling 46

Advanced Milling Methods 51

High Speed Machining (HSM)......................................................................................................................... 51
Peel Milling (Slicing) and Trochoidal Milling............................................................................................... 56
High-Efficiency Machining (HEM).................................................................................................................. 58
High Feed Milling (HFM).................................................................................................................................. 59
Plunge Milling (“plunging”)............................................................................................................................. 62
Turn-Milling......................................................................................................................................................... 64

ISCAR’s Milling Line 67

Dry or Wet? 71
Wet Coolant..........................................................................................................................................................71
Dry Machining and Other Options.................................................................................................................74
The Milling Tool...................................................................................................................................................76

Face Milling for High Surface Finish 78

How to Select the Right Milling Tool 83

New Benchmarks in Milling 86

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 MILLING APPLICATIONS AND CUTTER BASICS
"Knowledge is a tool, and like all tools,
its impact is in the hands of the user."
(Dan Brown)

Preface
This book serves as a continuation of the intended as a learning guide or tutorial. It
introduction to the world of cutting tools, is particularly useful for those who choose
initially presented in ISCAR's reference to improve their skills through ISCAR's
guide, "Get to Know Cutting Tools." Now, e-learning courses and aspire to become
the focus shifts to milling and milling tools, experts in the metal cutting industry.
which are examined in detail. The aim of The book includes self-evaluation
this book is to enhance understanding quizzes for the main sections, which
of motions, methods, techniques, cutter will assist you in assessing your
types, and many other aspects of milling. progress in the self-study process.
Designed as a pocket reference for various
points related to milling, the book is also

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MILLING APPLICATIONS AND CUTTER BASICS

Symbols and units*

A – removed cross-section Mc – cutting torque, Nm (lbf×in)
area, mm2 (in2) mc – material factor in the equation
AE – angle of engagement for finding actual chip thickness
a – depth of removed cross- n – rotational velocity (spindle
section, mm (in) speed), rpm, RPM
ae – width of cut (radial depth of Q – metal removal rate (MRR),
cut, w.o.c., WOC), mm (in) cm3/min (in3/min)
ap – depth of cut (axial depth of Pc – cutting power, kW (hp, HP)
cut, d.o.c., DOC), mm (in) vc – cutting speed, m/min (sfm, SFM)
b – width of removed cross- vf – feed speed (feed rate, table
section, mm (in) feed, minute feed), mm/min
d – cutting diameter, mm (in) (inch per minute, ipm, IPM)
F – total (resultant) cutting force, N (lbf) – clearance (clearance angle,
Fa – axial cutting force, N (lbf) relief, relief angle)
Fb – bending force, N (lbf) γ – rake (rake angle)
Fr – radial cutting force, N (lbf) γf, γr – side rake (radial rake, side rake
Ft – tangential cutting force, N (lbf) angle, radial rake angle)
f, fr – feed per revolution (feed), mm/ γo – orthogonal rake (orthogonal
rev (inch per revolution, ipr, IPR) rake angle, effective rake)
fz – feed per tooth, mm/tooth γp, γa – back rake (axial rake, back
(inch per tooth, ipt, IPT) rake angle, axial rake angle)
h – chip thickness, mm (in) η – machine tool efficiency
hmax – maximum chip thickness, mm (in) κ – cutting edge angle (entering
kc – actual specific cutting angle, entrance angle)
force, N/mm2 (ksi) κ' – minor cutting edge angle
kc1 – specific cutting force to remove a λ – cutting edge inclination
material chip area of 1 mm2 λs, ω – flute helix angle
(.0016 in2) with 1 mm (.004 in) φ – angular pitch (pitch angle)
thickness, N/mm2 (ksi) ψ – lead angle (approach angle)
* in the metric system (units in the US customary system are given in brackets)

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 MILLING APPLICATIONS AND CUTTER BASICS
Abbreviation list
3D – three-dimensional HRC – hardness, Rockwell scale C
AM – additive manufacturing HPC – high pressure coolant
CAE – computer aided engineering HSM – high speed machining,
CAM – computer aided manufacturing high speed milling
CCW – counterclockwise HSS – high speed steel
CBN – cubic boron nitride HTSA – high-temperature superalloys
CNC – computer numerical control LH – left-hand
CPU – cost per unit MQL – minimum quantity lubrication
CW – clockwise MRR – metal removal rate
d.o.c. – depth of cut PCD – polycrystalline diamond
FF – fast feed R&D – research and development
ISO – International Organization RH – right-hand
for Standardization SCEM – solid carbide endmills
HEM – high-efficiency machining S/F – side and face
(dynamic milling) w.o.c. – width of cut
HFM – high feed milling

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MILLING AND MILLING CUTTERS DEFINED

Milling and Milling

Cutters Defined
Milling is a metal-removal process that Milling is a widely used metal-removal
involves using a rotating cutting tool to process that allows for the machining
shape a workpiece, which moves in a of workpieces in different sizes and
translational motion relative to the tool. shapes. In the production of parts that are
A tool used for milling is commonly referred not rotary bodies, milling is a common
to as a “milling cutter”, “milling tool”, or operation, used early in the manufacturing
simply “mill”. Most milling cutters are process to create the necessary datums
multi-point tools, meaning they have more for subsequent machining operations.
than one cutting edge. The cutting edges In many cases today, finish milling can
of a mill are designated as the “teeth”. provide a surface finish that is comparable
to that achieved through grinding.
While milling was initially developed
for planar surfaces, advancements
in multi-axis CNC machines now
enable the creation of complex 3D
surfaces through milling operations.

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 MILLING AND MILLING CUTTERS DEFINED
Motions in Milling Milling Methods and
In milling, the primary motion is the Milling Operations
rotary motion of a milling cutter, while The cutting edges of a milling cutter are
the feed motion is the translational located on the cutter periphery, cutter
motion of a machined workpiece relative face, or both. Therefore, depending
to the cutter. Depending on the type on the area of the cutter involved in
of milling machine, there are several the cutting action, there are several
ways to facilitate feed motion. milling methods: peripheral milling, face
milling, or a combination of both.
Table Feed In peripheral milling, only the teeth
Traditionally, feed motion in milling was on the outer periphery of the mill are
achieved by moving a machine table that engaged in cutting (Fig. 2). Peripheral
held a machined workpiece. Consequently, milling is commonly known as ‘slab
the speed of the feed motion, known milling’, and the corresponding mill
as the feed speed, was closely tied is referred to as a “cylindrical mill”,
to the velocity of the moving table, “slab mill”, or even “plain mill”.
commonly referred to as “table feed.”

n
The most common approach involves
moving the workpiece while the rotating
milling cutter remains in the same
position. Another technique is observed
when the workpiece is stationary, and
Vf
the rotating cutter moves translationally.
Lastly, in the third approach, both the
rotating milling cutter and workpiece
are moved relative to each other.

Fig. 2. Peripheral (slab) milling.

n

vf

Fig. 1. Example of motions in milling: primary

motion is the rotation of a milling cutter with
rotational velocity n, while feed motion involves the
rectilinear movement of a machine table carrying a
workpiece mounted on it, with a linear speed vf.

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MILLING AND MILLING CUTTERS DEFINED

Slab Mill End milling is a milling technique that can be

A slab mill is a type of a cylindrical (plain) seen as a subset of face milling. Unlike face
milling cutter – a milling tool with helical milling, end milling involves a greater milling
cutting teeth on its cylindrical periphery. depth compared to the milling width. If the
slab mills generally feature large sizes and applied endmills have a cylindrical shape,
have a central bore for arbor mounting, their tool axis runs parallel to the main
mainly in horizontal milling machine machined surface, such as a shoulder, slot,
tools. Slab mill length is considerably or cavity wall. These endmills are sometimes
greater than its diameter. These mills are referred to as face mills with extended
intended for machining an open surface tooth length. Fig. 1 provides an example of
(mostly plane) of a workpiece when the end milling a deep shoulder, while Fig. 4
surface width is less than the mill length. illustrates end milling a shouldered contour.
Slab mills were very common in the past
but today they are used quite rarely.

In face milling (Fig. 3), the cutting edges of

a mill that perform the cutting action are
located on both the mill end face and the
mill periphery. A typical face mill, used for
face milling operations, is a multi-toothed
tool with a flat bottom. In face milling, the
tool axis is aligned perpendicular to the
machined surface, and the milling width is
significantly larger than the milling depth.

Fig. 4. Milling shouldered surface

by solid carbide endmill.

Profile milling is a general name for

milling techniques used for machining
three-dimensional (3D) surfaces. It is also
known as “form milling,” “milling contoured
surfaces,” or simply “profiling.” Special-shape
milling tools, such as ball-nose, toroidal, and
segment-shaped, are specially designed for
profile milling (Fig. 5).
The development of multi-axis CNC
machines has expanded the possibilities
and potential for profile milling.
Fig. 3. Face milling.

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 MILLING AND MILLING CUTTERS DEFINED
Slot or Groove?
The words “slot” and “groove” are often
synonymous. But if “slot” usually relates
to a narrow, comparatively long, mainly
longitudinal, opening that is usually open-
ended (at least from one side); “groove”,
as a rule, means a circular (called
“undercut”) or helical channel. It has been
said that “a slot is an open-ended groove.”

Milling slots and grooves or simply

slot milling can be accomplished using
different tools, such as endmills and
Fig. 6. Milling slot by side-and-face milling cutter.
face mills. However, a disc-shaped side
milling cutter, designed with teeth on Plunge milling, also referred to as “plunge-
its face and periphery, is specifically in milling” or “plunging”, involves the feed
intended for this type of milling. This motion of a milling cutter along the cutter
type of cutter allows for the simultaneous axis. The cutter is then plunged into the
machining of three surfaces: the bottom material of the machined workpiece (Fig. 7).
and the two sidewalls of a slot (Fig. 6).
Consequently, these cutters are also
referred to as “side-and-face (S/F) mills.”
As a result, the milling technique
is commonly known as “side
and face (S/F) milling.

Fig. 7. Machining a workpiece by plunge milling

Fig. 5. Machining the complex surfaces of a

propeller with a barrel-shape endmill.

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MILLING AND MILLING CUTTERS DEFINED

In addition, milling is used for cutting Gang Milling and

threads, gears, splines, and sprockets.
However, these processes are typically
Straddle Milling
In gang milling, a combined tool
treated as separate classes of technology
consisting of two or more milling
(threading, gearing etc.).
cutters, mounted on the same arbor, is
Fig. 8 shows the main milling operations, used to machine multiple surfaces of
and Fig. 9 illustrates them schematically. a workpiece simultaneously. Straddle
milling, a variation of gang milling,
employs two or more side-and-face milling
cutters, mounted on a single arbor, to
1 — Milling 3D Surface (Profile Milling) machine parallel planes of a workpiece.
2 — Milling Flat Face with Square Shoulder
These planes are perpendicular to
3 — Face Milling
the arbor axis and feature an exact
4 — Milling Slot by Face-and Side
distance between them. To ensure the
(Disc) Cutter
required accuracy of this distance, the
5 — Milling Slot by Face Mill
6 — Milling Square Shoulder milling cutters are spaced apart with
1
7 — Milling Slot by Solid Endmill the use of bushings and spacers.
8 — Milling Deep Shoulder
9 — Plunge Milling
10 — Thread Milling
1
6

7
8
2

10

Fig. 8. Main milling operations.

10 ISCAR
 MILLING AND MILLING CUTTERS DEFINED
A The machined surfaces are
highlighted in red.
A — Milling open flat face.
B
B — Milling flat face bounded
by square shoulder.
C — Milling square shoulder.
D — Milling 3D surface (profiling).
C
E — Milling slot/groove.
F — Milling workpiece edge (edging).
G — Milling chamfer.
H — Milling inclined flat surface.
D
I — Milling pocket/cavity.
J — Gear/spline milling.
K — Milling inner thread.

E Facing, Profiling,
Shouldering
In turning, the definitions “facing”,
“profiling”, and “shouldering” are used
F
to specify typical turning operations.
However, in milling, these words are
G
considered “shop talk”, replacing
the full terms “face milling”, “profile
milling”, and “shoulder milling”.
H

Fig. 9. Illustration of surfaces machined

using primary milling operations.

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MILLING AND MILLING CUTTERS DEFINED

Up (Conventional) and
Down (Climb) Milling
Depending on the interrelation between Up and Down
the primary and feed motions, there are To explain the origin of terms “up” and
two types of milling: up and down milling. “down” that characterize the types of
In up (up-cut, conventional) milling (Fig. 10), milling, let’s examine peripheral milling on
the tool rotation (primary motion) with a a horizontal milling machine. In this case,
rotational velocity of n is directed against a cylindrical mill is used as the cutting
the feed motion, which has a linear speed tool, and a workpiece is mounted on the
of vf. Each tooth of the tool gradually cuts machine table, as shown in Fig. 2. In up
into the material, starting with a very thin milling, the cutting force exerted by the
chip and increasing the chip mill tries to move a machined workpiece
thickness progressively until up from the table. On the other hand, in
it reaches its maximum down milling, the cutting force pushes
hmax at the tooth’s exit the workpiece down onto the table.
from the material.
In down (down-cut, climb) milling
(Fig. 11), the primary and feed motions have
the same direction. Each tooth starts
cutting with a maximum chip thickness
that gradually decreases to a very
small value at the tooth’s exit.
Despite down milling being the
preferred method of cutting due
to its better conditions for effective
cutting and higher surface finish,
up milling does have its advantages
in specific cases. For example, up
milling is often favored for rough milling
hard-skin castings or scaly forgings.
Pure up or down milling is observed only
when the tool axis is located outside the
material being machined. When
the axis lies within the material,
the tool teeth are engaged in
both types of milling
(Fig. 12, areas I and II). This
combination is typical in most
face milling applications.

12 ISCAR
 MILLING AND MILLING CUTTERS DEFINED
Self-evaluation quiz
1- What is the primary motion in milling?
a. Rotary motion of a mill.
b. Rotary motion of a workpiece.
hmax
c. The primary motion can be utilized
n n with both above motions.
d. Linear motion of a workpiece.
vf 2- The feed motion in milling is
a. The linear motion of a
machined workpiece.
b. The rotary motion of a
Fig. 10. Up (up-cut or conventional) milling. machined workpiece.
c. The translational motion of a machined
workpiece relative to the cutter.
d. The rotary motion of a mill.
hmax
3- The cylindrical mill is intended for
a. Peripheral milling.
nn b. Face milling.
vf c. End milling
d. Both peripheral and face milling.
4- Side-and-face milling relates to
a. Milling plane face bounded by shoulder.
b. End milling.
Fig. 11. Down (down-cut or climb) milling. c. Milling slots and groove by
disc milling cutter.
d. Milling complex 3D surfaces.
hmax
5- Should up milling, which ensures a
better cutting effect, be considered
I as the first-choice type of milling,
nn and applied wherever possible?
II a. Yes, it is correct.
b. No, it is not correct.
6- Is the combination of up and down milling
vf
typical for most face milling operations?
a. Yes, it is correct.
Fig. 12. Combination of up and down milling when the b. No, it is not correct.
axis of the tool lies within the material being machined.
Area I features up milling, while area II
is characterized by down milling.

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CLASSIFICATION OF MILLING CUTTERS

Classification
of Milling Cutters
Milling cutters can be classified in different
ways based on the following attributes:
1- Milling method: Slab mills, face 9- Mounting method: Arbor-type shell
mills, and endmills are examples of mills have a central bore for mounting
milling tools that are intended for on an arbor, while shank-type mills have
milling by different methods. a shank for clamping in a holder.
2- Type of machined surface: Plane, shoulder, 10- Adjustability: Milling cutters can be
3D surface are typical surfaces to be milled. adjustable, with an adjustable cutting part,
3- Main usage: Face mills, cylindrical or non-adjustable without such capability.
endmills, slot mills, profile mills, thread mills, 11- Destination: Milling cutters can
chamfer mills, form gear mills, and corner be standard or customized based
rounding mills serve distinct purposes, on specific requirements.
while high feed mills, high-speed mills, and Figures 13 and 14 provide examples
trochoidal mills have specific applications. of milling cutters with their description
4- Direction of rotation: Milling and appropriate attributes.
cutters can be classified as right-
hand (RH) or left-hand (LH).
Historical Notes:
5- Machining type: General-duty,
rough, and finish mills address
The Milling Cutter
different machining needs. of Eli Whitney
There is no consensus on who exactly
6- Cutting part profile: Cylindrical,
invented the milling cutter. However,
tapered, toroidal, ball nose, circle-
many give credit to Eli Whitney, an
segment, back draft, and disc shapes
American inventor and manufacturer,
are common cutting part profiles.
who made significant contributions to the
7- Design concept: Milling cutters can be solid concept of interchangeable parts. This
or assembled. Assembled tools feature a concept marked an early sign of mass
tool body carrying a cutting part formed production. In the late 18th century, Eli
by elements mounted on the body, such Whitney designed an innovative multi-
as inserts with indexable cutting edges. blade rotary tool, resembling an iron
8- Material of cutting part: High-speed steel wheel with cutting teeth on its periphery
(HSS), cemented carbides, polycrystalline – a precursor to modern milling cutters.
diamond (PCD), and ceramics are commonly
used materials for the cutting part.

14 ISCAR
 CLASSIFICATION OF MILLING CUTTERS
Fig. 13. An assembled right-hand face mill Fig. 14. A solid carbide ball nose endmill.
with indexable inserts. (This general-duty mill (The ball-nose shape of this specific profile end
is primarily used for machining open planes. mill makes it perfect for machining 3D surfaces,
It features a shell-mill configuration and is especially in semi-finish to finish operations.
equipped with indexable carbide inserts). It is designed with a shank-type structure
and produced from tungsten carbide).

Standard Tools Weldon

The definition “standard tool” has a certain In milling tools, the term “Weldon”
duality. On the one hand, it may mean designates the cylindrical shank of a tool
that a tool meets the requirements of a (usually a milling cutter) with one or two
national (international) standard. On the side flats for clamping and driving. This
other hand, cutting tool manufacturers type of shank was originally introduced
use this definition to specify their by Weldon Tool Co. in the 1920s.
in-stock products of standard delivery.

15
THE MAIN ELEMENTS OF A MILLING CUTTER

The Main Elements

of a Milling Cutter
As with any cutting tool, a milling cutter The cutting part of a mill is represented
consists of two main elements: a body by its teeth. In assembled mills, the teeth
and a cutting part. The cutting part directly are constituted by separate components
performs the cutting action, while the body that are mounted on the body. In contrast,
is responsible for mounting the cutter and solid mills have the cutting part formed
transmitting the necessary torque from by a specially shaped area of the body.
the main drive of a milling machine tool. The body of arbor-type mills has a
The body also aids in chip evacuation, bore for mounting a mill on an arbor or
facilitating the removal of chips produced a machine spindle, while shank-type
during cutting. In modern milling cutters, mills feature a shank that is necessary
the body may include inner channels for for securing a mill in a holder.
coolant supply to the cutting zone, making it
a cutter with an inner coolant supply option.

Why “Mill”?
The term “milling cutters” being named
“mills” actually originates from the verb
“to mill”, which means to grind or reduce
to fragments - the process of material
using a milling machine. This association
probably comes from the similarity
between the cutting action performed
by milling cutters and the grinding or
milling process used in early grain mills,
where grain was ground or milled to
produce flour. Therefore, the term “mill”
was derived from the verb “to mill” and
its connection to the grinding or milling
action performed by these cutters.
Some people believe that the term
“mill” in the context of milling cutters
originated from the design resembling
a classical windmill. While the design
may not directly evoke windmills, it is
an interesting analogy to consider.

16 ISCAR
 THE MAIN ELEMENTS OF A MILLING CUTTER
Chip … Gullet, Mouth, A-A Enlarged Z Enlarged

α0 λ
Throat, or Slot?
All these terms relate to the area of a γ0
cutting tool designed for chip flow during
machining. The chip mouth and chip
throat are usually shaped holes, and the 6
7
chip gullet and chip slot are grooves. In
ψ
rotating tools, the terms “chip mouth”
and “chip throat” are more common in
BODY 5
hole making, while the terms “chip gullet”
and “chip slot” are used more in milling.
κ
A
To ensure the smooth flow of chips CUTTING
PART
produced during cutting, a milling cutter κ'
features a specially designed chip space 1 3 Z
d A
or cavity between its teeth. This chip space 2 d max 4
must be adequately sized to allow for
unrestricted chip flow.
1 — coolant outlet
There are different terms used to describe
2 — insertclamping screw
such a space in milling, the most common
3 — indexable insert
terms being “chip gullet” and “flute”. The
4 — minor cutting edge
term “chip gullet” is generally used to 5 — major cutting edge
refer to the chip space in indexable milling 6 — tool axis
cutters. Conversely, “flute” is primarily 7 — chip gullet
used for solid mill designs, where
Fig. 15. Main structure elements and geometrical
it denotes a helical groove that parameters of an indexable milling cutter.
facilitates chip flow while also
creating a sharp cutting edge or
mill tooth along one of its edges.

17
THE MAIN ELEMENTS OF A MILLING CUTTER

B-B Enlarged Table 1. The designation of main

geometrical parameters of milling cutters.
Designation
γ0 Common [Link] ISO
α0 Parameter Designation** 13399
Cutting Diameter d DC
Maximum Cutting
B Diameter
dmax DCX
1 2 3 4
r Tool Cutting Edge
κ KAPR
Angle
Tool Minor Cutting
κ’
5 d1 Edge Angle
d
Tool Lead (approach)
ψ
λs Angle
B Tool Cutting Edge
λ
ap max Inclination
Tool Orthogonal Rake
l γ0 GAM...***
(rake)
Tool Orthogonal
CUTTING PART BODY α0 AN…
Clearance (relief)
Flute Helix Angle λs (ω) FHA
1 — minor cutting edge Overall Length l OAL
2 — flute Maximum Depth of Cut ap max APMX
3 — major cutting edge Shank Diameter d1 DMM
4 — shank Corner Radius r RE
5
** Based on ISO 3002/1
— tool axis ***ISO 13399 uses radial and axial rakes

Fig. 16. Main structure elements and

geometrical parameters of a solid endmill

18 ISCAR
 THE GEOMETRY OF A MILLING CUTTER
The Geometry of a
Milling Cutter
Like any cutting tool, a milling cutter must inclination have specific directions and
have appropriate geometry to facilitate appropriate signs. For instance, in Fig. 15,
the cutting action. The main geometrical the orthogonal rake (γo) is positive, while
characteristics of milling cutters are the cutting edge inclination (λ) is negative.
illustrated in Figures 15 and 16.
Cutting capability and applicability “Side” and “Back” or
of a mill are mainly determined
“Radial” and “Axial”?
by the following angles: With respect to the designation of the rake
• the rake (or rake angle), designated as γ, measured in different reference planes,
• the clearance (also referred to as the terms “Side” and “Back” are standard
“relief”, “clearance angle”, or “relief definitions that apply to all cutting tools.
angle”), designated as α, Conversely, their alternative designations,
“Radial” and “Axial”, are primarily applied
• the cutting edge inclination, designated as λ.
to rotating tool nomenclatures, while
• the cutting edge angle, designated as κ, the standard definitions are commonly
• the minor cutting edge angle, used in non-rotating tool terminology.
designated as κ'.
These angles can be determined in different Now, let’s take a closer look at the cutting
ways depending on the chosen reference geometry of the mill depicted in this figure
system of planes. For instance, if the rake with the use of its appropriate enlarged
(γ) and the clearance (α) are specified in fragment shown in Fig. 17. The rake (γ)
so-called orthogonal reference plane, they can be measured in different reference
are denoted by adding subscript “o”: γo planes. Along with the orthogonal reference
and αo, respectively. The determination plane, in which the rake is characterized
of the systems of planes is specified by the orthogonal rake (γo), also known
by appropriate normative documents, as the effective rake, the rake is resolved
in particular, by ISO 3002/1 standard. into two additional components specified
The angles that define the cutting in the following planes: normal to the mill
geometry of a mill have a significant axis and parallel to this axis (sections B-B
impact on chip formation and chip flow, and C-C in Fig. 17, respectively). The rake
cutting force, power consumption, and measured in these planes is designated as
play a crucial role in determining the the side or radial rake (γf) and the back or
strength of the mill’s cutting edges. axial rake (γp). Sometimes, radial rake and
axial rake are designated by γr and γa, too.
In addition to the nominal value, both
the rake angle and the cutting edge

19
THE GEOMETRY OF A MILLING CUTTER

Depending on the direction of the side

(radial) and back (axial) rakes, different C-C Enlarged A-A Enlarged
geometries of milling cutters exist. If both +γa
+γo
of these angles are positive, the cutter γa

geometry is considered double positive.

Conversely, if both angles are negative, -γp
the cutter features double negative γo

geometry. The combination of a positive αo -γo

back rake and a negative side rake forms a αp

positive/negative or shear-angle geometry.

These three geometries reflect typical
cutting concepts of milling tool design Tool
Axis
adopted in metalworking industries. Each C
geometry has its own advantages and
disadvantages concerning cutting forces,
power consumption, heat generated during
machining, strength of cutting edge, chip A
flow, and therefore, applicability to milling
various groups of engineering materials.

Clarifying Terminology:
Positive/Negative or
Negative/Positive? B B
When describing the geometry of a milling
A
cutter, it is crucial to understand which Z
rake, whether radial or axial, corresponds C
to the terms positive or negative. While
this may not matter for cutters with double B-B Enlarged
positive or negative geometry, the phrase +γf
γf
“positive/negative” can lead to confusion. Z
In the context of our guide, the first word
λ
(“positive”) in the definition refers to the -γf

axial rake of the cutter, while the second

word (“negative”) characterizes its radial
rake. However, it is worth noting that
αf xis
lA
different technical sources may use the To
o

opposite order, which completely changes

the meaning of the definition. Since the Fig. 17. The rake γ and the clearance α of the
indexable milling cutter shown in Fig. 15, each
order of the words is not strictly specified, measured in different reference planes.
it is essential to consider the context and
relevant data to avoid potential mistakes.

20 ISCAR
 THE GEOMETRY OF A MILLING CUTTER
Neutral Rake and The rake parameters, including value,
direction, and sign, are determined by two
Neutral Geometry factors: the cutting edge inclination (λ or λs)
If the rake of a milling cutter is equal to
and the shape of the mill’s rake face. The
zero, it is often referred to as neutral
cutting edge inclination, being an angle, also
rake. Milling cutters with both side
possesses a specific value, direction, and
(radial) and back (axial) rakes equal
appropriate sign. For instance, in Figures 15
to zero are designated as cutters
and 17, the indexable mill exhibits a negative
with neutral (zero) geometry.
λ. In milling cutters with helical flutes such
as solid endmills and slab mills, the cutting
edge inclination is determined by the
flute helix angle (λs), also denoted as ω.

One Simple Rule to

Determine the Sign
of the Mill's Angle
There is one simple rule to determine the
sign of rake and cutting edge inclination
in milling cutters. A positive radial rake
suggests that the rake face slopes in the
same direction as the primary motion,
while a negative radial rake angle means
that the rake face slopes opposite to the
primary motion. Similarly, a negative axial
rake and cutting edge inclination occur
when the rake face and cutting edge slope
towards the mill face, while a positive
slope implies the opposite direction.

21
THE GEOMETRY OF A MILLING CUTTER

The cutting edge inclination plays an

important role in smoothly entering the
edge into the material and reducing the
impact load on the mill. Furthermore,
this inclination also affects the direction
of chip flow and influences the axial
component of a total cutting force.

A Little History: Pocket

Inclination and Changes
in Insert Design
The first indexable inserts for milling (a)
cutters had a simple geometric shape
with flat top and bottom faces that were
parallel to each other. Consequently, the
cutting edge inclination and axial rake
were solely determined by the inclination
of the insert pocket base in relation
to the cutter axis. If the pocket was
inclined positively, both the cutting edge
inclination and axial rake were positive,
and vice versa. However, advancements
(b)
in technology have significantly changed
Fig. 18. An indexable milling cutter with
the shape of inserts, making them positively (a) and negatively (b) held inserts.
more complex. As a result, the cutting
edge inclination and axial rake do not
necessarily align with the axial inclination
of the insert pocket base. For instance,
in the mill depicted in Figures 15 and
17, the insert pocket base is inclined
negatively, but the axial rake (γp) is
positive, while the cutting edge inclination
(λ) remains negative. Therefore, when
referring to designs of indexable mills
based on the pocket base inclination,
the terms ‘with positively held inserts’
and ‘with negatively held inserts’ are
more accurate. The first term indicates
that the insert pocket base is inclined
positively (Fig. 18a), while the second term
indicates a negative inclination (Fig. 18b).

22 ISCAR
 THE GEOMETRY OF A MILLING CUTTER
Milling Dish by the cutter. Often, milling cutters are
The dish is the angular clearance formed designated based on their cutting edge
by a mill face towards to the mill axis. A angle. For instance, mills with a cutting edge
dish is defined by the mill’s minor cutting angle of 45° and 90° are commonly referred
edge angle (κ’) - the angle between the to as 45°-mills and 90°-mills, respectively.
minor cutting edge and a plane normal In milling cutter designs, typical cutting
to the axis. Therefore, the minor cutting edge angles have nominal values of 10°,
edge angle (κ’) is commonly known as 17°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 65°, 75°, and 90°, with 45°
the “dish angle”. Both terms, “dish” and and 90° being the most common angles.
“dish angle”, are particularly used in solid
endmill nomenclature. Solid endmills often
Approach to the
adopt a dish-concept design. However,
there are also flat bottom endmills Entrance - Be Familiar
available that have a zero dish angle. with Terminology
The cutting edge angle is often
The cutting edge angle (κ) is defined as designated as the ‘entering’ or
the angle between the main cutting edge ‘entrance’ angle, while the lead angle
is referred to as the ‘approach’ angle.
of a milling cutter and the plane containing
In the U.S., the term ‘lead angle’ is
the direction of feed motion. For example,
more commonly used, while in Europe,
in the case of a typical face milling cutter,
‘approach angle’ is often preferred.
the cutting angle is the angle between the
main cutting edge and the plane generated

23
THE GEOMETRY OF A MILLING CUTTER

The angle complementary to the cutting Exploring ...-Degree

edge angle is the lead angle (ψ), so the sum
of both angles is 90°. If the cutting edge
Milling Cutters
The terms such as “90° milling cutter”
angle is 65°, then the lead angle will be
and “45-degree face mill” refer to
25°. The cutting edge angle and the lead
mills with corresponding cutting edge
angle are equal only for 45° milling cutters.
angles. For example, a milling cutter
The cutting edge angle of a mill has a with a 90° cutting edge angle or a face
significant impact on the chip thickness mill with a 45-degree cutting edge
during machining, and consequently, the angle. It is important to note that in
feed rate. This angle is a crucial factor 90° mills, the cutting edge inclination
in determining the suitability of a cutter. actually represents the axial rake.
For instance, a mill with a cutting edge
angle other than 90° is often unsuitable Special attention should be given to
for machining a face that is bounded by the cutting diameter (d). For face mills,
a shoulder. Furthermore, the angle κ, endmills, and toroidal-shaped mills, the
which is a parameter in mill design, also cutting diameter determines the maximum
influences the maximum cutting depth width of the flat surface generated by
and other characteristics of the mill. the mill. According to ISO 6462 standard,
Face mills and endmills have an angular the cutting diameter (d) should be
clearance made on a mill face towards measured from point P, as shown in Fig.
the mill axis to generate a flat surface. 19. Point P is the theoretical point where
Such a clearance is defined by the the main cutting edge intersects the
minor cutting edge angle (κ') - the angle plane perpendicular to the mill axis.
between the mill’s minor cutting edge For ball-nose and circle-
and a plane normal to the axis. segment mills, the cutting
In addition to the described angles that diameter is simply the
determine the active cutting part of a maximum mill diameter.
mill, there are linear dimensions, which Usually, the nominal
specify the size and configuration of the diameter of a milling tool is
mill. These dimensions include the overall the tool cutting diameter.
length, diameters of different areas of the
mill, the diameter of the central bore (for
arbor-type mills) or the shank (for shank-
type mills), maximum depth of cut, flute
length (for mills with flutes), and more.

24 ISCAR
 THE GEOMETRY OF A MILLING CUTTER
Clarifying Terminology:
Effective Diameter
In some technical publications, the cutting
diameter (d) is sometimes incorrectly K
referred to as the “effective diameter.”
Strictly speaking, the term “effective
diameter” actually refers to the largest
P P
true cutting diameter, typically measured d d

at the axial depth of cut. It is important

to understand the distinction between
Fig. 19. The cutting diameter (d)
these two diameters, especially in profile in accordance with ISO 6462 standard.
milling with tools that have a shaped
or non-straight form. In such cases,
the cutting diameter varies based on
the depth of cut and may differ across
Clarifying Terminology:
different areas of the tool’s cutting High Positive
edge involved in the milling process. Milling Cutter
The effective diameter, on the other In cutting tools, the term “high positive”
hand, represents the largest true cutting is commonly used to define the
diameter, which is the maximum of the various features of tools and indexable
cutting diameters of these different areas. inserts, particularly an insert shape,
a tool cutting geometry, and others.
With respect to the milling cutters,
especially the indexable ones, this term
usually relates to a tool with extremely
positive axial and radial rakes.

25
THE GEOMETRY OF A MILLING CUTTER

Pitch of a Milling Cutter φ 5

The pitch of a milling cutter is the distance
between the two nearest neighboring teeth
of the cutter, measured between the same
φ 1
φ 4

points on the teeth. The pitch indicates the

number of teeth (z) and the space between
the teeth that a milling cutter of a specific
φ
diameter has. Also, the pitch demonstrates 2
φ 3

the tooth density of a mill, distinguishing

milling cutters with coarse, fine, and extra Fig. 20. A solid carbide endmill with differential pitch
fine pitches. In addition to the coarse-fine- features unequal teeth spacing, as shown from
on-end view.
extra fine pitch rating, alternative gradings
such as coarse-regular-fine, normal-close- The partial case of the unequal-pitch design
extra close, and others exist. Moreover, concept is the alternating teeth spacing
extra-fine- (extra-close-) pitch milling cutters principle, which can only be applied to
are also referred to as high-density mills. milling cutters with an even number of teeth.
According to this principle, the change in
As an angular dimension, the pitch pitch occurs in pairs, repeating the pitch
is represented by the appropriate value of every other tooth (Fig. 21).
angle (φ), which is alternatively
known as the angular pitch: For example, a milling cutter with four teeth
can have the following design configuration:
φ=360°/z (M1)
• equal teeth spacing with constant 90° pitch,
In various milling cutter designs, the cutter • unequal teeth spacing with variable angular
teeth can be spaced equally or unequally. pitches of 91°, 88°, 89°, and 92°,
When the teeth are spaced equally, it is
• alternating spacing with angular pitches vary
referred to as an equal or even pitch, while
as 91°, 89°, 91°, and 89°, with each
uneven spacing is known as an unequal
pair of pitches being
or uneven pitch. The unequal pitch is
identical.
also termed “differential pitch”, “variable
pitch”, or “asymmetrical index” (Fig. 20).

26 ISCAR
 THE GEOMETRY OF A MILLING CUTTER
φ Avoid Misunderstandings:
Regular, Even, Spacing,
1

φ 2 and Indexing
Sometimes, constant teeth spacing is
referred to as regular or even. However,
φ 2 this can lead to confusion as “regular”
also describes the tooth density of a
φ 1
milling cutter based on the number
of teeth it has for a given diameter.
Fig. 21. A solid carbide endmill with alternating teeth Similarly, “even” is used to denote a
spacing has each pair of pitches being identical.
cutter with an even number of teeth.
Along with cutting geometry, which plays Additionally, in certain cases, “teeth
a pivotal role in determining the cutting indexing” is used instead of “teeth
capabilities of a mill tooth, tooth density spacing”. This substitution can also
lead to misconceptions, as “indexing’”
is one of the essential parameters of a
in cutting tools commonly refers to the
milling cutter. When selecting a suitable
ability to reposition a cutting edge in
mill, tooth density greatly impacts the
indexable inserts by rotating or reversing
cutter’s applicability, depending on
the insert. Therefore, when terms with
factors such as the machined material,
double meanings are used, it is crucial to
required surface finish, and the working
strictly define them within the context.
characteristics of the available machine tool.

A higher number of teeth generally leads

to increased productivity. However, as the
number of teeth grows, the chip gullet
volume naturally decreases. This reduction
in chip gullet volume is crucial for sufficient
chip evacuation when milling materials
that produce different types of chips.
All other factors being equal, using a
mill of the same diameter but with a
larger number of teeth requires higher
cutting power and feed speed. This can
pose challenges if the milling machine
has limited power or feed drive.
Furthermore, the pitch is a crucial factor that
affects the stability of milling operations.
In many cases, the use of a variable pitch
design enhances the vibration resistance of
a milling cutter, leading to improved dynamic
behavior of the entire technological system.

27
THE GEOMETRY OF A MILLING CUTTER

Helix Angle Right or Left: Examining

In endmills and slab mills, the solid and the Mill End
brazed carbide cutter design concepts Milling tools can be designed for either
offer a one-piece tool where both the right-hand or left-hand cutting. To
teeth and the chip gullet are formed by determine whether a cutter is right-
a groove. This groove, known as the hand or left-hand, one can examine
flute in the solid design concept, can be the end of the mill. A right-hand mill
helical or straight. The helical flute ensures should rotate counter clockwise to cut
smooth cutting and is therefore more a material, while a left-hand mill would
common, while endmills and slab mills rotate clockwise. It is important to note
with straight flutes have limited usage. that the hand of cut does not necessarily
correspond to the hand of the helix, so
The helix of a flute is determined by two
it is crucial to remember this distinction
parameters: the helix hand and the helix
in order to avoid misunderstandings.
angle. The helix angle is usually designated
by λs or ω. The helix angle of a solid mill is
similar to the cutting edge inclination of an The helix hand and helix angle are important
indexable or inserted-blade mill. To define factors for the distribution of the total cutting
the helix hand, you need to look at the mill force into components. They also have
from its end. In mills with a right-hand (RH) an impact on the axial force, which affects
helix, the mill flutes spiral outward from you the loading of a machine spindle and can
in a clockwise (CW) direction, while in mills either press the mill into the spindle or
with a left-hand (LH) helix, the flutes spiral pull it out. Additionally, these factors play a
outward from you in a counterclockwise crucial role in facilitating the normal flow of
(CCW) direction. Since there are both right- chips during machining. Furthermore, the
hand and left-hand cutting mills available, helix angle also influences the mill rake.
the following combinations are possible:
• Right-hand cutting mills with Flute Helix Angle Changes
a right-hand helix, In addition to mills with a constant
• Right-hand cutting mills with a left-hand helix, flute helix angle, there are mill designs
where the helix angle varies. According
• Left-hand cutting mills with a right-hand helix,
to the concept of a “variable helix,”
• Left-hand cutting mills with a left-hand helix. different mill flutes feature different helix
The prevailing design is the right-hand angles. On the other hand, the “varying
cutting mills with a right-hand helix (Fig. 22). helix” design utilizes a helix angle that
changes along the flute. Although the
terms “variable” and “varying” are
often used interchangeably to specify
the changeable helix angle of a mill
flute, technically, this is not correct.

28 ISCAR
 THE GEOMETRY OF A MILLING CUTTER
Self-evaluation quiz
7- What are the main elements
of a milling cutter?
a. A body and a cutting part.
b. A body, a cutting part, and inner
channels for coolant supply.
c. A body, a specially shaped area of the
body that forms a cutting part, and a
Fig. 22. A right-hand cutting solid carbide endmill
specially created chip space between
with right-hand helix. the cutter teeth to ensure the chip flow.
8- Cutting geometry of a milling
Designing the Geometry cutter is mainly determined by

of a Milling Cutter a. The cutting edge inclination

The angles that define the cutting and the cutting edge angle.
capabilities of a mill, such as the rake, b. The set of appropriate angles.
clearance, and cutting edge angle, as c. The directions of the radial
well as the mill pitch and helix, are crucial and axial rakes.
design parameters that greatly influence 9- The cutting edge angle is also known as
the mill’s performance. Determining
a. The approach angle.
these parameters during the mill design
depends on the specific application field b. The lead angle.
and aims to provide the optimal milling c. The dish angle
solution, considering various factors such d. The entering angle.
as the types of materials to be machined, 10- The lead angle is the angle
the performed milling operations, and complementary to
the required maximum depth and width
a. The cutting edge inclination.
of cut. The field of metal cutting theory
and machining practice offers suitable b. The approach angle.
ranges for these angles, enabling the c. The cutting edge angle.
calculation of the strength of mill teeth d. The minor cutting edge angle.
and estimation of the necessary cross- 11- The flutes of a right-hand cutting
section of a chip gullet. Additionally, solid endmill can be
computational mechanics modeling and
a. Helical with a right-hand helix.
finite element analysis (FEA) allow for
the simulation of cutting action and chip b. Helical with a left-hand helix.
flow, facilitating accurate calculations of c. Helical with right- or left-hand helix.
strength and rigidity. These tools greatly d. Helical or straight but it is more common
contribute to the optimization of mill for designs to feature helical flutes.
geometry during the design process.

29
MILLING CALCULATIONS

Milling Calculations
Cutting Data
The cutting speed (vc) characterizes the In the metric system
primary motion in milling and refers to the n= (1000×V
(π×d)
c)
(rpm) (M2a)
circumferential velocity of the outermost
In the U.S. customary system
point of the milling cutter’s cutting edge.
n= (12×V c) (3.82×Vc) (rpm)
In the metric system (π×d) ≈ d (M3a)

The feed speed (vf) – the speed with

vc= (π×d×n)
1000 (m/min) (M2)
which the milling cutter moves relative to a
In the U.S. customary system machined workpiece – specifies the feed
(π×d×n) ≈ (d×n) (sfm) motion. This speed that is also referred to
vc= 12 (3.82) (M3)
as “feed rate”, “minute feed”, and “table
where feed” is a function of the strength of the
d – the milling cutter’s diameter (mm in milling cutter’s tooth. Strength defines
equation M2 and inches in equation M3), the ultimate load which a tooth can carry.
Therefore, a maximum speed feed on
n – the rotational velocity of
conversion to one tooth exists. On the other
a milling cutter, rpm.
hand, there is a minimum for such a feed
Since, in most cases, a milling cutter speed to enable cutting action and to avoid
rotates at the same velocity as the machine deformation of a machined material. The
spindle, the rotational velocity (n) is usually feed speed in tooth equivalent is known
associated with the spindle speed. as feed per tooth (fz). Namely this feed,
The cutting speed (vc) depends on various which depends on machined and cutting
factors, including the machined material, materials, and the milling cutter’s design,
cutting material, machining stability, is the given parameter for feed speed
cutter engagement, and others. The calculation. Feed per tooth reflects the
recommended ranges provide basic values movement of one tooth in the direction of
for the cutting speed based on the cutting the feed motion per one revolution of the
material and material being machined. cutter. Accordingly, the cutter itself will move
The influence of other factors can be during one revolution in this direction by an
estimated using coefficients. Therefore, amount called feed per revolution (f or fr).
in milling calculations, the cutting speed The feed speed (vf), which refers to the
is typically considered a given parameter, speed at which the milling cutter moves
and it is necessary to determine the relative to the machined workpiece,
corresponding rotational velocity (n): determines the feed motion. It is also known
as the “feed rate”, “minute feed”, “table
feed”, or “feed rate”. The feed speed is
influenced by the strength of the milling
cutter’s tooth, which defines the maximum

30 ISCAR
 MILLING CALCULATIONS
load it can bear. As a result, there is a f= fz×z (mm/rev, ipr) (M4)
maximum feed speed per tooth that must
vf= f×n = fz×z×n (mm/min, ipm) (M5)
be considered. Conversely, there is a
minimum feed speed required to ensure Example. When machining an annealed low
cutting action. The feed speed per tooth, alloy steel using a 100 mm (4”) in diameter
known as feed per tooth (fz), is a given indexable face milling cutter with
parameter for feed speed calculation. 7 teeth, the recommended values for cutting
speed and feed per tooth are 180 m/min
This value depends on the machined
(590 sfm) and 0.2 mm/tooth (.008 ipt),
and cutting materials, as well as the
respectively. Find the required spindle speed
design of the milling cutter. It represents
and feed speed to be set in CNC program.
the movement of one tooth in the feed
direction per one revolution of the cutter.
Consequently, during one revolution, Number of Teeth or
the cutter itself will move by an amount Number of Inserts?
called feed per revolution or simply It’s important to note that in indexable
feed (fr or f) in the feed direction. milling cutters, the number of teeth and
The feed speed (vf), feed per tooth (fz), the number of inserts may not be the
and feed (f) are measured in mm/min, same. In the case of indexable extended
mm/tooth, and mm/rev in the metric flute milling cutters, for example, the cutter
system, and in ipm, ipt, and ipr in the tooth consists of a series of inserts that
U.S. customary system, respectively. are individually mounted one-by-one.
These feed types are interconnected As a result, the number of inserts will
through the following relationships: be greater than the number of teeth.

31
MILLING CALCULATIONS

From the equations (M2a) and (M3a): How to Remove Doubts:

n= (1000×V
(π×d)
c)
= (1000×180)
(π×100) = 573 (rpm) Width or Depth
In peripheral (slab) milling, when a milling
cutter removes material using a significant
n’= (12×Vc) (12×590)
(π×d) = (π×4) = 563 (rpm)
portion of its peripheral cutting edge,
the width of cut is commonly defined as
From the equation (M5): the length of this edge, measured along
vf= fz×z×n = 0.2×7×573 = 800.8 (mm/min) the mill axis. However, this definition
can lead to misunderstandings. Similar
vf’= fz’×z×n’ =.008×7×563 = 31.5 (ipm) situations may take place in milling a slot
In the calculations of cutting speed by a disc mill. To avoid confusion, it is
and feed, there are two aspects that recommended to use precise terminology
should be taken into consideration. such as “axial depth of cut” and “radial
depth of cut”. These definitions provide
1- In profile milling, due to the shaped, non- clear distinctions and remove any doubts.
straight form of the tool, a cutting diameter
is a function of a depth of cut; and it is not
the same for different areas of the tool
cutting edge that is involved in milling. n
The effective diameter de is the largest
diameter of a profile milling tool that is
engaged in cutting. For example, when
machining with a ball-nose endmill at depth
of cut that is less than the endmill's radius,
this diameter is smaller than the endmill's
nominal diameter (Fig. 23). In calculating + VF
cutting data, it is very important to consider
the effective diameter, because the real ap
cutting speed relates to the effective
diameter, while the spindle speed usually de
refers to the nominal diameter of a tool.
2- There are milling cutters in which the Fig. 23. The effective diameter de of a ball-nose endmill.
number of teeth on the cutter face is smaller
than on the cutter periphery. When such a
cutter is used for face milling, the teeth on
the face produce the effective number of
teeth ze that should be considered in the
feed calculation. Conversely, if the feed
speed is defined based on the number
of peripheral teeth, the teeth on the face
will experience significant loading, which
can potentially lead to their failure.

32 ISCAR
 MILLING CALCULATIONS
A milling cutter is used to remove a layer The productivity of a milling operation is
of material with specific geometrical measured by the metal removal rate or MRR
characteristics. The depth of cut (ap or d.o.c.) (Q), which represents the volume of material
refers to the thickness of the material layer removed by the cutter per unit of time.
that is removed in a single milling pass.
Q=ap×ae×vf=fz×z×n (M6)
The depth of cut is measured along the
axis of the cutter, making it synonymous Example. Find metal removal rate for the
with the axial depth of cut. It represents milling cutter in the previous example when
the difference in height between the the cutter is operated with the same cutting
machined and non-machined surfaces speed and feed per tooth, and with 5 mm
along the axial direction. On the other hand, (.2”) depth of cut and 76 mm (3”) width of cut.
the width of cut (ae or w.o.c.) determines Q= ap×ae×vf = 5×76×800.8 =
the size of the material layer removed in 304304 (mm³) = 304.3 cm³
a single milling pass measured radially. It
is also known as the radial depth of cut. Q’= ap×ae×vf = .2×3×31.5 = 18.9 (in³)

Cutting Conditions
When determining cutting data, the
cutting conditions that define the
environment in which milling occurs can
be a crucial factor. The cutting conditions
primarily reflect the stability of the entire
machining system, including factors
such as tool and workpiece holding,
tool overhang, workpiece rigidity, and
impact load on the tool. Unfavorable
cutting conditions often require a
significant reduction in cutting data.

33
MILLING CALCULATIONS

Chip Thickness of cut (ap). This reduction in chip thickness

The chip thickness (h) reflects the in the direction of the mill axis due to the
mechanical load on a cutting edge. This cutting geometry of a milling tool and the
thickness has understandable upper and axial depth of cut is known as axial thinning.
lower boundaries: on the one hand, it
should not be so high as to destroy the
cutting edge, and on the other hand,
not so small as to hinder cutting action.
Therefore, maintaining an optimal chip
thickness is key to a successful milling
K=90°
operation. Often, the chip thickness is
considered to be identical to the feed per
tooth (fz). While in some cases these two
parameters can be equal, they are not
fundamentally the same. The chip thickness
is a function of the feed per tooth; however, hmax=fz

there are several factors that can cause

chip thinning, thereby reducing the chip (a)
thickness relative to the feed per tooth.
The first factor is the cutting geometry of
a milling tool, specifically, the tool cutting
edge angle (κ). Let’s examine Fig. 25.
The feed per tooth (fz) reflects the relative
movement of the milling tool with respect
to the workpiece as the tool rotates by
K=90°
one tooth. During this movement, the tool
removes a layer of material, producing
a chip. In the direction of the axis of a
milling cutter, the cross-section of the
fz
chip features the maximum chip thickness
(hmax). In the case of 90° milling tools, hmax < fz
the maximum chip thickness is equal to (b)
the feed per tooth (Fig. 24a). However, if Fig. 24. The maximum chip thickness (hmax) with respect
the cutting edge angle is different from to the feed per tooth (fz) and the cutting edge angle (κ).
90°, the generated chip is thinner, and the
maximum chip thickness is smaller than the
feed per tooth (Fig. 24b). Table 2 shows
reducing the maximum chip thickness as
a function of the cutting edge angle. In
case of profile milling tools, particularly
ball-nose endmills (Fig. 25), the maximum
chip thickness depends on the axial depth

34 ISCAR
 MILLING CALCULATIONS
The second factor of chip thinning is
fz
influenced by the positioning of a milling
cutter in relation to the machined workpiece.
The contact between the mill and the
workpiece occurs through an arc, which
is measured by the angle of engagement
ap
(AE). It is important to note that this angle
and the width of cut (radial depth of cut) (ae)
are interconnected parameters (Fig. 26).

n1 Mill1
hmax

Fig. 25. Axial chip thinning in milling

with a ball nose milling cutter.

‘Chip Load’
ae1

The term “chip load” is often used as a AE1

synonym for the term “feed per tooth”.
This term is more commonly used in
the North American market. However,
the correct synonym for “chip load” is vf1
“chip thickness”, specifically referring
to the maximum chip thickness.

Table 2. The maximum chip thickness for the same feed n2 Mill2
per tooth as a function of the cutting edge angle.

Cutting
edge angle 90˚ 75˚ 60˚ 45˚ 30˚ 17˚ 10˚
(κ)
Lead angle
0˚ 15˚ 30˚ 45˚ 60˚ 73˚ 80˚
(ψ)
ae2
Maximum
chip AE2
100% 97% 87% 71% 50% 29% 17%
thickness
(hmax)

vf2

Fig. 26. Contact arc, angle of engagement AE,

and width of cut (radial depth of cut) ae.

35
MILLING CALCULATIONS

Turning our attention to Fig. 27. The Average Chip Thickness

thickness of a chip varies along the In many cases, the medium chip thickness
contact arc in the radial direction, ranging (hm) is used as a computed parameter for
from minimum to maximum. When the calculating the feed per tooth (fz). There
radial engagement of the cutter, denoting are different methods for determining the
the width of cut (ae), reaches half of average chip thickness, such as arithmetic
the cutter diameter, the maximum chip or weighted mean, etc. Sometimes,
thickness attains the feed-per-tooth value. hm is roughly estimated as half of the
Conversely, if the radial engagement is less, maximum chip thickness (hmax). In face
the maximum chip thickness decreases and end milling (Fig. 27), the average chip
accordingly. This phenomenon, which thickness is often calculated in relation
refers to the reduction of chip thickness to half of the angle of engagement (AE).
in the cross-section perpendicular to the
mill axis, is known as radial chip thinning. Thus, in face and end milling, if the center of
a milling cutter in the plan view lies outside
fz the workpiece, the maximum chip thickness
(hmax), as the result of radial chip thinning,
will be less than the feed per tooth (fz). The
nn
hmax same situation is observed in peripheral
(slab) milling and milling slots with disc (side-
ae and-face) cutters when the radial depth of
cut is smaller than the cutter radius and the
cutter axis is beyond the machined surfaces.
hm AE/2 AE
Fig. 28 and Table 3 give the example of
calculating maximum and average chip
thickness when milling by 90° face mills.
Fig. 27. Chip thickness as the function of
a width of cut (radial depth of cut) ae.

36 ISCAR
 MILLING CALCULATIONS
fz

ae
AE

e d
hm=hmax ψ

ae n

d
(a) (d)

ae
ae=d d
(b) (e)

ae
d
(c)
Fig. 28. Milling operations performed by 90° face mills.

37
MILLING CALCULATIONS

Table 3. Calculating chip thickness in face milling.

fz
AE
d ae
ae AE
n

Fig. 28 Case (d)

e d
Fig. 28 Case (a)

hm=hmax ψ
hmax n
Cutter vf Cutter
Position
(=fz) Position
1st method hm, hm=fz×cos (Ψ +AE/2)
hm=fz×sin (AE/2) hmax hmax=fz×cosΨ
hmax=fz
2nd method
hm, hm= fz 2×(√2/2+cos(AE-90°)/2)
hmax hmax= fz

vf
ae AE
d Fig. 28 Case (e) e
d
hmax
AE=180
Fig. 28 Case (b)

ae=d (=fz) n
n Cutter
Position

hm=hmax 1st method

Cutter (=fz)
hm=fz×sin (AE/2)
Position hmax=fz
hm, 2nd method
hm, hm=hmax=fz hmax hm=hmax=fz
hmax * Unfavorable milling conditions - this cutter position
should be avoided whenever possible

vf
d Example. Find the feed per tooth required
AE
to achieve an average chip thickness of
Fig. 28 Case (c)*

ae
0.08 mm (.0031”) when milling a square
hm=hmax shoulder on a steel workpiece using
(=fz) n a 32 mm (1.25”) endmill. The shoulder
Cutter
Position width is 8 mm (.315”), and the milling
operation is completed in a single pass.
hm, hm=hmax=fz
hmax
* Unfavorable milling conditions - this cutter position
should be avoided whenever possible

38 ISCAR
 MILLING CALCULATIONS
The width of the cut (ae) is smaller than
the cutter radius, and the operation
follows the configuration shown in Fig. 27.
Assume that the average chip thickness
(hm) is half of the maximum chip thickness
(hmax). Hence, hmax=0.16 mm (.0062”).

From Fig. 27, hmax = fz×sinAE.

AE = arccos ((r-ae)/r), where r- the cutter
radius (16 mm or .625”).
AE = arccos ((r- ae)/r) arccos ((16-8)/16) = 60°.
Therefore, fz = hmax/sinAE = 0.16
sin 60° = 0.185 (mm/tooth).
In the U.S. customary system: Fig. 29. Radial Chip Thinning Calculator’s
data-entry/result screen.
AE = arccos ((r- ae)/r) arccos
((.625-.315)/.625) ≈ 60°. Chip thinning occurs when the maximum
chip thickness (hmax) is reduced compared
fz = hmax/sinAE = .0062/sin60° = .0072 (ipt)
to the feed per tooth (fz). There are two
The example demonstrates that in factors that contribute to this decrease:
this scenario, in order to achieve the
• The cutting geometry of a milling tool,
desired average chip thickness, the
particularly the tool cutting edge angle (κ),
programmed feed should be 16% higher
which is less than 90° (“axial chip thinning”),
than the maximum chip thickness value.
• The width of cut (the radial depth of cut)
This emphasizes once again that the
(ae), when it is smaller than the radius of
feed per tooth and the maximum chip
the milling tool (“radial chip thinning”).
thickness are generally not equal.
To summarize the brief discussion about
chip thinning, whether it is axial chip
Chip Thinning Effect thinning or radial chip thinning, the more
ISCAR’s Radial Chip Thinning Calculator correct way to enhance the milling process
in Milling is one of the software is to maintain an optimal chip thickness
applications available in the NEOITA through an appropriate recalculation of
engineering calculator library. This tool the programmed feed. Chip thinning is
allows for fast and accurate calculation essential for comprehending advanced
of the programmed feed per tooth,
milling techniques, such as high feed milling
considering the chip thinning effect. By
(HFM) and high-speed milling (HSM).
utilizing this calculator, optimal machining
conditions can be easily achieved.

39
MILLING CALCULATIONS

Cutting Forces, Cutting Torque,

and Power Consumption
During the cutting process, each tooth effect of the tangential force (Ft) and the
of a mill that comes into contact with radial force (Fr) (Fig. 30). These bending
the machined material experiences a forces serve as the initial data for the
counteracting force, which prevents material bending analysis of either the arbor or
removal. As a result, these teeth are the mill body, depending on the case.
subjected to appropriate forces. The total
(or resultant) cutting force (F) is the vector
sum of these forces and is typically resolved
into the following three components:
• Tangential or circumferential cutting
force (Ft), directed tangentially to
the outer contour of a mill,
• Radial cutting force (Fr), acting
along the mill radius, Fa
Fb
• Axial cutting force (Fa), directed Fr
Ft
toward the mill axis.
F= √Ft2+Fr2+Fa2 (M7)
Fig. 30. Cutting forces in face milling.
The force action diagram depends on the
type of a mill and the milling method. The bending force (Fb) can be decomposed
Fig. 29 illustrates cutting forces into two components in another manner,
acting on a face mill. with one of the components acting in the
direction of the feed motion. This particular
In milling, the tangential cutting force (Ft) is
component is essential for the engineering
responsible for the primary work required
analysis of a machine’s feed drive.
to remove machined material. This force is
crucial for calculating the necessary torque There are various methods available
and power consumption of the machine’s for calculating cutting forces. Some rely
main drive, as well as determining the on empirical equations that incorporate
strength of the drive elements. The axial parameters such as depth of cut, width
cutting force (Fa) determines the load of cut, mill diameter, and coefficients and
exerted on the spindle bearings in the axial power exponents, which are selected based
direction. In addition, this force is used for on different factors. Alternatively, simpler
buckling analysis of the mill, particularly methods involve calculating the tangential
when dealing with high mill overhang. force (Ft) using a specific cutting force (kc1)
and the average chip thickness (hm).
The radial cutting force (Fr) pushes a mill
away from a workpiece. In peripheral The specific cutting force (kc1) is a force
(slab) milling, this force causes bending determined through experimentation,
of the arbor that carries the mill. On representing the force required to remove
the other hand, in face and end milling, a chip area of 1 mm2 (.0016 in2) with a
the bending force (Fb) is the combined
40 ISCAR
 MILLING CALCULATIONS
W thickness of 1 mm (.04 in). To determine Once the tangential cutting force (Ft) is
the actual specific cutting force (kc) for the found, the other components of the total
undeformed material chip with an area of 1 cutting force (F) - the radial cutting force
mm2 (.0016 in2) and an average thickness (Fr) and the axial cutting force (Fa) - can be
of hm, the following equation is applied: determined using a ratio that approximates
the relationship between these forces:
kc=kc1×hm-mc (M8)

The material factor mc represents Ft:Ff:Fr=1:x:y (M10)

experimental data that along with the

specific cutting force (kc1), reflects the Milling Thrust
machinability properties of a milled material. In machining and particularly in
A milling cutter removes the material layer milling, the term “thrust force,” or
that has undeformed cross-section area (A). simply “thrust,” is sometimes used in
If this area features the depth (a) and the technical data sources and in shoptalk
width (b), the tangential cutting force (Ft) is to refer to the “axial cutting force.”
described by the equation (M9) below:

Ft=A×kc=a×b×kc1×hm-mc (M9)

41
MILLING CALCULATIONS

The coefficients x and y are derived of the milling cutter in rpm.

from the empirical data that depend Example. An ISCAR milling cutter with six-
on the milling method and the type flute exchangeable MULTI-MASTER solid
of material being machined. carbide head, 25 mm (1.00”) in diameter, is
If we know the tangential cutting force being used to machine a square shoulder
(Ft), the cutting power (Pc) can be in a workpiece made from titanium alloy
calculated using the following equation: Ti-6Al-4V in a single pass. The shoulder
dimensions are 5 mm × 10 mm (.20” × .40”).
Pc=Ft×vf=A×kc×vf (M11)
According to ISCAR’s recommendations,
Here vf represents the feed speed. the machining parameters are as follows:
By substituting the appropriate values • Cutting speed 45 m/min (147 sfm),
and performing unit conversions, • Maximum chip thickness 0.076 mm (.003”).
equation (M11) is expressed as follows:
The specific cutting force kc1 for the
• In the metric system, where a, b and d are mentioned titanium alloy is 1245 N/mm2
in mm, kc is in N/mm2, and vf is in mm/min, (180.57 ksi), and the material
Pc=(a×b×kc×vf)/(6×107) kW (M11a)
factor mc is 0.24.

• In the U.S. customary system, where a, b and Find the cutting power and
d are in inches, kc is in psi, and vf is in ipm, the cutting torque.
In metric units:
Pc=(a×b×kc×vf)/396 hp (M11b)
From the equation (M2a)
On the other hand, power and torque are
n=1000×vc/(π×d)=1000×45/(π×25)=573 (rpm)
connected by the following interrelation:
From the equation (M5)
Mc=Pc/Ω (M12)
vf=fz×z×n=0.076×6×573=261.3 (mm/min)
Here Ω represents the rotation frequency. From Fig. 27,
Therefore, the cutting torque (Mc) hmax=fz×sinAE. AE=arccos ((r- ae)/r),
can be expressed through the cutting where r- the cutter radius (12.5 mm)
power (Pc) in the following manner:
AE=arccos ((r- ae)/r)arccos ((12.5-5)/12.5) = 53°
• In the metric system
fz=hmax/sinAE=0.076/
Mc=Pc×30×103/(π×n) Nm sin53°=0.095 (mm/tooth)
≈ 9550×Pc/n Nm (M12a),
Assume the average chip thickness
where the cutting power (Pc) in
(hm) is half of the maximum chip
kW, and the rotational velocity (n)
thickness (hmax) i.e. hm=0.038 mm.
of the milling cutter in rpm.
From the equation (M8)
• In the U.S. customary system
kc=kc1×hm-mc=1245×0.038-0.24=2729(N/mm2)
Mc=Pc×198×103/(π×n) lbf×in From the equation (M11a)
≈ 63025×Pc/n lbf×in (M12b),
Pc=(a×b×kc×vf)/(6×107)=(10×5×2729×261.3)/
where the cutting power (Pc) in (6×107)=0.59 (kW)
hp, and the rotational velocity (n)

42 ISCAR
 MILLING CALCULATIONS
From the equation (M12a) Due to the material factor (mc) reflecting the
Mc=Pc×30×103/(π×n)=0.59×30×103/ empirical dependence found for metric units,
(π×573)=9.83 (Nm) the appropriate correction coefficient should
be added to account for unit conversion.
In U.S. customary units: From the equation (M8) kc=kc1×hm-mc=
From the equation (M2b) kc1×(hm×25.4)-mc
n=12×vc/(π×d)=12×147/(π×1.00)=561 (rpm) =180.57×(.0015×25.4)-0.24=395.6 (ksi)

From the equation (M5) From the equation (M11b)

vf=fz×z×n=.003×6×561=10.1 (ipm) Pc= (a×b×kc×vf)/396=
(.40×.20×395.6×10.1)/396=0.81 (hp)
From Fig. 27,
hmax=fz×sinAE. AE=arccos ((r-ae)/r), From the equation (M12b)
where r - the cutter radius (.50”) Mc= Pc×198×103/(π×n)=0.81×198×103/
(π×561)=91 (lbf×in)
AE=arccos ((r- ae)/r)arccos ((.50-.20)/.50)=53°
The required machine power
fz=hmax/sinAE=.003/sin53°=.0037 (ipt) consumption (P) can be estimated
using the following equation:
Assume the average chip thickness
(hm) is half of the maximum chip P=Pc/η (M13)
thickness (hmax) i.e. hm=.0015”
Here η refers to the efficiency of a
milling machine tool. The average
efficiency of milling machining
centers can be assumed as 0.9.

43
MILLING CALCULATIONS

Simplified calculations based on equations

(M8)-(M13) provide sufficient results for
estimating cutting forces, cutting power,
and cutting torque in machining practice.
However, for more accurate analysis, it
is necessary to consider factors such as
cutting geometry of a mill, the engagement
parameters, and other relevant aspects.
Modern computer-aided engineering
(CAE) systems facilitate this process.

Machining Power
Calculator Fig. 31. ISCAR’s Machining Power Calculator is an
The “Milling” option of ISCAR’s Machining effective tool for accurate online calculating of cutting
power and cutting forces in milling applications.
Power Calculator, an advanced software
for power and force analysis, enables Let’s now discuss up (conventional) and
online estimation of cutting forces, cutting down (climb) milling as illustrated in Fig. 10
power, cutting torque, and other important and Fig. 12 again. According to Newton’s
characteristics of a milling operation. It third law, every action is met with an equal
also provides information on the bending and opposite reaction. Therefore, the milling
load on a machine spindle, power-time cutter exerts a force on the workpiece being
variation, tooth tangential force-time machined, which is equal in magnitude but
variation, and other relevant parameters. opposite in direction to the total cutting
force. The same principle applies to the
components of the total cutting force.

Preferrable Milling Method

Generally, compared to up (conventional)
milling, down (climb) milling offers
several advantages, including increased
tool life and more evenly distributed
forces. Therefore, down milling should
be used whenever possible.

44 ISCAR
 MILLING CALCULATIONS
Let’s consider a scenario where a mill with Self-evaluation quiz
a horizontal axis of revolution is used to 12- Do feed per tooth and feed
cut a workpiece mounted on a machine rate mean the same?
table. The force diagrams depicting the a. Yes, these terms are the equivalent.
forces acting on the workpiece during up b. No, these terms are different.
and down milling are shown in Fig. 32 and
13- The effective diameter of a
Fig. 33, respectively. It is evident that in up
profile milling cutter is
milling, the forces tend to lift and move the
workpiece upwards, away from the table. a. The nominal diameter of the cutter.
Conversely, in down milling, the forces push b. The largest diameter of the cutter.
the workpiece down towards the table. c. The largest true cutting
diameter of the cutter.
14- Is the maximum chip thickness always
equal to the feed per tooth?
F't
a. Yes, this is correct.
Fo
b. No, this is not correct.
15- In milling, the necessary power
n n
consumption and cutting torque
are calculated based on
vf F'r
a. The tangential cutting force.
b. The total (resultant) cutting force.
c. The bending force.

Fig. 32. Force diagram in up (conventional) milling.

F'r
n n

vf
F't F'o

Fig. 33. Force diagram in down (climb) milling.

45
VIBRATIONS IN MILLING

Vibrations in Milling
Vibrations in machining, particularly in Figure 34 demonstrates tangential force
milling, are generally an unavoidable aspect time variation in a steel workpiece with
of the metal cutting process. They can be a 25 mm diameter four-tooth indexable
either forced or self-excited and always milling cutter (the data was obtained using
occur alongside the cutting action. These ISCAR’s Machining Power Calculator).
machining vibrations are commonly referred In fact, vibrations in milling have a
to as “chatter,” due to their specific nature detrimental effect on performance, reducing
that occurs whenever chips are formed. tool life and degrading surface finish.
Even in cases where cutting is considered Manufacturers strive to minimize vibrations
stable, it does not mean that vibrations and ideally bring them to a level that does
are absent. Instead, the vibrations remain not affect machining results. Chatter has
at a level that still allows for the required been the subject of extensive research,
machining results and are considered which has yielded methods to model
a “no vibration” operation. In milling, vibrations in machining. Despite their
vibrations are inherently connected to the complexity, these models can be highly
nature of the process itself. The rotating effective in finding ways to reduce chatter.
mill’s teeth periodically enter and exit However, such modeling requires time
the machined material, resulting in cyclic and various input data, including additional
loads and mechanical impacts. Therefore, measurements in some cases. When
the cutting force fluctuates between faced with vibrations during machining,
minimum and maximum values or vice manufacturers typically have limited options
versa (Fig. 34). This dynamic response for real-time response to reduce chatter.
of the entire machining system leads to
vibrations. Additionally, milling with high
tool overhang, which significantly reduces Chatter Marks
dynamic stability, worsens the situation. In milling, chatter is characterized
by a loud and discordant noise,
Inserts Tangential Force Time Variation resulting in curvy and non-uniform
eye marks on the machined surface.
Max force: 995.023
1293.529
These marks, commonly referred to
995.023 as “chatter marks,” can significantly
degrade the surface quality.
Force (N)

646.765

0
0
0
0

03
03
03
03
04
04
01
01

02
02
02
03
01
01
02
02

0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.

Time (sec)

Fig. 34. Graph depicting the variation of tangential

cutting force during milling a square shoulder

46 ISCAR
 VIBRATIONS IN MILLING
The most common practice is to adjust For example, ISCAR’s anti-vibration shanks
cutting speed and feed, but this often for mounting exchangeable MULTI-MASTER
results in reduced productivity. Therefore, heads incorporate the concept of an
any effective method of diminishing internal absorber, ensuring quiet and
vibrations without compromising safe milling (Fig. 35). The question arises:
machining productivity would be can a milling cutter, being the smallest
highly desirable to manufacturers. and arguably simplest component of the
Essentially, reducing vibration in machining system, have a dramatic impact on vibration
requires consideration of a manufacturing reduction? Although producers may not
unit as a system comprising the following have high expectations regarding the role
interrelated elements: a machine, a of cutting tools in decreasing chatter, in
workpiece, a workholding device, and a certain cases a properly selected milling
cutting tool. While the influence of each cutter can effectively eliminate vibration
element on total vibration reduction without adversely affecting productivity.
is different, improving a vibration The right tool geometry makes cutting
characteristic of one element may have action smooth and stable. The geometry
a significant impact on the system’s strongly influences cutting force fluctuations,
overall dynamic behavior. Most efforts chip evacuation and other factors, which
to protect against vibrations focus on are connected directly with vibration
developing more rigid machines with modes. The milling practice shows that
intelligent sensors and computer control, the cutting geometry can considerably
and advanced vibration-damping tooling. strengthen vibration damping of a tool.

47
VIBRATIONS IN MILLING

In solid endmills and exchangeable heads,

a skillfully defined tooth pitch is an effective
way of taking the dynamic behavior of a
cutting tool to the next level. For example,
ISCAR’s CHATTERFREE family of solid
carbide endmills (SCEM) was designed
on the basis of a pitch control method.
The family features an unequal angle
pitch in combination with a variable helix
angle. This concept ensures vibration-free
milling in a broad range of applications.

Fig. 35. The anti-vibration shank for mounting

exchangeable MULTI-MASTER heads incorporates
the concept of an internal absorber.

ISCAR’s various indexable inserts,

exchangeable heads, and solid carbide tools
feature chip-splitting cutting edges. Such an
edge may be serrated or have chip-splitting
grooves. The chip splitting action causes a
wide chip to be divided into small segments,
resulting in better dynamic behavior of a tool
during machining, and vibration is stabilized.
In rough machining, milling cutters remove
Fig. 36. Chip-splitting cutting geometry can
a large material stock and work in heavy greatly contribute to the stability of milling
conditions. Significant cutting forces acting operations in unfavorable conditions.
cyclically generate vibration problems. An assembled milling tool comprises a
When using chip-splitting indexable inserts, body with mounted cutting elements such
it is possible to tackle these difficulties. as indexable inserts or exchangeable
Mills with round inserts, a real workhorse in heads. Choosing the right body material
machining cavities and pockets, particularly presents an additional option for forming
in die and mold making, are often operated a chatter-free tool structure. Most mill
at high overhang that affects rigidity and bodies are made from high-quality tool
vibration resistance of a tool. Problems steel grades, for which the material stress-
with cutting stability occur when the strain behavior is similar. However, in
overhang already exceeds 3 tool diameters. some cases tool design engineers have
Applying serrated round inserts with a chip- identified successful material alternatives
splitting effect redresses this situation and to improve vibration strength.
substantially improves robustness (Fig. 36).
The MULTI-MASTER, an ISCAR family of
rotating tools with exchangeable heads,
provides a range of tool bodies, referred to

48 ISCAR
 VIBRATIONS IN MILLING
as shanks, produced from steel, tungsten
carbide or heavy metal. A steel shank is
the most versatile. Tungsten carbide with
its substantial Young’s modulus provides
an extremely rigid design, so carbide
shanks are used mainly when milling at
high overhang and machining internal
circumferential grooves. Heavy metal, an
alloy containing around 90% tungsten, is
characterized by its vibration-absorbing
properties, and heavy metal shanks are
most advantageous for light to medium
cutting operations in unstable conditions.
Fig. 37. A shell-mill with a titanium body harnesses the
Typically, indexable mills that are used advantages of additive manufacturing (AM) technology.
in long-reach applications feature an
Modern production technologies enable
assembled design, which comprises a
solutions to overcome these obstacles.
regular-sized milling cutter and a toolholder
Additive manufacturing (AM) provides an
that mounts the cutter. This concept has
effective method to achieve the complex
important advantages such as versatility,
configuration of a cutter body while
optimized tool configuration, and effective
minimizing machining operations. 3D
customization. If the cutter is damaged, it
printing facilitates the production of titanium
can be replaced easily, while other assembly
made tools while assuring sustainability.
elements remain in their working state. In
Leading cutting tool manufacturers have
this case, reducing the weight of the cutter
adopted AM processes to produce
body contributes to better dynamic stability.
milling cutters intended for machining
However, weight reduction should not impair
with large overhangs. It is becoming
the strength characteristics of the tool.
more common to design lightweight
Steel is the traditional material from indexable mills with titanium bodies using
which tools are made. Titanium can be additive manufacturing (Fig. 37). The mill
used to replace steel and possesses design concept also utilizes the unequal
lower density yet is characterized by angular pitch principle to improve the
high strength. Titanium also features vibration resistance of the cutter.
excellent corrosion resistance with anti-
wear properties being an important factor
for the prolonged tool life of the cutter
body. Compared to steel, titanium is
characterized by poor machinability, which
inevitably leads to increased manufacturing
costs. A tool body design with cavities
will reduce the mass of the cutter yet
will increase its manufacturing costs.

49
VIBRATIONS IN MILLING

Historical Notes: Chatter Self-evaluation quiz

The first attempts to understand the 16- Chatter is
nature of vibrations are likely associated a. A specific type of vibrations that
with Frederick Winslow Taylor, a talented characterize machining processes.
American engineer and researcher, b. The type of specific forced
renowned as a pioneer in the scientific vibrations, caused by the variation
management of labor and estimating the of a tangential cutting force.
tool life of cutting tools. His statement,
c. The type of vibrations that occur when
“Chatter is the most obscure and delicate
the tooth of a milling cutter periodically
of all problems faced by machinists,”
enters machined material and leaves it.
made at the beginning of the 20th
17- Today in shop-floor conditions, the
century, remains relevant even today,
emphasizing the complexity of this issue. most common practice in trying to
reduce vibrations in milling is
a. Using anti-vibration tool holders.
Cutting tool manufacturers have a limited
choice of design means to reduce b. Computer modelling of the process with
machining vibrations, relying mainly on the appropriate real-time response.
tool cutting geometry and tool body c. Changing cutting data.
material. In some cases, they may have 18- Can the cutting geometry of a
the option of using a cutting tool with a milling cutter be a design tool
built-in vibration-damping device. Creating of anti-vibration solutions?
a chatter-free tool with these limited a. Yes.
resources requires considerable skill and
b. No.
ingenuity. However, it is feasible, and
the milling solutions highlighted in the 19- Does the material of a cutter body
above examples affirm the possibilities. enable diminishing vibrations in
some milling applications?
a. Yes.
Oscillation Cutting: b. No.
Vibrations That Enhance
Machining Processes
In machining, however, vibrations can
not only be a harmful factor but also
be beneficial. Oscillation cutting is a
machining technique that combines
the primary motion with the additional
oscillatory motion of a cutting tool
relative to a machined workpiece to
break chips. This technique has primarily
been utilized in turning and drilling, but
it has also demonstrated successful
applications in specific milling operations.

50 ISCAR
 ADVANCED MILLING METHODS
Advanced Milling
Methods
The advancement in machine tools High Speed Machining (HSM)
and control systems have enabled Often high speed machining (HSM) is
the realization of efficient machining emphasized as “a high-efficiency
techniques. These methods include: method of modern machining with
• High speed machining (HSM), high spindle and feed speed”. High
• Peel milling (slicing) and trochoidal milling, speed machining may refer to:
• High-efficiency machining (HEM), • High cutting speed machining
• High feed milling (HFM), • High spindle speed machining
• Plunge-in milling (“plunging”), • High feed speed machining
• Turn-milling. These three speeds are interrelated.
The mentioned methods primarily Increasing spindle speed automatically
aim to substantially improve milling results in increasing feed speed as
performance, which makes them well, and likewise higher cutting speed
worthy of brief consideration. requires a correspondingly higher spindle
Understandably, they establish speed. As cutting speed varies in direct
appropriate requirements for milling tools. proportion to the diameter of a rotating
tool, for tools of different diameters,
different spindle speeds are required to
ensure that the cutting speed is identical.
A cutting speed is also a function of
several factors, where a workpiece material
and a cutting tool material are dominant.
Depending on the cutting tool material, the
recommended cutting speed for the same
workpiece material may be quite different.
A good example of this is machining
nickel-based high temperature alloys by
cemented carbide and whisker ceramic
tools. At the same time, in machining
aluminum, for instance, “normal” cutting
speeds are significantly higher than in
machining the high-temperature alloys.

51
ADVANCED MILLING METHODS

Historical Notes: One example is an approximate plot of the

cutting speed (vc) against the width of cut
HSM Preliminary (ae) and the angle of engagement (AE) when
In the 1920s and 1930s, German
milling a workpiece from titanium alloy (Fig.
researcher Dr.-Ing. Carl Salomon
38). In milling full slot directly from solid
conducted a series of experiments
the width of cut is equal to the diameter of
to measure cutting temperatures against
a tool (d). In comparison with this case, in
corresponding cutting speeds during
milling square shoulder with ae less than
the machining of certain engineering
0.1×d (with AE smaller than 37°) the cutting
materials. The results led the researcher
speed may be increased by 150-200%!'
to hypothesize that the cutting
temperature rises with an increase
in cutting speed until the speed reaches
a specific critical value. Beyond this point, ae
the temperature reduces despite further d
increases in speed. Therefore, Salomon
concluded, there is a range of cutting n
speeds higher than usual, within which
vf
the cutting temperatures are similar
to those observed in conventional cutting.
According to Salomon’s hypothesis,
this range corresponds to speeds that are AE
5- 10 times higher than common values.

Today, the term “high speed machining”

ae
usually relates to high speed milling. This
d AE
milling method is characterized by shallow,
0.02 15°
light cuts combined with high rotational
0.07 30°
velocity of a tool. As previously mentioned,
0.25 60°
a mill contacts a machined material by arc
0.5 90°
(Fig. 26) that is measured by the angle
0.75 120°
of engagement (AE). Decreasing this
1 180°
arc (i.e. width of cut ae) diminishes the Vc
heat load on the mill’s cutting edge. In Vc1 2×Vc1
addition, it increases the interval during
Fig. 38. Cutting speed as a function
which the edge is not involved in cutting, of radial engagement.
providing more time for edge cooling.
Therefore, reducing the width of cut (ae)
allows for a higher cutting speed (vc).

52 ISCAR
 ADVANCED MILLING METHODS
Another example is milling with a ball-nose Today, metalworking has in its arsenal
cutter with small depth of cut - an operation highly reliable tool holders designed for
that is common today for machining hard secure tool mounting in an expanded
steel in die and mold making. In the case range of rotational speeds. Under such
of a ball-nose cutter of 10 mm (.395”) in conditions the cutting tool - the element that
diameter and 0.2 mm (.008”) depth of directly contacts a machined part during a
cut, facilitating cutting speed of 120 m/ cutting operation - can be a limiting factor
min (394 sfm) requires considerable in maximizing the potential of advanced
rotational velocity: 13642 rpm. machine tools . This element is much smaller
Hence, high-speed rotation, whether that and less complicated compared to machine
be milling with small radial or axial depth tools and holders. Each improvement
of cut, is a typical attribute of high speed in the last chain element - the cutting
machining. Successful HSM relies on a tool - may be crucial. The cutting tool
key element chain comprising a machine industry is far from stagnation; the branch
tool, an effective machining strategy, is on the constant move in developing
proper toolholding, and a cutting tool. new solutions to meet the demands of
The low-power multi-axis machine tools, changing metalworking technologies.
designed especially for HSM, feature
high-torque characteristics, high-velocity
drives, effective controllers and intelligent
software. They are capable of realizing
various machining strategies which were
developed for ensuring maximum efficiency.

53
ADVANCED MILLING METHODS

Time has not radically changed principal High-speed rotation generates centrifugal
tool requirements: it is expected to be forces. In HSM, when compared with
more durable and more efficient when traditional machining methods, these
cutting at considerably increased cutting forces grow exponentially and turn
speeds and feed rates. Lowering machining into a significant load on a cutting tool
allowances leads to additional tightening which determines the tool’s durability. In
tool accuracy parameters. An ideal indexable milling, high centrifugal forces
product is a precise and high-balanced may cause insert clamping screws to break,
tool that ensures high performance in inserts to loosen and a cutter body to fail.
combination with excellent tool life when Formed fragments can not only damage a
cutting at high rotational velocities. machine and a machined part but can be
Solid endmills feature higher accuracy and very dangerous to the operator. In such
better axial symmetry when compared with conditions, cutting tool manufacturers are
indexable cutters. Typically, solid endmills compelled to consider the design and
are less in diameter and naturally require technological means necessary to ensure
higher rotational velocity even for the same appropriate reliability of their products.
cutting speed. This explains why the majority Hence, the focus on indexable milling
of HSM tools are solid. Normally, such tools cutters should consider secure insert
are made from coated cemented carbides, mounting and a robust body structure.
although in recent times cutting ceramics
as a tool material has become popular for
high-speed machining of high-temperature
superalloys. Nevertheless, selecting a solid
milling cutter for HSM may be difficult.
Usually, the overhang-to-diameter ratio for
solid carbide endmills (SCEM) is greater
when compared with indexable tools. Such
a feature, in combination with a flute shape
that weakens a tool cross-section, demands
specific attention to the vibration strength
of a SCEM. To improve chatter stability, tool
engineers often make a tooth angular pitch
Fig. 38. ISCAR’s 7 flute solid carbide endmill, intended
unequal, and a flute helix variable. This for HSM, features different helix angles, variable pitch,
violates the principle of axial symmetry and and chip-splitting grooves on the cutting edges.

may give a reverse result. Therefore, an

optimal, intelligent design for solid carbide
endmills requires engineer ingenuity and
appropriate compromising (Fig. 39).

54 ISCAR
 ADVANCED MILLING METHODS
It is known that the ambition of a tool design The metalworking industry adopted high
engineer is to make an indexable cutter speed machining in the 1990s. HSM
body, and in particular, an insert pocket that features small stocks per pass, has
surface, as hard as possible in order to distinct advantages such as lower power
increase wear resistance. However, the consumption, less heat generation, and
higher the hardness, the faster the body of better surface finish. This method was
a rapidly rotating tool breaks down. Hence, engrained in various industrial branches
finding an optimal equilibrium between and caused serious changes in technology
strength and wear is another important task and machine tool engineering. In particular,
in searching for effective HSM tool solutions. HSM is now widely used in the machining
To reduce centrifugal forces, a cutter body of aluminum in aerospace and automotive
ought to be axially symmetric and highly industries, as well as steel, especially
balanced. There are international and hard steel, in die mold making. Accurate
national standards and norms that specify high speed machining, which features
tool balancing grades. When designing low stock removal, is a logical extension
indexable milling tools intended for HSM, of producing workpieces by modern
it is very important to ensure the mass methods such as precise casting, metal
distribution of the body is symmetrical injection molding, and 3D printing.
with the body axis. As this theoretical To conclude, high-speed machining
balance relates to a virtual object, it cannot has influenced the need for specific
replace the physical balancing of a real requirements of a cutting tool and
body if needed but can substantially toolholder. By meeting these demands,
diminish the mass unbalance of a future HSM has become a trusted highly
product making the “physical” balance engineered, high-speed spindle operation
much easier. However, having highly with maximum efficiency. Moreover, high
engineered a balanced vibration-proof speed machining has given rise to several
tool is half the battle. In HSM, the dynamic derivative subtype methods, which will
characteristics of the tool cannot be be discussed in the sections that follow.
separated from a toolholder. For example,
balancing the tool should be done in
assembly with the toolholder – this
is a single way to fulfill requirements
of accuracy, reliability, and safety.

55
ADVANCED MILLING METHODS

Peel Milling (Slicing) The advance of computer numerical control

(CNC) and computer-aided manufacturing
and Trochoidal Milling
(CAM) systems have generated further
The introduction of machine tools with
improvement: trochoidal milling with a
significantly increased rotary and linear
complicated tool trajectory instead of
velocities was the success to efficient
a linear feed motion - suitable for peel
high-speed machining (HSM) methods.
milling. In mathematics, a trochoid is the
Peel milling, also known as slicing, was
curve, generated by the point of a circle
one of these methods. The main principle
rolling along a guide without sliding. In
of peel milling is its high depth of cut
trochoidal milling, a cutting tool moves
(usually, no more than five-tool diameters)
along a curve slicing thin and slim material
when coupled with a low width of cut
layers. Commonly, the curve is a circular
(typically, up to 0.2 of a tool diameter). This
arc (semicircle), and the tool returns to
combination features significant advantages.
the initial point by the arc chord and then
Decreasing the width of cut, as previously repeats the path with a small stepover. In
detailed, reduces heat load on a cutting this case, the tool path looks like the letter
edge and allows increasing cutting “D”. Milling along the curvilinear trajectory
speed. In peel milling, the cutting speed facilitates constant loading of a cutting
can be higher when compared with edge and eliminates a sharp increase
traditional milling methods. The low width in load when entering the material.
of cut significantly diminishes the radial
In addition to the D-shaped path that
component of a cutting force, which
is now considered “classical”, today,
causes mill bending and vibrations. This
most advanced machines with high-end
ensures high operational stability and
control systems are much more complex.
facilitates an increased depth of cut.
Trochoidal tool trajectories minimize non-
Radial chip thinning enables higher feeds cutting time and optimize machine unit
to maintain the required accurate chip motions. Trochoidal milling is known to
thickness. Therefore, milling with a small be very effective in machining deep slots,
radial engagement and a substantial depth pockets, and cavities and is also a very
of cut performed at high cutting speeds and promising method to mill hard and difficult-
feed rates is a useful source for improving to-cut materials, in particular titanium and
machining productivity. Moreover, such high-temperature superalloys (HTSA). In
a machining method provides gradual, addition, trochoidal milling is extremely
uniformly distributed wear along the whole useful for improving performance when
cutting edge, thus increasing tool life. cutting in unstable conditions: non-rigid
Peel milling has proven to be productive in workpieces, thin-wall areas, poor work
milling deep shoulders and wide edges. holding devices, etc. And even more so,
The slicing technique is successfully applied uniform and considerably reduced tool
to rest milling – a machining process where loading makes trochoidal milling efficient
a small diameter tool cuts various hard- and applicable for micro machining.
to-reach areas, such as cavity corners.

56 ISCAR
 ADVANCED MILLING METHODS
What are the features of a high-performance
trochoidal milling cutter? To begin with, the
trochoidal milling cutter must be suitable
for high-speed machining. This relates
to appropriate accuracy parameters,
balancing, safety when operated at
considerable rotational speeds, and more.
Milling with high depths of cut increases
the tool’s overhang while the dynamical
behavior of a cutter is crucial to ensure
machining stability. When milling with a Fig. 39. Trochoidal milling is an effective method
low width of cut, only one tooth engages for improving productivity during the rough
machining of geometrically complex surfaces.
the workpiece material at any given time.
Optimizing a contact area along the tooth
is an important factor for stable milling, Accurate Roughing
and the cutter with the most favorable tool Often, when a part with complex profiles
cutting edge inclination is a principal part and slots is made from a solid material,
for finding the best solution. The effective the use of trochoidal milling can be
evacuation of the thin chips, which are quite effective. This technique shapes
generated when trochoidal milling, does the part very close to its final form. The
not require a large chip gullet in the cutter. remaining small allowance is removed in
the next stage: high speed finish milling.
Even a brief examination of the above
In the aerospace industry, the mentioned
shows that multi-flute solid carbide
process is typically used to produce blisks
endmills (SCEM) or assembled mills
(bladed discs), blings (bladed rings), and
carrying replaceable solid carbide heads
impellers (Fig. 39). Therefore, trochoidal
comply with the requirements in the
milling may be defined by the rather
best way. Indeed, SCEM’s represent
oxymoronic term: “accurate roughing”.
most trochoidal milling tools today.

57
ADVANCED MILLING METHODS

High-Efficiency
Machining (HEM)
More generally, “high-efficiency” can refer High-efficiency machining (HEM) offers two
to a highly-productive machining strategy major advantages, in addition to its high
with high output-input ratio. At the same metal removal rate. Firstly, it diminishes
time, in the context of milling techniques, the impulse load on the technological
high-efficiency machining (HEM) is a milling system, which includes a machine tool, a
method much like high-speed machining milling cutter, and a workholding fixture.
(HSM), which utilizes a large axial depth Secondly, it reduces tool wear development,
of cut and a small radial depth of cut in thereby extending the tool’s lifespan.
combination with high rotational velocity However, HEM demands the right
(spindle speed) of the tool. However, the capabilities from both CAM and CNC
radial depth of cut varies depending on systems to generate the necessary toolpath.
the angle of tool engagement to facilitate The control system of a machine tool
constant chip thickness per cutting edge must have a high data processing ability,
during tool rotation. This method assures and the machine should be suitable for
the efficient usage of a milling tool for the working in conditions with high fluctuations
uniform development of wear that covers a in feed speed. Therefore, dynamic milling
large section of the tool’s cutting edge. HEM is not a universal machining strategy that
is often referred to as “dynamic milling” and can be used on every milling machine.
features productive rough milling operations.
The requirements for an HEM tool
are the same as those for a cutter
intended for trochoidal milling.

58 ISCAR
 ADVANCED MILLING METHODS
High Feed Milling (HFM)
Highly-productive machining with large-
sized milling cutters can be likened to the
work of a heavy excavator digging sand with
a big bucket. The full sand bucket, operated
by a powerful engine, slowly moves a large
volume of waste material. At the same time, 90˚ apmax
there is an alternative method for efficient
excavating. Imagine a more compact track
trencher with a rapidly moving digging hmax=fz
chain. Each link of the chain removes a
small volume of sand but does it fast. In
metal cutting, this trencher is a high feed
mill, which machines at shallow depths of
cut (ap) but with a feed per tooth (fz) that is
far higher than the usual rates - millimeters
as opposed to tenths of millimeters.
The method of rough machining with
significantly increased feed per tooth – K1
known as high feed milling (HFM) or fast apmax
feed (FF) milling – found its industrial h1<<hmax
application in the 1990’s. Die and mold
making was one of the first industries
to adopt HFM into its production
practices, following a massive increase
in customer demands for reduced die
and mold manufacturing time. High
feed milling answered this need while
providing an effective tool for boosting
productivity. The HFM method is based
K1
primarily on two principles: the cutting
apmax
geometry of a milling tool and the high- fz1>>fz
speed feed drive of a machine. h2=hmax

It is important to remember that the

maximum chip thickness (hmax) is a function Fig. 40. Geometrical relations between feed per tooth,
cutting edge angle, and chip thickness.
of the tool cutting edge angle (κ). For the
same feed per tooth, decreasing this angle
results in thinner chips. Consequently, to
maintain the necessary maximum chip
thickness, an appropriate increase in
feed per tooth is required (Fig. 40).

59
ADVANCED MILLING METHODS

A typical high feed milling tool features Recognizing market needs, machine tool
a small cutting edge angle, normally manufacturers developed a variety of
9-17°. This design characteristic results machines intended specifically for high
in three important outcomes. The first is feed milling. These relatively low-power
the possibility of considerably increasing machines have “triple high” characteristics:
feed per tooth due to a chip thinning high-torque, high-thrust spindle, and high-
effect. For example, in face milling low- speed feed drive. The machines feature
alloy steel, 0.2 mm/tooth (.008 ipt) is a advanced computer numerical control
near maximum value feed, but high feed (CNC) hardware and software. Introducing
milling the same material with a 2 mm/tooth HFM substantially changed the concept of
(.08 ipt) feed is normal. The second is a rough milling. Instead of intensive material
shallow depth of cut (ap) that ensures this removal at large depths and width of cut
geometry for the tool. Milling with reduced by using high-power machines, the method
DOC diminishes cutting force and power proposed extremely productive milling at
consumption. And the third point relates shallow depths by low-power machines
to minimizing the radial component of the fitted with a cutting tool that runs very fast.
cutting force combined with maximizing
its axial component, which acts toward the
axis of the machine tool spindle, i.e. the
direction of the maximum machine tool
rigidity. This improves machining stability.
Increasing feed per tooth means greater
feed speed that requires the appropriate
feed drive of the machine tool. In the above
example of high feed milling low-alloy
steel, the feed speed may be 7000-9000
mm/min (275-355 ipm) – the next higher
order versus conventional values.

Fig. 41. A versatile indexable high feed milling tool

is suitable for productive rough machining open
planes, 3D surfaces, pockets, and cavities.

60 ISCAR
 ADVANCED MILLING METHODS
The fast feed milling method has since It began to be more than an effective
undergone some interesting changes. technique for the applicative niche of die
Originally considered as an effective way for and mold making, embracing all metal
rough machining cavities and pockets that cutting areas as a generally recognized
was typical for die and mold making, HFM productive method (Fig. 41). Steel and cast
soon proved advantageous in face milling iron may be known as the main “consumers”
(“fast feed facing” or “triple F”). The diameter of fast feed milling, but stainless steel,
range of the high feed milling cutters was titanium, and even high temperature
increased, and the group of engineering superalloys can be successfully machined
materials suitable for cutting by the HFM by the HFM method as well (and it is already
method was expanded. Fast feed milling not uncommon today). This in turn led
quickly penetrated many industrial branches. tool manufacturers to introduce a variety
of fast feed milling cutters in different
forms. Indexable or solid in concept, they
Radius for Programming can have shank or arbor type design
In CNC programming, a fast feed
configurations, integral or modular body
cutter is often specified as a 90°mill
structures, and cutting geometry that varies
with a corner radius. This imaginary
according to the machined material group.
radius, referred to as the “radius for
programming”, is an important data
because it defines the maximal thickness
of a cusp (scallop) and deviations from
the theoretical profile of a surface that
is generated by such a specification.

61
ADVANCED MILLING METHODS

Plunge Milling (“plunging”)

Plunge milling, also known as “plunge-
in milling” and “plunging,” is a method of
rough milling during which a tool moves
directly downward into a workpiece, with
feed directed along the tool axis. A typical
plunge milling cycle operates as follows:
the tool “plunges” into the workpiece,
cutting the material with its end rather
than its periphery, then the tool lifts out,
moves in a linear stepwise manner, and
repeats the cycle. Plunge milling (Fig. 42)
generates a serrated surface with cusps
that can be reduced by decreasing linear
stepover; however, the surface typically Fig. 42. Plunge-in milling enables productive rough
machining to pre-shape complex 3D surfaces.
requires additional milling for a better
finish. In shoptalk, the metalworking
industry jargon, a plunge milling tool Sculpturing
is often referred to as a “plunger.” In plunge milling, the term “sculpturing”
typically refers to pre-shaping of 3D
In plunge milling, the significant component
surfaces and deep recesses. More
of the total cutting force acts axially –
broadly, in metal cutting, this term
exactly in the direction of the highest
can also encompass methods such as
rigidity of a machine tool. This minimizes
engraving and chiseling, among others,
bending forces and allows for productive
which are used to form surfaces.
milling with excellent straightness of
machined surfaces even at high tool
overhang. However, the substantial axial The advantages of plunge
cutting force can significantly increase the milling are as follows.
load on the machine spindle’s bearings. 1- Plunge milling offers a higher
metal removal rate compared to
traditional milling methods.
2- It provides increased machining
stability, which results in reducing
vibration and noise, especially when
milling at high tool overhang.
3- This method is highly effective
for rough milling of deep cavities,
pockets, slots, and walls
4- Plunge milling produces small,
manageable chips that facilitate
easy chip evacuation.

62 ISCAR
 ADVANCED MILLING METHODS
At the same time, plunge milling has High Speed Plunging
several disadvantages, including: Various research efforts to increase
1- Limited applications - this method is plunge milling performance associate
primarily used for rough machining, enhanced productivity with high
particularly deep slots and cavities. speed plunging at extremely high
2- The high axial load places feed speeds. This promising plunging
additional demands on the concept resembles the fast movements
machine spindle’s bearings. of a needle in a sewing machine.
Despite its potential, the concept
3- CNC programming of tool trajectories,
presents challenges as it requires high-
especially for complex machine
speed machines capable of handling
surfaces, can be challenging.
quick-cycle changes of accelerated
and decelerated movement in the
direction of the machine spindle axis.

63
ADVANCED MILLING METHODS

Turn-Milling
Turn-milling is a process whereby a milling Despite the fact that turn-milling seems
cutter machines a rotating workpiece. to be very similar to turning (“turning
This method combines milling and turning by rotating mill”), there is a substantial
techniques and has many advantages, but difference between these two machining
only relatively recently the introduction of processes. The cutting speed in turn-
multitasking machine tools has allowed milling is defined by the peripheral speed
turn-milling to display its benefits. of the milling cutter and not by the rotary
For years, even under mass adoption of velocity of the workpiece like in turning.
CNC technology, development of metal The workpiece rotation relates to feed.
cutting machine tools was traditional Usually, when discussing turn-milling,
enough, when progress of specific machines it typically refers to face turn-milling,
like turning, milling or drilling moved towards which is the more common method.
a separate direction. If machining centers n
already successfully integrate machining by
rotating tools – milling and drilling – turning
CNC machines continued with their own
vz
progress. Looking for new ways to make
manufacturing process more efficient by
na
reducing setups of a machined part and
its transfer from one machine to another
led to adding a tool head with rotary
drive to typical CNC turning machines
and allowed realization of turn-milling.
Today modern multitasking machine
tools feature additional axes of the
(a)
head movement, advanced control
systems and upgraded software that
na
provide the opportunity to perform
the majority of machining operations
with only one setup per workpiece.
In turn-milling, there are two principal
kinds of machining: peripheral (Fig. 43a),
when axes of a workpiece and a cutter
are parallel; and face (Fig. 43b), for which
these axes cross. Peripheral turn-milling vf
is similar to milling by helical interpolation n
and may apply both to external and
internal surfaces of the revolution, while
with the use of face turn-milling only the (b)
external surfaces can be machined. Fig. 43. Peripheral (a) and face (b) turn-milling operations.

64 ISCAR
 ADVANCED MILLING METHODS
What are the advantages of face turn-milling • Take for example, machining eccentric areas
and where is its application practical? of rotating components such as crankshafts
• First of all, machining of non-continuous or camshafts: in turning, off-center masses of
surfaces may cause interrupted cutting these components (crank journal, eccentric
(various grooves, undercuts, etc.). In classical cam, etc.) cause unbalanced forces that
turning, this operation results in unwanted adversely affect performance.
impact load, poor surface finish and early Turn-milling with its low rotary velocity
tool wear. In contrast to turn-milling, the tool of a workpiece gives the possibility
is a milling cutter that is intended exactly to prevent this negative effect.
for interrupted cuts with cyclic load. • Also, consider machining heavy-weight parts
• Machining materials produces long chips. (Fig. 44): Their rotation, which defines cutting
In turning, chip disposal is difficult; and speed in turning, is connected with limitations
finding a proper chipbreaking geometry of the main drive of a machine tool.
of a cutting tool is not such a simple task. If the drive does not allow rotation of large
The milling cutter used in turn-milling masses with required velocity, cutting speed
generates a short chip that considerably is far from the optimal range; and turning
improves swarf handling. performance will be low. Turn-milling
provides a way to overcome the above
difficulties effectively.

65
ADVANCED MILLING METHODS

However, productive machining with the Self-evaluation quiz

use of the turn-milling method demands 20- High speed machining (HSM)
right cutter positioning with respect is characterized by
to the workpiece, correct choice of a. Shallow cuts combined with
insert geometry and tool path. Cutter high feed per tooth.
positioning, for instance, influences form b. Shallow cuts and significant
errors, and insert geometry – surface width of cut combined with high
finish. The questions of applying turn- rotational velocity of a mill.
milling, tool choice and defining cutting
c. High-speed rotation of a mill
data deserve fuller consideration and
combined with shallow cuts.
should be examined specifically.
d. High rotational velocity of a mill combined
Introducing turn-milling into the with a feed motion along the mill axis.
manufacturing process can solve serious
21- Trochoidal milling is a method of
problems and substantially improve a metal
shop’s output. Nonetheless, improving a. High speed machining.
productivity using this promising method b. High feed milling.
assumes that a modern machine and c. Plunge milling.
properly selected cutting tools are available. d. Turn-milling.
22- Dynamic milling is suitable for
every high-speed machine tool.
a. Correct.
b. Not correct.
23- The high feed milling concept
utilizes chip thinning effect.
a. Correct.
b. Not correct.
24- High feed milling cutters features
a. Small cutting edge angles.
b. Small lead angles.
Fig. 44. Turn-milling is an effective method 25- Plunge milling is suitable for
in rough machining heavy rotary parts.
a. Roughing.
b. Finishing.
c. Both roughing and finishing.
26- Face turn-milling is not suitable for
machining non-continuous surfaces.
a. Correct.
b. Not correct.

66 ISCAR
 ISCAR’S MILLING LINE
ISCAR’s Milling Line
ISCAR’s milling line is richly diverse and it Table 4. Diameter range for typical
features a great variety of products. These ISCAR’s standard milling tools*
products are divided into different tool
families based on their design concept,
Nominal Diameter
such as indexable milling cutters (Fig. 45), Tool Design Concept Tool Type Range
solid endmills (Fig. 46), and assembled mm Inches
tools with interchangeable milling heads Shell mills
(Fig. 47 and Fig. 48). Each family includes and mills 6-315 .313-12
various types of tools to cover a wide with shank
Indexable Milling Cutters Disc-shape
range of applications, including milling slotting
21-425 .78-9.87
plane faces, complex surfaces, slots and and slitting
grooves, threads, teeth of gears and cutters
Solid Endmills 0.2-25 .125-1.00
splines. The tools are intended for different
MULTI- Endmills 5-32 .187-1.25
milling types: roughing, semi finishing, and
MASTER Disc-shape
finishing of all engineering material groups. Milling family cutters
7.7-28 .303-1.091
Some tools are specifically designed for Tools With
Exchangeable T-SLOT Disc-shape
25-50 1.00-1.50
high speed milling (HSM), high feed milling Solid Heads family cutters
(HFM), plunge milling, and other techniques. T-FACE
Face mills 32-50 1.50-2.50
family
ISCAR produces milling tools from all types
of cutting materials, including high-speed * This table is for general information only. For
fresher data, refer to the updated ISCAR catalogues.
steel (HSS), tungsten carbides, ceramics,
polycrystalline diamond (PCD), and cubic Indexable milling cutters (Fig. 45), which
boron nitride (CBN). The most common carry indexable inserts, encompass a broad
cutting material is coated tungsten carbide. diameter range and can carry out various
Table 4 characterizes a typical milling operations. Tungsten carbide is the
diameter range of ISCAR’s standard main material used to produce the inserts,
program of milling tools. but the inserts from ceramics, cermet, and
ultra-hard materials like CBN or PCD are also
common. The indexable design concept
allows for rational utilization of cutting
materials. The indexable milling cutters
can withstand substantial cutting forces
and are extremely effective in achieving
high metal removal rates, particularly
in rough and semi-finish operations.

67
ISCAR’S MILLING LINE

On the other hand, one-piece (integral) solid Rough and Finish Milling
endmills (Fig. 46) are produced through Generally speaking, everyone understands
grinding, yielding high tool accuracy and the principal difference between rough
making them perfect for precise, finish milling (roughing) and finish milling
milling. However, due to economic factors, (finishing). Rough milling pre-shapes
the diameter range of solid endmills the surface of a workpiece, while finish
is typically capped at 25 mm (1”). milling forms this surface finally. Rough
Assembled tools with exchangeable solid milling focuses on high metal removal
cutting heads integrate the advantages of rates, while finish milling ensures
both indexable and solid designs, resulting exacting accuracy and surface quality
in a concept where the strengths of each on the milled surface. As a rule, finish
design complement each other. These milling features significantly smaller
tools exist as an “in-between” solution machining allowances (material stock
to solid endmills and indexable cutters, to be removed) when compared with
ensuring both high precision and efficient rough milling. Therefore, when planning
use of cutting materials. Thus, they can a milling process, rough and finish
be determined by a slightly paradoxical milling operations differ in terms of
accuracy and surface finish requirements,
term: “indexable solid mills.” ISCAR’s
machining allowances, and cutting data.
milling line includes three families of the
tools with exchangeable solid heads:
MULTI-MASTER, T-SLOT, and T-FACE. In
MULTI-MASTER (Fig. 47), a cutting head
is centered in a tool body (referred to
as “shank” in the family) by a short taper,
creating a face contact between the head
and shank, and is secured in the shank
with a special-profile thread. In T-SLOT
(Fig. 48) and T-FACE, a head is centered
by a cylindrical area and is secured
by a screw, while torque is transmitted
from the body to the head through a
specially designed spline connection.
The success of these families has
brought an additional intriguing solution:
integrating heads with indexable inserts
into the bodies of MULTI-MASTER
and T-SLOT tools (Fig. 49). This is an
excellent example of unlocking synergy
through the advantageous combination
of diverse design concepts.

68 ISCAR
 ISCAR’S MILLING LINE
How to Determine when
to Replace an Insert
(Change Its Cutting Edge),
a Solid Endmill or an
Exchangeable Head?
The correct answers are: at the end
of the tool life or upon reaching the
wear limit. The tool life period or the
wear limit for a cutting tool depends on
various designs and operational and
administrative factors. At the same time,
during a machining operation, there are Fig. 45. Indexable milling cutters feature various
certain signs that can indicate the need insert shapes and a wide diameter range.
to replace inserts, tools, or heads:
• Noticeable increase of power
consumption (spindle load)
• Increased vibration and noise
• Worsening of machining accuracy
and a need for frequent additional
tool dimensional adjusting
• Reduced surface finish
• Occurred burrs
• A visual inspection of a cutting edge
shows considerable flank wear,
extensive edge chipping, cracks etc. Fig. 46. Precise solid carbide endmills enable
accurate milling of complex 3D shapes.

Fig. 47. MULTI-MASTER family provides a rainbow

of exchangeable solid carbide heads.

69
ISCAR’S MILLING LINE

How to Find a Porcupine

in a Shop Floor?
Maybe, this porky is in a barrel, and lenses
will help? Indexable extended flute milling
cutters (Fig. 1 on page 13) are irreplaceable
tools useful for machining rough edges,
deep shoulders and cavities and enabling
a substantially increased metal removal
rate. The tooth – the cutting blade - of an
extended flute cutter consists of a set of
indexable inserts that are placed gradually
with a mutual offset of one another.
Compared to an ordinary indexable mill
whose length of cut is limited by the cutting
edge of its insert, the cutting length of the
Fig. 48. The application range of T-SLOT extends
beyond milling slots and grooves. This concept has
extended flute cutter is significantly larger – it
also been utilized in the milling of threads, gears, and is “extended” due to the set of inserts. These
splines. Furthermore, the T-FACE family has adopted cutters are also referred to as “long-edge
this concept for use in face milling applications. cutters” and “porcupine cutters” (known as
“porkies” in shop talk). In a shop floor you
can find also the “barrel” – a type of profile
milling cutters with large-radius cutting
edges, known as segment endmills. In
“barrels”, barrel-shaped cutters, this radius
features peripheral cutting edges, while
in “lenses” – another type of the segment
endmills, the arc of a large-radius circle
represent the convex cutting face.
Depending on the orientation of the cutting
edge relative to the tool axis, segment
endmills possess various configurations such
as pure barrel, tapered barrel, lens, and oval
Fig. 49. The MULTI-MASTER, as well as the
or parabolic shapes. The form of the tool
T-SLOT/T-FACE tools, are also suitable for mounting
exchangeable heads with indexable inserts. This cutting edge determines the tool application.
broadens the application range of the families For example, lens-shaped tools are suitable
and enhances the utilization of the tool bodies. for both five and three-axis machines, while
endmills with a tapered barrel profile are
intended for five-axis machines. Segment
cutter designs appear in multi-flute solid
endmills that deliver ultimate tool accuracy
and maximize the number of teeth on
the cutting tool. Machining surfaces
using segment-type endmills enables a
substantially increased step size compared
to ball-nose cutters, thus reducing the
cutting time. A three-axis CNC controlled
cutting process cannot guarantee the
correct position of a barrel-shaped cutting
tool when machining complex surfaces.
The five-axis machining concept allows
taking full advantage of segment endmills.
70 ISCAR
 DRY OR WET?
Dry or Wet?
When milling, a major question is Wet Coolant
“Which is better: dry or wet machining?” Wet coolant, cooling mixture, cutting
Throughout the world of contentious lubricant, cutting fluid, and coolant are
machining, the issue of – “with coolant all commonplace shop-floor terms that
supply” (wet) or “without coolant supply” are familiar to all involved in machining.
(dry) is a common subject of discussion. Each expression refers to a fluid, which
To further complicate the decision, near- is used across multiple processes for
to-dry or minimum quantity lubrication both cooling and lubrication purposes.
(MQL) cutting techniques may represent All cutting activities generate unwelcome
a successful compromise, and therefore friction between the surfaces of the tool
provide an efficient and effective being used and the workpiece it is in
answer to the troublesome question. contact with. The presence of coolant
As in many areas of machining, making ensures that the friction between the
such choices is not easy, and therefore, two surfaces is reduced and by doing so
this familiar question requires careful and makes the removal of a metal layer by
informed consideration. the tool a great deal easier (lubrication).
During the machining process, the
temperature in the cutting zone can reach
extremely high levels. For example, the
temperature at the point of contact
between a tungsten carbide tool’s
cutting edge and the workpiece is
estimated to be between 1100° and 1200°
C (2012° to 2192° F). To mitigate this, wet
coolant is applied to lower the temperature
in the cutting zone and reduce the thermal
load on the tool (cooling). The use of
wet coolant also aids in enhancing chip
evacuation and reducing the concentration
of metal dust in the manufacturing area.
Therefore, the supply of wet coolant is
directly linked to several crucial objectives:
• Advancing process performance,
such as improving machining
accuracy and surface finish.
• Increasing economic efficiency by
boosting productivity, enhancing tool
life, and reducing tool consumption.

71
DRY OR WET?

• Improving environmental control. high temperature super alloys (HTSA),

When performing an interrupted milling heat resistant steels or special-purpose
process, the cutting edge of the tool alloyed hard cast iron, when friction and
comes under a cyclic thermal load. Also, heat generation are considerable. Also,
the ambient temperature is dramatically the flushing effect of a wet coolant supply
changed when the edge enters into, then significantly improves chip evacuation
leaves the workpiece. The tool’s cutting and reduces re-cutting, particularly when
edge is exposed to severe heat stress milling deep pockets or narrow slots.
comparable to repeatable thermal shock.
Cemented carbide, today’s main tool Flood At Shop Floor
material, is a sintered product of powder In shop talk, a cutting fluid that is
metallurgy. This material is sensitive supplied to a cutting zone from outside
to thermal shock load, which destroys (externally) using a low-pressure jet nozzle
cutting edges. When using a carbide is often referred to as “flood coolant.”
tool, the application of a coolant supply
may increase such “shock treatment” and
Compared with traditional low-pressure
unintentionally contribute to the failure
wet coolant, normally delivered at 10-20
of the tool’s edge. Extreme temperatures
bars (145-290 psi), the relatively recent
result in plastic deformation of the cutting
introduction of high-pressure coolant (HPC),
edge, whilst the presence of temperature
in which the wet coolant is provided under
differences leads to thermal cracks. This
approximately 80 bars (1160 psi) and even
situation becomes even more exaggerated
more (Ultra HPC), at 350 bars (5000 psi), has
in high-heat generation milling situations,
been a welcome development. Intensive
such as when machining difficult-to-cut
heat generation, when using traditional low-
materials or when making rough passes
pressure wet cooling, produces a vapor film
with significant machining allowance.
on the surfaces of a tool and a workpiece.
As explained, although wet cooling delivers This layer acts as heat seal, producing an
undoubted benefits, it also has the capacity insulating barrier and making heat transfer
to produce several major disadvantages harder, which significantly shortens tool
within the milling process. In many cases life. A pinpointed HPC jet, directed exactly
the use of a wet coolant supply is not only to the cutting zone, effectively penetrates
reasonable, but it is absolutely necessary: this film, and overcomes the unwelcome
without wet coolant, productive milling obstacle. It also improves the cutting action
quite often would be highly inefficient by changing the shear-plane angle and
and even impossible, for example, when creating thin manageable chips. High-
machining materials such as titanium and velocity coolant flow removes the chips.

72 ISCAR
 DRY OR WET?
This significantly improves chip evacuation
and prevents chip re-cutting It allows the
design of cutters with smaller chip gullets,
leading to a higher number of cutter teeth.
Additionally, reducing the temperature
in the cutting zone enables an increase
in the width of the cut. Overall, HPC
provides a good solution for higher cutting
speed and feed rate, thereby boosting
productivity. However, taking advantage of
high pressure cooling techniques is only
possible when using appropriate machine
tools or by modernizing existing machines.
Fig. 50. A pinpointed high-pressure coolant jet
significantly improves performance of a MULTI-MASTER
endmill when machining hard-to-cut aerospace materials

73
DRY OR WET?

Dry Machining
and Other Options
Ignoring cases where the use of cutting
fluid is essential, machine operators
must appreciate that if the use of wet
cooling brings disadvantages, eliminating
coolant will result in noticeable progress.
However, dry machining offers promising
opportunities. As previously explained,
indexable rough milling with significant
stock removal results in extremely high
heat generation. In this situation, a coolant
supply may be destructive due to critical
thermal stress. In contrast, when dry rough
indexable milling, if the machining data
is set correctly, the temperature of the Fig. 51. Wet cooling is not recommended for
heavy-duty milling of steel with indexable tools.
insert’s cutting edge will remain high but
not excessively high, staying within an Other important factors to consider are
acceptable level. For example, the tool cooling economy and work safety. If cutting
temperature will vary within a relatively tool investment in batch production is
narrow range, such as 300° to 700° C (572° estimated at 3% of a part’s cost, the share
to 1292° F), which will not lead to thermal connected with wet coolant (purchasing,
shock. For light cuts of high speed milling maintaining, filtration, etc.), according to
(HSM), especially for workpieces with a variety of sources, can reach 16-17%.
hardness values of HRC 45 and above, Additionally, prolonged exposure to wet
cooling by air is strongly recommended. In coolant by operating personnel may cause
the above examples, the absence of wet health problems and industrial illnesses.
coolant also considerably increased tool life.

74 ISCAR
 DRY OR WET?
Many national and international standards are almost dry (“near-to-dry”), making their
and published advice relating to safety and cleaning much easier and quicker. MQL
environmental control make increasingly increases tool life. Moreover, the working
tougher demands related to cutting area of the machine tool also remains
fluids. Where there is no cutting fluid, relatively dry, enabling various parts of
there is no need for a coolant pump, the machine tool to work under better
a coolant recycling system, and other conditions and improving their effective life.
expensive machine tool accessories, One more coolant option is cryogenic
further reducing total costs. The above machining. Using a coolant at extremely
points ensure that informed manufacturers low, cryogenic temperatures drastically
are constantly looking for alternatives to reduces the possibility of overheating and
traditional cutting with coolant supply. allows better performance and extended
Another available option is milling with tool life. Combining this principle with
minimum quantity lubrication (MQL), MQL results in a more effective “minimum
sometimes called “near-to-dry”. When using quantity” cryogenic machining method, as
this technique, the tool’s cutting edge low-temperature coolant (such as liquid
works inside a mist formed from oil and nitrogen) is supplied directly to the cutting
compressed air that is sprayed directly zone via the tool. Alternatively, some
into the cutting zone. Depending on the processes propose applying carbon dioxide
design of a machine tool and milling cutter, (CO2) that is delivered under pressure to
the mist can be delivered externally or the cutting zone. In each of these methods,
internally (via the cutter). The main function the particles of cryogenic coolant vaporize
of MQL is to lubricate the edge during from the tool edge, and in doing so, remove
the cutting action, because of this, the heat. However, it is obvious that despite
machining process consumes only the the clear benefits, cryogenic cooling is not
necessary quantity of oil, and therefore the a cheap method, and it also requires the
lubrication is more effective. In addition, the use of specially designed machine tools.
resulting machined workpiece and chips

75
DRY OR WET?

The Milling Tool

So - dry or wet? As we can see, the Additional very important elements are the
correct answer today continues to be nozzles that are mounted in the outlets
dry and wet – it depends on the specific of the channels, as they optimize the
application (a workpiece material, effect of the high-velocity coolant jet and
operation, etc.) and available machining direct it exactly to the necessary area.
tools. Nevertheless, the manufacturers
of cutting tools consider customer
requirements and provide them with tools
that will ensure productive machining with
the use of different cooling methods.
The vast majority of modern indexable
mills have internal channels enabling the
supply of coolant directly via the tool body.
This allows more effective delivery of the
coolant directly to the cutting zone. For
face mills of previous generations, without
coolant channels, ISCAR proposes a
clamping screw with an adjustable nozzle
– in many cases it not only improves Fig. 52. ISCAR’s TANGSLIT indexable slitting cutters
with inner coolant channels directed to each and every
coolant supply but also contributes to cutting edge is suitable for use with both standard
better chip evacuation. When exploring coolant and high-pressure coolant applications.

milling cutters intended for high pressure

coolant (HPC) and cryogenic machining,
the body of the cutter should be designed
accordingly. The shape of the internal
channels, their size and sealing elements
(if necessary) should ensure the maximal
free flow of coolant without any disturbance.
Additive manufacturing (AM) technologies
enable maximum use of computational
fluid dynamics for optimizing the profile
of inner channels to ensure efficient
pinpointed coolant through the cutter body.
Traditional machining processes have
limitations in shaping the channels, while
AM capabilities provide endless options.

76 ISCAR
 DRY OR WET?
Why Are Nozzles Used Last but not least – we must consider the
indexable carbide insert itself. Although
As Coolant Outlets the insert’s edge performs the cutting, how
in indexable milling cutters
does it relate to the coolant method? The
with high pressure coolant (HPC) option?
key to understanding this relationship is the
There are two reasons for using nozzles
insert’s carbide grade and more specifically
as coolant outlets: technological and
- its coating, which provides a barrier for
applicative. HPC supply through the
heat penetration. The coating must be
body of a cutter requires small-diameter
resistant to the thermal shock that causes
outlets (as well as demands regarding the
the destructive effect. Understandably, there
shape). As manufacture of the outlets via
is no “universal” coating, which is equally
drilling hard steel tools would encounter
technological difficulties, screw-in nozzles suitable for productive milling with coolant
represent a more practical option. and without it. Some coatings are more
In indexable extended flute milling effective for wet machining, whilst others
tools, if a depth of cut is smaller than provide dry machining advantages. Although
the maximum cutting length, there is no indexable carbide inserts are available with
need to supply coolant to the inserts coatings to suit all applications, the field
that are not involved in cutting. To of insert coating layers is so complex it is
improve performance, you can easily worth an entirely separate discussion.
unscrew the appropriate nozzles from
their holes, and then close the hole
by a plug or a standard set screw.

77
FACE MILLING FOR HIGH SURFACE FINISH

Face Milling
For High Surface Finish
In the metalworking industry, ensuring It is perfectly clear that insert accuracy can
a high-grade surface finish has always considerably be increased by grinding.
been one of the main directions Moreover, grinding provides a sharp cutting
in cutting tool development. This edge that is very important in maintaining
is also true for face milling cutters, cutting action and preventing plastic
especially for the indexable ones. deformation of metal in fine milling, which
When considering an indexable milling features shallow depths of cut. Ensuring
cutter, the key factors that determine a highly accurate cutting edge requires
the quality of a generated surface are grinding both the top and side surfaces of
the cutter’s geometry and accuracy. an insert. This may cancel the advantages
Both characteristics are mainly related of powder metallurgy in generating
to inserts carried by the cutter. complicated surfaces to provide required
rake and clearance angles along a cutting
Powder metallurgy processing has enabled edge. To avoid such an adverse impact, tool
producing carbide inserts with complex engineers should be very resourceful when
shapes, ensuring optimal cutting geometry designing the inserts intended for
while maintaining substantially increased fine grinding.
accuracy of inserts as sintered inserts.
Not surprisingly, such advancements in An important factor regarding tooth accuracy
technology have significantly improved loss is the insert pocket in a cutter has its
the surface finish in face milling. However, own dimensional and form tolerances. As
when indexable milling cutters were a result, even for ideally precise inserts,
successfully applied to machining high- teeth protrusion will vary within acceptable
strength materials, and manufacturers limits, although it cannot ensure extra fine
started to notice hard milling as an surface finish when compared to grinding.
alternative to grinding, the metalworking A way to overcome this problem is by
industry started demanding higher surface using a fly cutter that carries only one
finish grades provided by milling. insert. The fly cutter that is successfully
used in various milling applications
An indexable face milling cutter is a multi- facilitates a smooth and clean cut, providing
tooth tool. More teeth = more productivity. excellent surface texture parameters. But
This is an undeniable advantage of the then again, productivity in this case is far
cutter. But, in terms of surface texture, a below multi-tooth indexable face mills.
large number of teeth may be a problem.
A fine distinction in teeth protrusion
leads to irregular feed for the teeth
and contributes to chatter, which will
ultimately affect the surface finish.

78 ISCAR
 FACE MILLING FOR HIGH SURFACE FINISH
How to solve a difficult situation and
find an acceptable balance between
surface quality and productivity?
The Cutting tool manufacturers have
developed different ways to answer.
An integrated wiper flat with a specially
shaped minor cutting edge is a classical
element of various milling inserts. Its
width should be greater than the feed per
revolution. Despite being called “flat”, the
minor edge sometimes has a complex
geometry to compensate for a negative
effect of wear development. When an
insert is mounted on a cutter, the wiper
flat sits parallel to the machined surface. Fig. 53. ISCAR’s NEODO double-sided square
rough milling inserts utilize an integrated
Hence, the surface will be formed by
wiper flat to provide better surface finish.
the most protruding insert of the cutter.
Introducing a wiper flat in an insert design is Increasing the number of teeth in big-
an effective way to improve surface finish. diameter face mills and fine pitch cutters
And even today, rough milling inserts may determines the appropriate growth of
have an integrated wiper (Fig. 53). These the integrated wiper width, which has
inserts being mounted on milling tools that a natural bound due to design and
are intended for rough and semi-rough dimensional limitations. In such cases,
operations, can significantly improve surface a high surface finish can be achieved
finish providing surface roughness, which with the use of a specially designed
usually feature semi-finish to finish milling wiper insert (or two inserts for large-
passes. For example, when milling steel sized tools), whereby the wiper flat is
and cast iron, the roughness parameter significantly wider than the standard one.
Ra is estimated up to 0.4 µm (16 µin). This insert is mounted in the same pocket
but protrudes several hundredths of a
millimeter (thousandths of an inch) axially
relative to the standard insert, usually
0.05-0.07 mm (.002-.00275”) (Fig. 54).

79
FACE MILLING FOR HIGH SURFACE FINISH

Semi-Roughing and Wiper Flat and

Semi-Finishing in Milling Wiper Insert
The difference between these two A wiper flat is a small minor edge on a
definitions can be blurred, and they regular indexable insert in milling cutters
may often be considered synonyms. to improve the quality of a machined
However, in some cases when milling a surface. It is also referred to as a “wiper”
surface requires more than one operation, or, sometimes, a “parallel land.” The
these operations are specified as rough term “parallel” highlights that this land,
milling, semi-rough milling, semi finish the minor cutting edge of an insert, is
milling, finish milling, fine milling or simply generally parallel to the machined surface.
roughing, semi roughing, semi finishing, A wiper insert is a specially designed
finishing. insert where the wiper flat is significantly
The same situation may be observed larger than for a standard insert.
not only in milling but also in other When mounted in a milling cutter,
types of machining, such as turning. the wiper insert protrudes 0.05…0.07
mm (.002-.00275”) axially relative
Very good results can be reached by to a regular insert. A wiper insert
applying adjustable milling cutters that “smooths down” the machined surface,
utilize different mechanisms to adjust noticeably improving surface finish.
the position of an insert cutting edge
within very strict limits (only several
microns). But the beneficial adjustability
of cutting tools also has a flip side as
well; it is spider work, which takes time.
A desirable solution looks like a tool that
after mounting an insert has no adjusting
requirements needed to achieve high
surface quality grade. That is why improving
accuracy and advanced geometries
remain the mainstream in updating
indexable cutters for finish face milling.

Fig. 54. A wiper insert mounted on a face mill.

80 ISCAR
 FACE MILLING FOR HIGH SURFACE FINISH
Despite significant improvement in the A tendency to decrease machining
high surface quality of milled surfaces, allowance due to the active introduction
tool designers still believe that available of technologies for precise workpiece
resources are not yet exhausted and production and 3D printing makes the
that intelligent applications of the latest issue of obtaining a high surface finish
generations of advanced milling cutters by face milling particularly relevant. Can
can substantially improve surface texture. toolmakers find a prompt, simple, and
Cutting tool manufacturers offer unique effective answer to the new needs of
solutions that attract attention with their manufacturing? The near future will tell.
originality. An example is ISCAR’s TANGFIN
family of step milling cutters carrying
tangentially clamped indexable inserts
Step Milling Cutter
A step milling cutter is a type of mill with
with wide integrated wiper flats (Fig. 55).
teeth that are equally spaced relative to
The inserts are positioned in a TANGFIN each other in either the axial or radial
cutter with a gradual displacement in direction. If the teeth are formed by
both radial and axial directions, and indexable inserts, the cutter is referred
therefore, each insert cuts a small to as an indexable step milling cutter.
section of the machined material
providing an extra fine surface finish
with roughness Ra up to 0.1 μm (4 μin).

Fig. 55. ISCAR’s TANGFIN indexable milling cutter

utilizes the principle of graduated insert displacement.

81
FACE MILLING FOR HIGH SURFACE FINISH

Self-evaluation quiz
27- Does ISCAR produce tools for milling non- 30- In milling with minimum quantity
ferrous metals like aluminum and copper? lubrication (MQL), the coolant is
a. Yes. a. Compressed air.
b. Now. b. Low-temperature carbon dioxide (CO2).
28- Do ISCAR’s milling tools with c. High-pressure fluid.
exchangeable heads include the d. A mist from compressed air and oil.
heads with indexable inserts? 31- A wiper flat is
a. Yes.. a. The major cutting edge of an
b. No. insert to improve surface finish.
29- Wet coolant facilitates b. Another name for a wiper insert.
a. Cooling. c. The minor cutting edge of an
b. Both cooling and lubrication. insert to improve surface finish.
c. Cooling but the main function of wet
cooling is ensuring normal chip flow.

82 ISCAR
 HOW TO SELECT THE RIGHT MILLING TOOL
How to Select
The Right Milling Tool
From a broad perspective, the primary chain analysis should be applied. This
factor to consider when selecting a milling involves answering commonly known
tool is the cost of the machining operation checkpoints that guide the selection
performed by the tool and its impact on of the most suitable milling tool:
the cost per unit (CPU) for a machined
part as a whole. Even though the cost Application
of the tooling has a minor share in the What is the type of a machining operation?
CPU, its indirect influence on reducing the Workpiece: its material, hardness and
CPU can be significant. This is because roughness before the operation.
the tool, a small part of the technological
Required accuracy and surface finish.
equipment necessary for the manufacturing
process, can sometimes be the only Machining allowance (stock to be
obstacle preventing a milling machine removed during operation).
from running fast and thus reducing Machining strategy.
machining time. Therefore, the most
Type of machining (light, moderate, heavy).
efficient milling tool should be used to
increase productivity and lower the CPU. Tool adaptation (shank-type, shell mill).

Another important aspect to consider Operation stability (high, normal, poor).

is the versatility of the tool or its ability Machine tool limitations (power,
to effectively perform various milling torque, spindle speed).
operations such as shoulder milling in
Coolant (dry, wet, HPC etc., possibility
combination with ramping and plunging.
of coolant through spindle).
Using one tool for different applications,
when machining a part, not only shortens Geometry
time needed for tool changes but also Which cutting geometry is recommended
reduces the amount of tool stock in a for machining the workpiece for the above
shop warehouse. The versatility can be requirements? (All types of milling tools
further increased by using milling tools with – indexable, solid, with exchangeable
exchangeable cutting heads, which render heads – should be considered).
for a head change when the tool or its
holder is clamped into a machine spindle Grade
without requiring additional setup time. Which grade of a cutting tool material
is more suitable for machining the
In conclusion, when selecting a milling tool,
workpiece for the above requirements.
it is crucial to consider these obvious but
often overlooked points. More specifically,
the Application-Geometry-Grade (AGG)

83
HOW TO SELECT THE RIGHT MILLING TOOL

When deciding on the appropriate cutting The delivery time for special tools is
tool for a particular application, it is difficult significantly longer than that of standard
to determine whether a standard tool or tools. Metalworking shops often face a
a special (tailor-made) tool is preferable. dilemma when choosing between standard
The ideal tool selection is contingent on or special tools, which can impact project
various factors, such as the nature of the timelines. The question remains: which tool
business situation, the manufacturing will provide the best solution? Should shops
program, the production type, and rely on readily available standard tools or
sometimes personal preferences. Standard opt for a highly efficient special tool with a
cutting tools, produced by a specific tool longer delivery time? Naturally, economic
manufacturer, offer high versatility and are factors such as cost per unit and tool costs
appropriate for machining a diverse range should be taken into consideration. All
of parts that come in different shapes. things being equal, in an ideal situation
Furthermore, the tool exhibits excellent where production programs, processes,
performance capabilities when cutting and inventory are planned, the answer is
various engineering materials. To ensure clear. Considering lead time is an important
seamless production processes, it is crucial factor when choosing special tooling.
to have the cutting tools delivered in a
timely manner. This is why standard tools are Why Are a Significant
the foundation of tool stock management
Number of Milling
on metalworking production floors.
Cutters with High-
A special cutting tool is designed for specific
operations on a particular part, made of a
Pressure Cooling (HPC)
specific material, and used on a machine Specially Tailored?
that requires a specific work holding The main consumers of HPC milling
fixture. This custom-engineered tooling cutters are manufacturers working with
solution aims to provide the best possible hard-to-cut materials, for example titanium
performance and outcome. However, alloys. In many cases, producing parts
there is a downside to this solution as from the materials requires a high volume
it limits the tool’s versatility, making it of metal removal. To boost productivity,
less adaptable to different applications. manufacturers often use unique machine
As a result, special tools are primarily tools, and, to reach maximum operational
rigidity, they prefer integral tools with
used for high-volume mass production,
direct adaptation to the spindle of a
especially in the automotive industry.
machine - without intermediate tooling
A special tool is not readily available such as arbors or holders. Specific tool
and requires significant engineering diameters, cutting lengths, and overhang,
effort, including concept design, as well as adaptations that vary from
coordination with the customer, one manufacturer to another, demand
detailed design, and production. tailor-made HPC milling cutters.

84 ISCAR
 HOW TO SELECT THE RIGHT MILLING TOOL
Special tools vary in their design complexity. NEOITA – Your Assistant
Some are simple modifications of standard
tools, such as changes to the corner radius
in the Selection of the
or tool length. These modifications fall under Required Milling Tool
the category of “semi-standard” products, If the application parameters are
which can be manufactured relatively known, NEOITA (ISCAR’s Tool Advisor),
quickly. The design complexity of a special a computer-aided search engine, can
tool is determined by a pre-design study be a very effective tool. This expert-
that assesses the customer’s manufacturing system software, which is is based on
limitations, accompanied by cost calculations engineering knowledge and practical
and production time. The results of the study experience, enables the user to find the
determine the limits and cost-effectiveness most suitable tool for a specific machining
operation, including milling. The software
that correlate to the special tool’s delivery
is available in various languages and
time. However, there are additional ways
can be accessed via smartphone Apps.
to reduce the delivery time of special tools,
such as using modular assembled tools or
solid tools with exchangeable cutting heads.
The tool manufacturer’s delivery times and
production abilities play a significant role
in the final decision on how to proceed.

MILLING
TOOL

85
NEW BENCHMARKS IN MILLING

New Benchmarks
in Milling
These days, it is hard to imagine any of 3D printing, the growing usage of new
machine shop without milling machines composite and sintered materials, the
on the shop floor. Milling, as an essential need to enhance productivity in machining
process in manufacturing, is an integral hard-to-cut superalloys and titanium
part of machining technology, driven by grades, and the strong focus on electric
the increasing demands of manufacturing. and hybrid cars in the automotive industry,
However, there are specific aspects that contributing to these changes. In addition,
uniquely impact the advancement of milling. advancements in multi-axis machine tools
Today, we are witnessing significant have opened up new possibilities for
changes in manufacturing that will have a precise machining of complex parts and
profound impact on milling technologies have enabled the implementation of new
of the future (machine, cutting tools, CAM cutting strategies to improve productivity.
programming, etc.). These changes are In modern technological processes,
driven by various factors, such as the there is a tendency to significantly
increasing accuracy of metal shaping reduce the amount of machining stock
through precision investment castings and intended for milling operations, while
precision forging, the widespread adoption simultaneously increasing the requirements
for surface finish and accuracy.

86 ISCAR
 NEW BENCHMARKS IN MILLING
Therefore, the advancement in milling is 5- Sustainable milling strives to reduce the
driven by the need for higher productivity, environmental impact of milling operations.
more precision, and sustainability It involves the development of eco-friendly
in milling operations. Consequently, cutting fluids, recycling and reusing of
the main developments in milling materials, and the use of energy-efficient
can be characterized as follows: machine tools and milling cutters.
1- Fast metal removal focuses on boosting the The success in these areas relies on the
metal removal rate (MRR) to achieve higher synergy of several key components, namely
productivity by significantly increasing machine tools, cutting tools, and computer-
cutting speed or feed per tooth. This is aided engineering (CAE) systems. High-
achieved through techniques such as speed milling, for instance, necessitates
high speed milling (HSM) and, in rough machine tool technologies capable of
operations, high feed milling (HFM). handling exceptionally high rotational
2- Precision milling provides higher velocities, as well as advanced cutting
accuracy in milling operations. materials and coatings for milling tools.

3- Multi-axis milling is characterized by the Simultaneously, enhancing the precision of

utilization of multi-axis machining centers milling operations requires not only milling
to enable complex milling operations. cutters with tighter tolerances but also
4- Adaptive milling aims to develop intelligent improved control systems and linear motor
milling systems that can adapt to changing drives. In the case of multi-axis milling, the
conditions during the machining process. breakthrough lies in the addition of more
effectively controlled axes of movement,

87
NEW BENCHMARKS IN MILLING

along with the application of appropriate b. Coating technologies with continuous

cutting geometries for milling tools. Adaptive R&D focuses on new coatings to
milling, on the other hand, incorporates improve wear and heat resistance
innovations such as the use of state-of- while enhancing lubricity.
the-art monitoring systems, high-sensitive c. Progressive cutting geometry optimizes
sensors, and efficient algorithms to optimize cutting geometry and chip forming
cutting data and tool paths in real-time. topology of inserts to improve cutting
Moreover, sustainability advancements action, diminish cutting forces, and
require energy-efficient milling strategies enhance chip flow in milling operations.
that employ suitable machine tools, cutting d. The effective utilization of cutting material
tools, and eco-friendly coolant techniques. incorporates intelligent insert design to
Indexable milling reflects the ways of provide maximum indexable cutting edges
advancement that feature exchangeable without reducing cutting capabilities.
cutting inserts in machining operations: e. In addition, the distinct course on smart
a. Advanced insert materials is an ongoing manufacturing requires the integration
process to improve the cutting materials of digitization into milling operations and
for indexable milling inserts including the milling tools. Referring to milling tools, digital
development of advanced carbide grades, twins and appropriate software applications
ceramics, and ultra hard cutting materials. have already become the “must” features
of a comprehensive tool range.

88 ISCAR
 MILLING APPLICATIONS AND CUTTER BASICS
Answers for self-evaluation quiz*
(*The right answers are highlighted by green)

1- What is the primary motion in milling? 5- Should up milling, which ensures a

a. Rotary motion of a mill. better cutting effect, be considered
b. Rotary motion of a workpiece. as the first-choice type of milling,
and applied wherever possible?
c. The primary motion can be utilized
with both above motions. a. Yes, it is correct.

d. Linear motion of a workpiece. b. No, it is not correct.

2- The feed motion in milling is 6- Is the combination of up and down milling

typical for most face milling operations?
a. The linear motion of a
machined workpiece. a. Yes, it is correct.

b. The rotary motion of a b. No, it is not correct.

machined workpiece.
c. The translational motion of a machined
workpiece relative to the cutter. 7- What are the main elements
of a milling cutter?
d. The rotary motion of a mill.
a. A body and a cutting part.
b. A body, a cutting part, and inner
3- The cylindrical mill is intended for channels for coolant supply.
a. Peripheral milling. c. A body, a specially shaped area of the
body that forms a cutting part, and a
b. Face milling.
specially created chip space between
c. End milling
the cutter teeth to ensure the chip flow.
d. Both peripheral and face milling.

8- Cutting geometry of a milling

4- Side-and-face milling relates to cutter is mainly determined by
a. Milling plane face bounded by shoulder. a. The cutting edge inclination
b. End milling. and the cutting edge angle.
c. Milling slots and groove b. The set of appropriate angles.
by disc milling cutter. c. The directions of the radial
d. Milling complex 3D surfaces and axial rakes.

89
MILLING APPLICATIONS AND CUTTER BASICS

9- The cutting edge angle is also known as 14- Is the maximum chip thickness always
a. The approach angle. equal to the feed per tooth?
b. The lead angle. a. Yes, this is correct.
c. The dish angle b. No, this is not correct.
d. The entering angle.

15- In milling, the necessary power

10- The lead angle is the angle consumption and cutting torque
complementary to are calculated based on

a. The cutting edge inclination. a. The tangential cutting force.

b. The approach angle. b. The total (resultant) cutting force.

c. The cutting edge angle. c. The bending force.

d. The minor cutting edge angle.

16- Chatter is

11- The flutes of a right-hand cutting a. A specific type of vibrations that

solid endmill can be characterize machining processes.

a. Helical with a right-hand helix. b. The type of specific forced

vibrations, caused by the variation
b. Helical with a left-hand helix.
of a tangential cutting force.
c. Helical with right- or left-hand helix.
c. The type of vibrations that occur when
d. Helical or straight but it is more common the tooth of a milling cutter periodically
for designs to feature helical flutes. enters machined material and leaves it.

12- Do feed per tooth and feed 17- Today in shop-floor conditions, the
rate mean the same? most common practice in trying to
a. Yes, these terms are the equivalent. reduce vibrations in milling is
b. No, these terms are different. a. Using anti-vibration tool holders.
b. Computer modelling of the process with
the appropriate real-time response.
13- The effective diameter of a c. Changing cutting data.
profile milling cutter is
a. The nominal diameter of the cutter.
b. The largest diameter of the cutter.
c. The largest true cutting
diameter of the cutter.

90 ISCAR
 MILLING APPLICATIONS AND CUTTER BASICS
18- Can the cutting geometry of a 21- Trochoidal milling is a method of
milling cutter be a design tool a. High speed machining.
of anti-vibration solution? b. High feed milling.
a. Yes. c. Plunge milling.
b. No. d. Turn-milling.

19- Does the material of a cutter body 22- Dynamic milling is suitable for
enable diminishing vibrations in every high-speed machine tool.
some milling applications?
a. Correct.
a. Yes.
b. Not correct.
b. No.

23- High feed milling concept

20- High speed machining (HSM) utilizes chip thinning effect.
is characterized by
a. Correct.
a. Shallow cuts combined with
b. Not correct.
high feed per tooth.
b. Shallow cuts and significant
width of cut combined with high
24- High feed milling cutter features
rotational velocity of a mill.
a. Small cutting edge angles.
c. High-speed rotation of a mill
combined with shallow cuts. b. Small lead angles.
d. High rotational velocity of a mill combined
with a feed motion along the mill axis.
25- Plunge milling is suitable for
a. Roughing.
b. Finishing.
c. both roughing and finishing.

91
MILLING APPLICATIONS AND CUTTER BASICS

26- Face turn-milling is not suitable for 29- Wet coolant facilitates
machining non-continuous surfaces. a. Cooling.
a. Correct. b. Both cooling and lubrication.
b. Not correct. c. Cooling but the main function of wet
cooling is ensuring normal chip flow.

27- Does ISCAR produce tools for milling

non-ferrous metals like 30- In milling with minimum quantity
aluminum and copper? lubrication (MQL), the coolant is
a. Yes. a. Compressed air.
b. Now. b. Low-temperature carbon dioxide (CO2).
c. High-pressure fluid.
d. A mist from compressed air and oil.
28- Do ISCAR’s milling tools with
exchangeable heads include the
heads with indexable inserts?
31- A wiper flat is
a. Yes.
a. The major cutting edge of an
b. No. insert to improve surface finish.
b. Another name for a wiper insert.
c. The minor cutting edge of an
insert to improve surface finish.

92 ISCAR
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Milling Applications
And Cutter Basics
ISCAR’s Reference Guide

w w w. i s c a r. c o m