1.

Algorithmic State Machines (ASM) and Finite State Machines

(FSM)

1.1 Finite State Machine (FSM)

Definition:
A Finite State Machine (FSM) is a sequential circuit that changes its state
based on input signals and the current state.

Types:

1. Moore Machine: Output depends only on current state.

Example: Vending machine that dispenses an item only after
reaching a final state.

2. Mealy Machine: Output depends on current state and input.

Example: Elevator control system where output changes
immediately based on button press.

Advantages:

 Simple design and easy to understand.

 Suitable for control-oriented circuits.

 Reduces complexity in sequential system design.

Disadvantages:

 Difficult to implement for large systems.

 Number of states increases rapidly with complexity.

Real-Life Examples:

 Traffic light controller.

 Washing machine controller.

 Elevator control system.

 Digital lock system.

1.2 Algorithmic State Machine (ASM)

Definition:
An Algorithmic State Machine (ASM) is a graphical method of describing
the behavior of sequential circuits. It combines the features of flowcharts
and state diagrams.

Purpose:
To represent the sequence of operations in a digital circuit systematically.
Components of ASM Chart:

1. State Box: Represents one state or operation.

2. Decision Box: Represents conditional decisions (Yes/No or 1/0).

3. Conditional Output Box: Represents output actions that depend

on a condition.

Notation in ASM Chart:

 Rectangular box: State name (e.g., State A).

 Diamond box: Logical condition (e.g., X=1?).

 Oval box: Outputs or operations (e.g., Y=1).

1.3 Construction of ASM Chart

Steps:

1. Identify the states and transitions of the FSM.

2. Represent each state using a state box.

3. Add decision boxes for each input condition.

4. Connect transitions using directed lines.

5. Add output boxes where required.

1.4 Realization of Sequential Circuits Using ASM

Steps:

1. Draw the ASM chart based on system behavior.

2. Derive the state transition table.

3. Assign binary codes to each state.

4. Derive flip-flop input equations using K-map or Boolean algebra.

5. Implement using hardware (Flip-flops + Logic gates).

Example Applications:

 Traffic light controller

 Sequence detector (detecting 1011)

 Elevator controller
2. Logic Families

2.1 Classification

Based on transistor technology:

1. Unipolar Logic Families (use MOSFETs)

o Examples: RTL, DTL, TTL, ECL, CMOS

2. Bipolar Logic Families (use BJTs)

o Examples: DTL, TTL, ECL

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🔹 1. Characteristics of Digital ICs

1.1 Fan-In

Definition:
The maximum number of inputs that a logic gate can handle properly.

Example:
A 3-input AND gate has a fan-in = 3.

Importance:
Higher fan-in increases gate complexity and delay.

Advantages:

 Allows combining multiple signals into one gate.

Disadvantages:

 Increases propagation delay and power consumption.

Real-Life Example:
In a microprocessor, gates with fan-in up to 8 are common.

1.2 Fan-Out

Definition:
The number of similar logic gate inputs that the output of one gate can
drive without degradation.

Formula:
I OH I OL
Fan-out= =
I IH I IL

Typical Values:

 TTL: 10

 CMOS: 50 or more

Advantages:

 High fan-out → can drive more circuits simultaneously.

Disadvantages:

 Low fan-out → needs buffers or amplifiers.

Example:
A clock signal distributed to many flip-flops must have a high fan-out.

1.3 Current and Voltage Parameters

Paramet TTL CMOS

Definition
er Typical Typical

VOH Output high voltage ≥ 2.4 V ≈ VDD

VOL Output low voltage ≤ 0.4 V ≈0V

Minimum input voltage recognized

VIH ≥2V ≈ 0.7 VDD
as HIGH

Maximum input voltage recognized

VIL ≤ 0.8 V ≈ 0.3 VDD
as LOW

IOH / 0.4–1.6 µA range

Output source/sink current
IOL mA (CMOS)

Advantages (of CMOS):

 Lower current → less heat.

 Better for battery-operated devices.

Disadvantages (of TTL):

 Higher current → more power loss.

1.4 Noise Immunity

Definition:
The ability of a logic circuit to tolerate unwanted electrical noise without
malfunctioning.

Formula:
Noise Margin=V OH (min) −V IH (min) or V IL(max )−V OL(max )

Typical Values:

 TTL: 0.4V

 CMOS: 1.0V to 2.0V

Advantages:

 Higher noise immunity = more reliable operation.

Example:
CMOS is widely used in mobile phones and IoT sensors due to high
noise immunity.

1.5 Propagation Delay

Definition:
The time taken for a change in input to reflect at the output.

Symbol: tpd

Typical Values:

 TTL: 10 ns

 CMOS: 50–100 ns (modern CMOS < 10 ns)

Advantages of low delay:

 Faster circuit response.

Disadvantages of high delay:

 Slower operation.

Example:
Processors and memory circuits need very low propagation delay for
speed.

1.6 Power Dissipation

Definition:
The power consumed by a logic gate during operation.
P=V CC × I CC

Typical Values:

 TTL: 10 mW per gate

 CMOS: 10 µW per gate (very low)

Advantages (CMOS):

 Very low static power consumption.

Disadvantages (TTL):

 High power → more heat → less suitable for portable devices.

Example:
CMOS is used in smartphones for battery efficiency.

1.7 Figure of Merit

Definition:
It indicates the efficiency of a logic family and is given by:
1
Figure of Merit=
Power Dissipation × Propagation Delay
Higher value → better performance.

Example:
CMOS has a better figure of merit than TTL.

1.8 Operating Temperature Range

Definition:
The range of ambient temperatures over which an IC operates correctly.

Typical Range:

 Commercial: 0°C to +70°C

 Industrial: -40°C to +85°C

 Military: -55°C to +125°C

Importance:
Ensures stability in various environments.

Example:
Automotive electronics require industrial/military range ICs.

1.9 Power Supply Requirements

Logic Typical
Range
Family Supply

TTL +5V DC Fixed

Wide
CMOS +3V to +15V
range

Advantages (CMOS):

 Works with batteries and low-voltage circuits.

Disadvantages (TTL):

 Limited to +5V only.

Real-Life Example:
CMOS used in smart gadgets, TTL used in industrial control boards.

🔹 2. Introduction to TTL (Transistor–Transistor Logic)

Definition:

A digital logic family where both logic operations and amplification are
performed using bipolar transistors (BJTs).

Features:

 Supply Voltage: +5V

 Fast switching speed (≈10 ns)

 Logic Levels:

o Logic 0 → 0V to 0.8V

o Logic 1 → 2V to 5V

Advantages:

High speed
Good compatibility
Reliable and robust
Simple interfacing

Disadvantages:

High power consumption

Limited fan-out
Fixed supply voltage (+5V only)

Applications:

 Microprocessor boards

 Industrial control systems

 Computer logic circuits

Example ICs:

 7400 series (e.g., SN7400, 7408, 7432)

3. Introduction to CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide
Semiconductor)

Definition:

A logic family that uses complementary pairs of p-type and n-type

MOSFETs for logic implementation.

Features:

 Supply Voltage: 3V – 15V

 Very low static power consumption

 High noise immunity

 Logic Levels nearly equal to supply voltage

Advantages:

Very low power dissipation

High noise immunity
High input impedance
Wide operating voltage range

Disadvantages:

Sensitive to static electricity

Initially slower than TTL (modern CMOS are fast)

Applications:

 Microcontrollers

 Battery-operated devices (watches, phones)

 Digital signal processors

Example ICs:

 4000 series (e.g., CD4001, CD4011)

🔹 4. Comparison Between TTL and CMOS

Parameter TTL CMOS

Technology Bipolar (BJT) Unipolar (MOSFET)

Power Supply +5V (fixed) 3V – 15V

Speed Fast Moderate to High

Power Dissipation High Very Low

Parameter TTL CMOS

Noise Immunity Moderate High

Fan-Out ~10 >50

Input Impedance Low Very High

Output Drive Strong Weaker

Static Sensitivity Low High

Temperature Range Moderate Wide

Cost Moderate Low

Smartphones, Laptops, IoT

Applications Computers, PLCs
Devices